Introduction to Hydraulics

• Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the

mechanical properties of liquids or fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the
liquid version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical
foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid
properties. In fluid power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, and
transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range
through some part of science and most of engineering modules, and cover
concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control
circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow
measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.
FLUID DYNAMICS

• This is a branch of hydraulics dealing with the forces

exerted by or upon liquids in motion
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law of Motion

• A body at rest or in motion with a uniform velocity along a
straight line will continue in the same state of rest or motion provided
that the net force acting on the body is zero
Newton’s Laws of Motion

Second Law of Motion

• The rate of change in the momentum of a moving body is proportional
to the force producing that change which occurs during or along the
straight line in which the force acts
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Third Law of Motion

• For every action there is an equal add opposite reaction

F
Fnet
 Flow Properties

1.Pressure (P) in
2.Velocity () in
3.Discharge (Q) in
 Flow Rate - amount of flow with time

2 types of flow rate

Mass Flow Rate – Mass flow with respect to time

Volume Flow Rate – Volume with respect to time

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜌 𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝜌= ˙
𝑚= = =𝜌 𝑄
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
 Definition of Terms
1.Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction
of motion in various section of flow of the fluid system.
 Definition of Terms
2. Stream tube represents elementary portion of a flowing fluid
bounded by a group of stream lines which confines the flow.
Classifications of Flow
• REAL FLOW – considers energy losses in the flow
• IDEAL FLOW – neglects the effects of viscosity and friction in fluid flow, thus no energy losses are considered

Ideal Flow Real Flow

Classifications of Flow
• UNIFORM FLOW - flow velocity and cross-sectional area of flow at a given
instant do not change with distance
• NON-UNIFORM FLOW – flow velocity and cross-sectional area of flow
varies with distance

• Uniform Flow

• Non-Uniform Flow
Different Types of Flow
• STEADY FLOW – flow velocity and area of flow do not
change with time
• UNSTEADY FLOW – flow velocity and area of flow varies
with time

• For Steady Flow,

• For Unsteady Flow,

Reynold’s Number
• In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a
dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces for given flow conditions.
The Reynolds number is an important parameter that describes
whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow
• The Reynolds number is an experimental number used in fluid
flow to predict the flow velocity at which turbulence will occur.
It is described as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
For flow through a tube it is defined by the relationship:
Reynold’s Number

Where

Re = (ρ u2) / (μ u / L)Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)

=ρuL/μ ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3 )
=uL/ν u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or
pipe (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)
Reynolds Number for a Pipe or Duct
Laminar Flow
When Re < 2000
• Laminar flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or in regular
paths, in contrast to turbulent flow.
• In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the velocity, pressure, and other flow
properties at each point in the fluid remain constant. Laminar flow over a horizontal surface
may be thought of as consisting of thin layers, or laminar, all parallel to each other. The fluid in
contact with the horizontal surface is stationary, but all the other layers slide over each other. A
deck of new cards, as a rough analogy, may be made to “flow” laminarly.
• Laminar flow is common only in cases in which the flow channel is relatively small, the fluid is
moving slowly, and its viscosity is relatively high
Laminar Flow
 Turbulent Flow

• Flow descriptions such as Poiseuille's law are valid only for conditions of laminar
flow. At some critical velocity, the flow will become turbulent with the formation
of eddies and chaotic motion which do not contribute to the volume flowrate.
This turbulence increases the resistance dramatically so that large increases in
pressure will be required to further increase the volume flowrate.
• In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by
chaotic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high
momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in
space and time.
Turbulent Flow
Law of Conservation of Mass
• Mass will always be constant
𝑖𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌 𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜌 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝑖𝑛=𝜌 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑚
˙ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑸 𝒊𝒏=𝑸 𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑖𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝜌 𝑖𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑚
˙ 𝑖𝑛 =𝑚
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝝆 𝒊𝒏 𝑸 𝒊𝒏=𝝆 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑸 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜌 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 𝑖𝑛=𝜌 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
Basic Equations Used in Fluid
Dynamics
1. Continuity Equation

Where:
Q = Discharge
A = Water Area
v = Mean or Average Velocity

𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝑨𝒅
𝑸= = = 𝑨𝒗
𝒕 𝒕
Energy Equation
Law of Conservation of Energy
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed

𝐸𝑖𝑛 𝐸 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑬 𝒊𝒏=𝑬 𝒐𝒖𝒕
 Basic Equations Used in Fluid
Dynamics
2.Energy Equation
• The total energy is the sum of three heads. That is,
Mechanical Energiesm in mout

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 g is constant
Potential Energy ❑ ¿𝒉
¿ 𝒎𝒈𝒉 𝑤𝑖𝑛 =𝑤 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝟐
Kinetic Energy 𝟏 ❑𝟐
¿ 𝒎𝒗 ¿
𝒗
𝟐 𝟐𝒈
𝑤

Work Energy ¿𝑭❑

× 𝒅 ¿ 𝑷𝑨𝒅 ¿ 𝑷
𝑤 𝜸𝑽 𝜸
𝑤 𝐹
𝛾= 𝑃 ≈ 𝑆=
𝑉 𝐴
• From the figure, applying energy equation between points 1 and 2,

• Applying Bernoulli Energy Equation (Headloss are

Neglected)
Flow Measurement
1.Pitot Tube

𝑣1
0
𝑣 2= 0

1 2 𝒗 𝟏=𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝑣 2❑ 𝑃1 𝑣 2❑ 𝑃2 𝟐❑
𝒗𝟏 𝑷 𝟏 𝑷 𝟐
1
+ + 𝑧 1= 2
+ + 𝑧2 + = 𝑷 𝟏=𝜸 𝒉𝟏 ) Actual
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝑳 𝜸𝑳 𝑷 𝟐=𝜸 𝒉𝟐
 Flow Measurement
2.Venturimeter 1
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2
0
h

𝐸1 =𝐸2
2❑ 2❑
) Actual
𝑣 1 𝑃1 𝑣 𝑃2 2
+ + 𝑧 1= + + 𝑧2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
𝑣 1=( 𝐴 ¿ ¿ 2 𝑣 2 )/ 𝐴1 ¿
𝑃 1 +𝛾𝑤 ( h+𝑧 ) − 𝛾 𝐻𝑔 ( 𝑧 ) −𝛾 𝑤 ( h ) =𝑃 2
𝑣 2❑ 2❑
1 𝑣 2 𝑃2− 𝑃1 (( 𝑨 ¿ ¿𝟐𝒗 𝟐 )/ 𝑨𝟏 )❑
𝟐❑ 𝟐❑
𝒗𝟐 𝑷 𝟐 − 𝑷 𝟏
+ 0= + +0 +𝟎= + +𝟎¿
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝐿 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝑳
𝐴1 𝑣 1 = 𝐴2 𝑣 2
 3.Orificemeter
Flow Measurement
𝑆𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

1 2

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑐 = = 2❑ 2❑
𝐴𝑇 𝐴𝑂 𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑣2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧 1= + + 𝑧2
𝑣𝐴 𝑣 𝑗
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
𝐴1 𝑣 1 = 𝐴2 𝑣 2
𝐶𝑣 = =
𝑣𝑇 𝑣𝑜 2❑ 2❑
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑃2− 𝑃1 (( 𝑨 ¿ ¿𝟐𝒗 )/ 𝑨 )
𝟐❑
𝒗
𝟐❑
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏
𝑄 𝐴 𝑉 𝐴 𝐴𝐴 + 0= + +0 𝟐 𝟏 ❑
+𝟎=
𝟐
+ +𝟎¿
𝐶𝑑= = =𝐶 𝑐 𝐶 𝑣 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝐿
𝑄 𝑇 𝑉 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝑳
 Example no. 01
• A fluid is flowing in a pipe 8 in. in diameter with a mean velocity of 10
ft. per sec. The pressure at the center of the pipe is 5 lb. per sq. in.,
and the elevation of the pipe above the assumed datum is 15 ft.
Compute the total head in feet if the fluid is (a) water, and (b) oil (sp.
gr 0.80). 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑=8 𝑖𝑛
2
𝑣𝑒𝑙=10 𝑓𝑡 / 𝑠 𝑣 𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =h+ +
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑃=5 𝑙𝑏/ 𝑖𝑛 2
h=15 𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =15+
10
2
+
5׿
2( 32.2) 62.4

0 elev 𝐸 = 𝑓𝑡
 𝑂𝑖𝑙
𝑑=8 𝑖𝑛
2
𝑣𝑒𝑙=10 𝑓𝑡 / 𝑠 𝑣 𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =h+ +
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑃=5 𝑙𝑏/ 𝑖𝑛 2
h=15 𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =15+
10
2
+
5 ׿
2( 32.2) 62.4( 0.8)

0 elev 𝐸 = 𝑓𝑡
 Example no. 02
• A liquid (sp. gr 2.0) is flowing in a 2-in.pipe. The total energy at a given
point is found to be 24.5 ft-lb per lb. The elevation of the pipe above
the datum is 10 ft., and the pressure in the pipe is 9.5 lb. per sq. in.
Compute the velocity of flow.
2
𝑣 𝑃
𝑑=2 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =h+ +
2𝑔 𝛾
E
h=10 𝑓𝑡 24.5=10+
𝑣
2
+
9.5
2( 32.2) 62.4 (2)
׿
P=9.5 𝑙𝑏 /𝑖𝑛 2

𝑣 = 𝑓𝑡 / 𝑠
0 elev
Example no. 03
• The fluid in the figure is water, with the surface 150 ft above the
datum. The pipe is 2 in. in diameter and the total loss of head
between point A in the water surface and point B in the jet is 10 ft.
Determine the velocity in the pipe and the discharge Q
𝐸 𝐴 − h𝑓 =𝐸 𝐵 Real flow with headloss
2 2
𝑣𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐵 𝑃𝐵
h 𝐴+ + −h𝑓 =h 𝐵 + +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
2
0
2
0 𝑣𝐵 0
150+ + −10=0+ +
2( 32.2) 62.4 2( 32.2) 62.4
𝑣 𝐵= 𝑓𝑡 / 𝑠
Q
 Sample Problem
1.Water flows through a venture meter as shown at a rate of
2.12 cfs.

1.Determine the change in pressure head between 1 and 2

2.Determine the velocity at the throat
3.Determine the discharge coefficient
 𝐶𝑆𝑃
+
( ( ))
𝑃 1 +𝛾 𝑤 h+
9
12
−𝛾 𝐻𝑔 ( )9
12
−𝛾 𝑤 ( h )=𝑃 2

¿ ¿
𝒍𝒃
𝑷 𝟏 − 𝑷 𝟐=𝟓𝟖𝟗 . 𝟔𝟖 𝟐
𝒇𝒕
𝐸1 =𝐸2
𝑙𝑏
2❑ 2❑ 𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2=589.68
𝑣 1 𝑃1 𝑣 𝑃2 2 𝑓𝑡
2
+ + 𝑧 1= + + 𝑧2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 𝒗 𝟐=𝟐𝟒. 𝟖𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒕 /𝒔
𝐴1 𝑣 1 = 𝐴2 𝑣 2 𝑄𝐴 2.12
𝑐𝑑= =
𝑄𝑇 𝜋
( )¿¿
4
=

𝑣 1=¿ ¿
Sample Problem

2. A mercury-kerosene manometer is connected to a Pitot

tube as shown in the figure. The deflection on the
manometer is 7 in. Assume specific gravity of kerosene is
0.81.
• What is the difference in pressures between point 1
and point 2?
• What is the kerosene velocity in the pipe?
• What is the flow rate in the pipe if its diameter is 6”?
 𝐶𝑆𝑃
𝑃 1 +𝛾 𝐾
(( ) )3
12
+ 𝑥 + 𝛾 𝐻𝑔 ( )
7
12
− 𝛾𝐾
(( ) )
7
12
+ 𝑥 =𝑃 2

𝟐
𝑷 𝟐 − 𝑷 𝟏=𝟒𝟕𝟖 .𝟏𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃/ 𝒇𝒕 0

𝐸1 =𝐸2

𝑣 2❑ 2❑
1 𝑃 1 𝑣 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧 1= + + 𝑧2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿

2❑
𝑣1
2𝑔
+
3
12
=0+( )
𝑃2− 𝑃1
𝛾𝐾
+0 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶=1
𝑄= 𝐴 𝐴 𝑉 𝐴
𝜋
𝑄 =( ) ¿¿ 𝟒 . 𝟕𝟖𝟐 𝒇𝒕 𝟑 / 𝒔
2❑ 4
𝑣1
+
3
2(32.2) 12
=0+ ( )
478.192
0.81(62.4)
+0

𝒗 𝟏=𝟐𝟒 . 𝟑𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕 / 𝒔
Example no. 05
A pitot tube having a coefficient of 0.98 is used to
measure the velocity of water at the center of a pipe,
as shown below. What is the velocity?
2 2
𝑣𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐵 𝑃𝐵
h 𝐴+ + =h 𝐵 + +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝑣 𝐴 𝛾 (15.5) 0
2
𝛾 ( 18.6)
0+ + =0+ +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉 𝐴 (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) =𝐶𝑣 ×𝑉 𝐴 ( 𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝑉 𝐴 ( 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) =𝑚/ 𝑠
Example no. 06
Oil flows through a pipe as shown in the figure below. The coefficient of
discharge for the orifice in the pipe is 0.63. what is the discharge of oil
in the pipe?
2 2
𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑣2 𝑃2
h 1+ + =h2 + +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
 𝑚
𝑉 2= ( 𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝑠
𝑄=𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 𝑉 2

𝜋
𝑄 =0.63 ¿
0 4

𝑄=
𝜋
¿ 𝑄=𝑚 3 / 𝑠
4

𝑉 1=¿¿
 Sample Problem
3. A 2-in circular orifice ( not standard ) at the end of the 3-in-diameter
pipe shown in the figure discharges into the atmosphere a measured
flow of 0.60 cfs of water when the pressure in the pipe is 10 psi. The jet
velocity is determined by a pitot tube to be 39.2 fps.
• Find the coefficient of velocity, Cv .
• Find the coefficient of contraction, Cc.
• Find the coefficient of contraction, Cc.
 𝐸1 =𝐸2 1 2

𝑣 2❑ 2❑
1 𝑃 𝑣 𝑃
+ 1 + 𝑧 1= 2 + 2 + 𝑧 2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
0
𝑙𝑏
𝑃 1 =10 2
׿
𝑖𝑛

𝐴1 𝑣 1 = 𝐴2 𝑣 2
𝑄𝐴 0.6
= 𝐴𝑐 𝑣𝑗 39.2
𝐶𝑐 = = = =𝟎 . 𝟕𝟎𝟏𝟔
𝐴𝑜 𝜋 2
𝑑 𝑜2 ( 𝜋 ) 2
𝑣 1=¿ ¿ 4 4 12

+ 𝐶 𝑑 =𝐶 𝑐 𝐶 𝑣 =0.7016 ( 0.911 )=𝟎 .𝟔𝟑𝟗

𝑣 2=43.0345 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑣𝑗 39.2
𝐶𝑣 = = =𝟎 .𝟗𝟏𝟏
𝑣 𝑜 43.0345
Time to Discharge
 Time to Discharge Problem (Orifice)
is usually zero
𝑽 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑸=
𝒕
𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙 1
𝑡= =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 −𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐴 𝑠 𝑑h
𝑡=
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 𝑣 𝑜
𝐸1 =𝐸2
𝑣 2❑
1 𝑃1 𝑣 2❑
2 𝑃2 2
0
+ + h= + +𝑧2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐴𝑠 𝑑h 𝐴𝑠 h− 1/ 2 𝑑h
𝑡= =
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2 𝑔h − 𝑐 𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √ 2 𝑔
 h2
1
𝑡= ∫
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √ 2 𝑔 h 1
−1/ 2
𝐴𝑠 h 𝑑h ∴ 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

h2
𝐴𝑠
𝑡= ∫
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 √ 2 𝑔 h 1
h
−1/ 2
𝑑h 𝒊𝒇 𝑨 𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝐴𝑠
𝑡= ( √ h2 − √ h1 )
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 √ 2 𝑔

𝑨𝒔
𝒕= ( √ 𝒉𝟏 − √𝒉𝟐 ) ∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈
 Sample Problem
• A cylindrical tank 1.0 m diameter and 4m high has 80% of its volume filled with water . An orifice
10mm diameter is located on the vertical side of the tank 50cm from the bottom. Assuming
C=0.60 and Cv = 0.98.
A. At an instant the orifice is opened, determine the discharge through the orifice.
B. Time to discharge one-fifth (1/5) of the content

( 𝐴 ) 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐h𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
1 𝐸1 =𝐸2 𝑄 𝐴=𝑐 𝑑 𝐴𝑜 𝑣 𝑜
2❑ 2❑
𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑣2 𝑃2
4m + + 𝑧 1= + + 𝑧2 𝑄 𝐴=𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑣 𝐴𝑜 𝑣 𝑜
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
3.2m 10mm 2❑
𝑣2 𝑄 𝐴= 0.6(
𝜋
) 0.01
2

50cm 2 0 +0+ 3.2= +0+ 0.5 4

0 2( 9.81)
𝑣 2=𝑣 𝑜=¿
 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐h𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑨𝒔
𝒕= ( √ 𝒉𝟏 − √ 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈 4m 3.2m 10mm

50cm

𝜋 2

√(
( )1
𝒕=
𝜋
4
(𝟎 . 𝟔)( ) 0.0 12 √ 𝟐(𝟗 . 𝟖𝟏)
( √ (𝟑 . 𝟐− 𝟎 .𝟓) −
𝟒
𝟓 )
( 𝟑 . 𝟐 ) − 𝟎 .𝟓 )
❑
4

𝒕=¿
 Sample Problem
• A vertical storage tank has a hemispherical bottom and a cylindrical
shell of 4m inside diameter and 4m height. It is filled with water.
Compute the time it will take to empty the tank through a sharp-
edged orifice 15cm in diameter. Located at the lowest point. Assume
C=0.6
4m
𝑇 =𝑡 1 ( 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ) +𝑡 2 (𝑛𝑜𝑛 −𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 )

4m Prismatic

Non-Prismatic
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

4m

2m

𝒕=
𝑨𝒔
( √ 𝒉𝟏 − √ 𝒉𝟐 ) 𝒕𝟏 =
(
𝜋
4
42) ( √ 𝟔 − √ 𝟐)
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈 ( 𝟎 . 𝟔) (
4 )
𝜋
0.15 √ 𝟐 ( 𝟗 .𝟖𝟏 )
2

𝒕 𝟏 =¿
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑜𝑛− 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

R
R-h
a

𝑎= √ 𝑅2 − ¿ ¿
2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋 𝑎
R
h
h2
1
𝑡= ∫
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √ 2 𝑔 h 1
−1/ 2
𝐴𝑠 h 𝑑h ∴ 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

h2
1
𝑡=
−𝑐𝑑
∫
𝐴𝑜 √2 𝑔 h 1
𝜋 ¿¿
 h2
1
𝜋 ∫ 𝑅 h − 𝑅 h +2 𝑅h h − h h 𝑑h
2 −1 /2 2 −1/ 2 −1 / 2 2 −1 /2
𝑡=
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 √ 2 𝑔 h 1
h2
1 ❑
𝜋 ∫ 2 𝑅 h − h 𝑑h
1/ 2 3/2
𝑡= 5
−𝑐 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 √ 2 𝑔 h 1 2

1
𝑡= ( 𝜋 )¿
−𝑐𝑑 √2 𝑔 5
𝐴 𝑜3
2 2 2
(𝝅 ) 4
𝑡= ¿
(𝟎 .𝟔 ) ( ) 𝜋
4
0.15
3
2
√ 𝟐 ( 𝟗 . 𝟖𝟏 )
5
2 2
𝒕 𝟐 =¿
Coordinate Method of Solving Velocity
of the Jet issuing from an Orifice
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝒀 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑿 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕

1 2
− 𝑦=𝑣 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 𝑥=𝑣 𝑥 𝑡
2

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣 𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 h𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝒗 𝒚 =𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗 𝒙 =𝒗 𝒋

1 2
− 𝑦=− 𝑔𝑡 𝑥=𝑣 𝑗 𝑡
2
𝐵𝑜𝑡h 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐h 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑡=
√
2𝑦 𝑥
=
𝑔 𝑣𝑗
𝒗 𝒋=
√𝒈 𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒚
𝐶𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
 Sample Problem

• A cylindrical vessel with axis vertical contains water. A 5cm diameter

standard circular orifice is located on the side 60cm from the bottom
and 150cm directly above this orifice is another standard circular
orifice 8cm in diameter if the head on the upper orifice is 150cm,
Determine
A. Point of intersection of centers of the jets
B. Combined discharged from orfices assume Cv= 0.98 , C= 0.6
 𝑦 2=0.15 + 𝑦 1 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥

√
𝟐
𝒈𝒙
𝒗 𝒋=
𝟐𝒚
150cm
2
8cm

√
𝟐
𝒈𝒙
𝒗 𝒋 𝟏=
𝟐 𝒚𝟏
150cm
Y2

√
5cm 𝟐
1
60cm
Y1 𝒈𝒙
𝒗 𝒋 𝟐=
𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥
 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑗 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑗2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝐸 𝐴=𝐸 1 𝐸 𝐴=𝐸 2

2❑ 2❑
𝑣 𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑣 𝑃1 1
+ + h𝐴= + +h1
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
2

𝐴 ,1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑃=0

2❑
𝑣 1
h 𝐴= + h1
1 2𝑔
0 𝑚
2❑
𝑣 1
𝑣 1=
𝑠
( 𝑇h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎
3 .6= +0.6 𝒎
2(9.81) 𝒗 𝒋 𝟏= 𝒗 𝟏 ( 𝑪𝒗) ( 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝒔
 𝒎
𝐸 𝐴=𝐸 2 𝒗 𝒋 𝟐 = 𝒗 𝟐 ( 𝑪𝒗)
𝒔
( 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 )
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 h𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝐸 2

√ √
2❑ 2❑
𝑣𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑣2 𝑃2 𝒈𝒙 𝟐
𝒈 𝒙𝟐
+ + h𝐴= + +h 2 𝒗 𝒋 𝟏= 𝒗 𝒋 𝟐=
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
2❑
𝑣 2
h 𝐴= + h2

√ √
𝟐 𝟐
2𝑔 𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝒗 𝒋𝟏 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒗 𝒋𝟐
2❑ 𝒙= =
𝑣2 𝒈 𝒈
3 .6= +2.1
2(9.81)
𝑦 2=0.15 + 𝑦 1
𝑚
𝑣 2= ( 𝑇h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
𝑠
√ √
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒚 𝟏 𝒗 𝒋𝟏 (𝒚 ¿¿𝟏+𝟎.𝟏𝟓)𝒗 𝒋 𝟐
= 𝟐 ¿
𝒈 𝒈 𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=𝑄 1+ 𝑄2
𝑦 1 =𝑚 𝑄1 =𝐶 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 1 𝑉 𝑜 1
𝑦 2 =𝑚
𝑄 2=𝐶 𝑑 𝐴 𝑜 2 𝑉 𝑜 2
𝑥 =𝑚

(actual)
Orifice on a side with a
backward inclination
Sample Problem

• A jet issues from the side of the tank under a head of 3m.
The side of the tank has a backward inclination of 45deg
with the horizontal. The total depth of water in the tank is
7m. If Cv= 1.00
A. Calculate the maximum height in which the jet rises
B. The distance from the orifice the jet strikes a point on a ground
1m below the tank bottom.
 𝑣 𝑓 =0
A. Calculate the maximum height in
which the jet rises
Vy
𝑣 𝑦 =𝐶𝑣 𝑣 𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 °
hmax
𝑣 𝑥 =𝐶𝑣 𝑣 𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 °
3m
45 deg
Vx

7m

45 deg
45 deg

1m
 A. Calculate the maximum height in
which the jet rises

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝒀 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑿 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑣 𝑦 =(𝐶𝑣)𝑣 𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 °

1 2
𝑣 𝑥 =( 𝐶𝑣 )𝑣 𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 °
𝑦 =𝑣 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 𝑥=𝑣 𝑥 𝑡
2

𝑣 𝑓𝑦 2 − 𝑣𝑖𝑦 2
= −𝑔𝑦
2
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄 𝒗 𝒐
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐h𝑒𝑠 max 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 h𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑤h𝑒𝑛 𝑣=0

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡h𝑎𝑡 𝑣 𝑓𝑦 =0 𝑡h𝑒𝑛 𝑦 =𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥

0 −𝑣 𝑖𝑦 2
=− 𝑔 𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣 𝑜 =?
𝑚
𝑣 2= 𝑣 𝑜= ( 𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 )
1 𝑠
𝑚
𝑣 𝐴 =𝑣 𝑜 𝑐 𝑣 = (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 )
𝑠
3m

2 𝐸1 =𝐸2
7m
2❑ 2❑
𝑣 1 𝑃1 𝑣 2 𝑃2
+ + h1 = + +h2
2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿 2 𝑔 𝛾𝐿
2❑
𝑣 2
0 +0+ h1= +0+ h2
2𝑔
2❑
𝑣2
0 +0+ 7= + 0+ 4
2( 9.81)
 𝑣 𝑦 =¿
𝑣 𝑥 =( 𝐶𝑣 )𝑣 𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 °
2
0 −𝑣 𝑖𝑦
=− 𝑔 𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

0−¿¿¿
from orifice

h 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘

 Vy

3m
45 deg
Vx

7m

45 deg
45 deg 4+1

1m 𝒙
B. The distance from the orifice the jet
strikes a point on a ground 1m below the
tank bottom.
𝒀 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑿 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
1 𝑥=(𝐶𝑣 ) 𝑣 𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 ° 𝑡
𝑦 =𝑣 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 2
2
𝑦 =−5 m

− 5 =¿
𝑡=𝑠
C. Determine the velocity as the jet strikes a point on
a ground 1m below the tank bottom. (Additional)
𝒀 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑿 − 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
2 2
𝑣 𝑓𝑦 − 𝑣𝑖𝑦
= −𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 =𝑣 𝑓𝑥 − 𝑣𝑖𝑦
2
𝑎=0
2
𝑣 𝑓𝑦 −¿¿¿
m/s
m/s

𝒗 𝒇 = √ 𝒗 𝒇𝒚 +𝒗 𝒇𝒙 =𝒎/ 𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
 Two Prismatic tanks communicating by an
opening (orifice)
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑨𝒔
𝒕= ( √ 𝒉𝟏 − √ 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑨 𝟏 ( 𝑨𝟐 )
𝑨𝒔= =
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑨 𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐

√ 𝒉𝟏= √ ∆ 𝒉𝟏 √ 𝒉𝟐= √ ∆ 𝒉𝟐
𝑨𝟏 ( 𝑨 𝟐)
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨 𝟐
𝒕= ( √ ∆ 𝒉𝟏 − √ ∆ 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈
Identify the direction of flow
Flow will start at a point with highest energy
2
𝑣1 𝑃1
𝐸1 =h1 + + = h1 +0 +0
2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝑣3 𝑃3
𝐸 3=h 3 + + = h3 + 0+0
2𝑔 𝛾

𝐸1 > 𝐸 3
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡h𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 (𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚1𝑡𝑜 2
𝐸1 =𝐸2
2 2
𝑣2
2
𝛾 h3 𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑣2 𝑃2
h 1+ 0+0= 0+ + h 1+ + =h2 + +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
 Sample Problem

• Two Prismatic tanks are communicating

by means of an orifice of diameter 2cm.
The orifice is located 1m above the
bottom as shown below. The water in
the left tank A stands 5m while in the
right tank B 2m. If the coefficient of
discharge of the orifice is 0.60. calculate
the time in minutes that will take so
that the surfaces in the tanks will be 1m
apart. Tank A diameter is 2.5m while B 5𝑚 2𝑚
has 4m 1𝑚

A=2.5m B=4m
 𝑨𝟏 ( 𝑨 𝟐)
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨 𝟐
∆ 𝒉𝟐 ∆ 𝒉𝟏 𝒕= ( √ ∆ 𝒉𝟏 − √ ∆ 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐 𝒈

5𝑚 2𝑚
1𝑚

A=2.5m B=4m

𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐.𝟓 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐 .𝟓 + 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
𝒕= ( √ 𝟑 − √ 𝟏 )= 𝒔
𝝅
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 ) √ 𝟐(𝟗 .𝟖𝟏 )
𝟐
𝟎 .𝟔 (
𝟒
 𝐼𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡h𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐.𝟓 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
𝝅 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐 .𝟓𝟐 + 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
𝒕= ( √ 𝟑 − √ 𝟎 )= 𝒔
𝝅
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 ) √ 𝟐(𝟗 .𝟖𝟏 )
𝟐
𝟎 .𝟔 (
∆ 𝒉𝟏 𝟒

5𝑚 2𝑚
1𝑚

A=2.5m B=4m
 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑤h𝑖𝑐h 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 h𝑎𝑠 h𝑖𝑔h𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝑃1 𝐸1 =h1 + + = h1 +0 +
𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃3 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
2
𝑣3 𝑃3 𝑃3
∆ 𝒉𝟏 𝑃3 𝐸 3=h 3 + + =h3 + 0+
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝛾
𝐸1 > 𝐸 3

5𝑚 2𝑚
1𝑚
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐.𝟓 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
A=2.5m B=4m
𝝅 𝝅
𝟐 .𝟓𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐
𝟒 𝟒
𝑃1 𝑃 3 𝒕=
𝝅
( √ ∆ 𝒉𝟏 − √ ∆ 𝒉𝟐)
∆ 𝒉𝟏 =𝟑+ − 𝟎 .𝟔 ( 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 ) √ 𝟐(𝟗 .𝟖𝟏 )
𝟐
𝟒
𝛾 𝛾
 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐.𝟓 𝟒
𝟒 𝟒
𝝅 𝝅
𝟐 .𝟓𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐
𝑃1 𝟒 𝟒
∆ 𝒉𝟐 𝒕=
𝝅
( √ ∆ 𝒉𝟏 − √ ∆ 𝒉𝟐)
𝛾 𝑃3 𝟎 .𝟔 ( 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 ) √ 𝟐(𝟗 .𝟖𝟏 )
𝟐

𝛾 𝟒

5𝑚 2𝑚
1𝑚

A=2.5m B=4m

𝑃1 𝑃3
∆ 𝒉𝟐 = −
𝛾 𝛾
 𝐸1 =𝐸2
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐h𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
2
𝑃1 𝑣2 𝑃2
𝑃1
h 1+ 0+ =0+ +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃3

∆ 𝒉𝟏 𝑃3
𝛾

5𝑚 2𝑚
1𝑚

A=2.5m B=4m