CHAPTER 3: LAMINAR FLOW

Outline:
❑ Entrance Flow and Developed Flow
❑ Laminar Flow in a Pipe
o Determination of the Velocity Distribution
o Other Pipe Flow Quantities
❑ Head Losses in Viscous Flow
o Frictional (Major) Losses
o Additional (Minor) Losses
 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focusses on internal incompressible viscous flows.
▪ Internal flows are flows completely bounded by solid surfaces, e.g., flow through pipes, ducts,
nozzles, diffusers, sudden contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
▪ Viscous flows are flows that are dominated by viscosity (i.e., viscous forces predominate over
inertia forces)
inertia force 𝜌𝑉𝐷
Recall, Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 = =
viscous force 𝜇

Stronger influence of viscous forces implies Reynolds number will be low. Below a certain
critical Re, the flow is considered to be laminar. Above that critical Reynolds number, the flow is
said to be Turbulent.

▪ Thus, Internal flows may be laminar or

turbulent. This can be demonstrated using
Reynolds viscous flow experiment in a
pipe.
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
At low flow rates (low Reynolds numbers) the dye injected into the flow remains in a single
filament (streakline) along the tube; there is little dispersion of dye because the flow is laminar. A
laminar flow is one in which the fluid flows in laminae, or layers; there is no mixing of adjacent
fluid layers.

At high flow rates (large Re), the dye filament eventually becomes unstable and breaks up into a
random motion throughout the tube; the line of dye is stretched and twisted into a multitude of
entangled threads that quickly disperses throughout the entire flow field. This behaviour is
characteristic of turbulent flow.
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
At intermediate flow rates (transition Re), the dye streak fluctuates in time and space, and
intermittent bursts of irregular behaviour appear along the streak. Under these circumstances the
flow is said to be transitional.

Observations:
▪ In laminar flow, flow velocity at any point is independent of time (i.e., u, v and w are invariant
with time, t). Thus, when an ensemble or collection of instantaneous velocities is averaged over
time, the mean velocity will be equal to the instantaneous value.
▪ In turbulent flow, the flow velocity (u, v, and w) at any point is a function of time. This is due
to the occurrence of small, high-frequency fluctuations in the instantaneous flow velocity. Thus,
when an ensemble of instantaneous flow velocities is averaged over time, the mean velocity at any
point is not equal to the instantaneous value at that point.
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
Observations:
▪ Transitional flows are relatively more complex because the flow is intermittently turbulent (i.e.,
the instantaneous flow velocity is sometimes turbulent and laminar at other times)

▪ In laminar flow, the velocity fluctuations are dampened by the viscous forces because Re is low
▪ In turbulent flow, the viscous forces are unable to damp out the random fluctuations in the fluid
motion
 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow
Observations:
▪ For pipe flow, transition to turbulence occurs at Reynolds numbers (Re) ≈ 2300 based on the
average velocity and pipe diameter. This is also known as the transition Reynolds number for
flow through a pipe

Sample Problems
1. Consider a pipe with a diameter of 5 cm and a fluid with a dynamic viscosity of 0.001 kg/(m.s)
flowing through it. The velocity of the fluid is 2 m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number and
determine the flow regime.
2. In an engineering application, you observe a fluid exhibits laminar flow characteristics in a pipe
of 1 cm diameter. If you wish to maintain laminar flow while doubling the pipe diameter, what
adjustments, if any, would you need to make to the velocity of the fluid?
3. An industrial heat exchanger operates with turbulent flow to maximize heat transfer. However,
the noise generated from turbulence is causing issues. Propose a potential solution that maintains
heat transfer efficiency while reducing noise levels.
 ENTRANCE FLOW AND DEVELOPED FLOW
When considering internal flows we are interested primarily in developed flows. A developed flow results
when the velocity profile ceases to change in the flow direction.
Entrance Region
The region starting from the entrance of the pipe, duct, etc., to the location where fully developed flow
begins is known as the entrance region.

In the pipe flow above, the flow enters the pipe with a nearly uniform velocity profile at section 1.
▪ Through the pipe, viscous effects cause the fluid to stick to the wall (no-slip boundary condition)
▪ As the flow moves downstream, a boundary layer dominated by viscous effects develops along the pipe
wall. The boundary layer keeps growing until the flow reaches the end of the entrance region (section 2).
▪ Because of the growing boundary layer, the velocity profile changes with distance x along the pipe
 ENTRANCE FLOW AND DEVELOPED FLOW

Inviscid Core

▪ At section 2, the boundary layer has grown in thickness to completely fill the pipe
▪ Viscous effects are only important inside the boundary layer
▪ In the inviscid core (i.e., outside the boundary layer), viscous effects are negligible

The distance from the entrance of the pipe to the location of the start of fully developed flow is
called the entrance length.
 ENTRANCE FLOW AND DEVELOPED FLOW

Inviscid Core

For laminar flow, the dimensionless entrance length is a function of Reynolds number.
𝐿𝑒
= 0.06𝑅𝑒
𝐷
That is,
𝐿𝑒 = 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≈ 140𝐷
For turbulent flow, experiments show that the mean velocity profile becomes fully developed at
about 24 to 40 pipe diameters (Why?). However, other flow characteristics such as those related to
the velocity fluctuations may not be fully developed for 80 or more pipe diameters.
 LAMINAR FLOW IN A PIPE
Derivation of the Mean Velocity Profile
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius 𝑟0 . The
viscous fluid is flowing from left to right.
Consider a fluid element of radius r and length dx
If p is the pressure on the left face (AB), the
pressure on the right face (CD) will be given
(using a first order Taylor series approximation)
by
𝜕𝑝
𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
For a non-accelerating fluid element, the resultant force, ∑F must be equal to zero.
2
𝜕𝑝
𝑝𝜋𝑟 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥 𝜋𝑟 2 − 𝜏 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝 𝑟 But 𝜕𝑝Τ𝜕𝑥 is constant
which simplifies to 𝜏 = −
𝜕𝑥 2
 LAMINAR FLOW IN A PIPE
Derivation of the Mean Velocity Profile
The distance y is measured from the pipe wall.

𝑦 = 𝑟0 − 𝑟
⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝑟
∴ −𝜇 =−
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝑟
⟹ 𝜇 =
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 2

Constant 𝜕𝑝Τ𝜕𝑥 implies the shear stress 1 𝜕𝑝 2

is a linear function of the pipe radius. 𝑢= 𝑟 +𝐶
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
Using the shear stress relation
𝜏 = 𝜇(𝑑𝑢Τ𝑑𝑦) Using the no-slip boundary condition: u = 0, r = ro
𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝑟 gives
𝜇 =− 1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝐶=− 𝑟0
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥
 LAMINAR FLOW IN A PIPE

1 𝜕𝑝 2 1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝑢= 𝑟 − 𝑟0
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥 4𝜇 𝜕𝑥

1 𝜕𝑝 2
= 𝑟 − 𝑟02
4𝜇 𝜕𝑥

1 𝑑𝑝 2
Or 𝑢= 𝑟 − 𝑟02
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥

The above result gives a parabolic profile, often referred to as Poiseuille flow.
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
For steady, laminar, developed flow in a circular pipe, the velocity distribution has been shown to
be
1 𝑑𝑝 2 2
𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑟 − 𝑟0
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Maximum Velocity (𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
The is maximum at the centre of the pipe. That is, when r = 0
1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0 − 𝑟02
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑝 2 𝑟02 𝑑𝑝
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 =− 𝑟0 = −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑟 − 𝑟02
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Volume Flow Rate
The discharge or volume flow rate through an element of area dA, thickness dr at a radius r from
the pipe centre is given by
𝑟0
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑢𝑑𝐴 = 𝑢. 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝜋 𝑑𝑝 3
𝑄=න 𝑟 − 𝑟02 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

2 𝑟0
1 𝑑𝑝 2 𝜋 𝑑𝑝 𝑟4 𝑟0 𝜋 𝑑𝑝 4
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑟 − 𝑟02 . 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑄= − = − 𝑟0
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 4 2 0
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥

𝜋 𝑑𝑝 3 𝜋𝑟04 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑟 − 𝑟02 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑄=−
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Average Velocity
The average velocity V is given by
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 4
𝑄 8𝜇 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑟0
𝑉= =
𝐴 𝜋𝑟𝑂 2
1 𝑑𝑝 2 𝑟02 𝑑𝑝
𝑉= − 𝑟0 = −
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Ratio of Maximum to Average Velocity (𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒙 Τ𝑽)

𝑟02 𝑑𝑝
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
= 2 =2
𝑉 𝑟0 𝑑𝑝
−
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Pressure Drop for a Given Length of Pipe
1 2
y
x

x1 L x2
(i) As a Function of Discharge (Q)
8𝜇𝑄
𝜋𝑟04 𝑑𝑝 −𝑑𝑝 = 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑄=− 𝜋𝑟0
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝑃2 𝑥2
8𝜇𝑄
𝑑𝑝 8𝜇𝑄 − න 𝑑𝑝 = න 4 𝑑𝑥
− = 𝑃1 𝑥1 𝜋𝑟0
𝑑𝑥 𝜋𝑟04
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Pressure Drop for a Given Length of Pipe
1 2
y
x

x1 L x2
(i) As a Function of Discharge (Q) 𝐷
8𝜇𝑄 𝑟0 =
8𝜇𝑄 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 4 𝐿 2
−𝑝
𝑃2 𝑥2 𝜋𝑟0
𝑃1 = 4 𝑥 𝑥1
𝜋𝑟0
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 128𝜇𝑄
8𝜇𝑄 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 8𝜇𝑄 =
= 𝐿 𝜋𝐷4
− 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 4 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝐿 𝜋𝑟04
𝜋𝑟0
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Pressure Drop for a Given Length of Pipe
1 2
y
x

x1 L x2
(ii) As a Function of Average Velocity (V)
𝑟02 𝑑𝑝 𝑃2 𝑥2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 8𝜇𝑉
𝑉=− 8𝜇𝑉 =
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 − න 𝑑𝑝 = න 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐷/2 2
𝑃1 𝑥1 𝑟0
𝑑𝑝 8𝜇𝑉 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 32𝜇𝑉
− = 2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 8𝜇𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑟0 = 2 =
𝐿 𝑟0 𝐿 𝐷2
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Pressure Drop for a Given Length of Pipe
1 2
y
x

x1 L x2
(iii) As a Function of the Wall Shear Stress (𝝉𝒘 )
𝑑𝑝 𝑟 Δ𝑃 2𝜏𝑤
Recall 𝑑𝑝 2𝜏𝑤 ⟹ =
𝜏=− − = 𝐿 𝑟0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑟0
At 𝑟 = 𝑟0 , 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑤
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 2𝜏𝑤 2𝜏𝑤 𝐿
𝑑𝑝 𝑟0 ⟹ Δ𝑃 =
⟹ 𝜏𝑤 = − ⟹ = 𝑟0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 𝑟0
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Pressure Drop for a Given Length of Pipe
(iv) As a Function of the friction factor (𝒇)
For any generic fully developed internal flow (laminar, turbulent, circular or non-circular pipe),
the pressure drop is expressed as
𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
Δ𝑃 = 𝑓
𝐷 2
where 𝜌𝑉 2 /2 is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, given by
8𝜏𝑤
𝑓=
𝜌𝑉 2
This is different from the friction coefficient of Fanning friction factor Cf given by
2𝜏𝑤
𝐶𝑓 =
𝜌𝑉 2
which is more widely used in characterizing turbulent flows.
 OTHER PIPE FLOW QUANTITIES
Friction Factor
For laminar flow in a pipe, the friction factor is also given by
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
where 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷/𝜇 is the Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter and average velocity.
 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Oil, of relative density 0.83 and dynamic viscosity 0.08 kg/(m.s), passes through a
circular pipe of 12 mm diameter with a mean velocity of 2.3 m/s. Determine:
(a) the Reynolds number;
𝑅𝑒 = 286
(b) the maximum velocity;
(c) the volumetric flow rate; This value of Re is well within the range of
(d) the pressure drop per unit length. laminar flows, so the relations for laminar flow
may be used
Solution
𝜌 = 0.83 × 1000 kgΤm3 = 830 kgΤm3 (b) 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
=2
𝜇 = 0.08 kgΤ(m. s) 𝑉
⟹ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑉 = 2 × 2.3 = 4.6 𝑚/𝑠
𝐷 = 12 mm = 0.012 m
(c) 𝑄
𝑉 = 2.3 mΤ𝑠 =𝑉
𝐴
(a) 𝜋𝐷2
𝜌𝑉𝐷 830 × 2.3 × 0.012
𝑅𝑒 = = ⟹ 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉
𝜇 0.08 4
𝜋 × 0.0122 × 2.3
= 286 𝑄= = 2.6 × 10−4 m3/s
4
 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Oil, of relative density 0.83 and dynamic viscosity 0.08 kg/(m.s), passes through a
circular pipe of 12 mm diameter with a mean velocity of 2.3 m/s. Determine:
(a) the Reynolds number;
(b) the maximum velocity;
(c) the volumetric flow rate;
(d) the pressure drop per unit length.
Solution
𝜌 = 0.83 × 1000 kgΤm3 = 830 kgΤm3
𝜇 = 0.08 kgΤ(m. s)
𝐷 = 12 mm = 0.012 m
𝑉 = 2.3 mΤ𝑠
(d)
∆𝑃 128𝜇𝑄 128 × 0.08 × 2.6 × 10−4
= 4
=
𝐿 𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 0.0124
= 4.1kPa/m
 SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 2: An oil of viscosity 0.1 Ns/m2 and density 900 kg/m3 is flowing through a circular
pipe of diameter 50 mm. The flow rate through the pipe is 3.5 litre/s. Find the pressure drop
across a length of 300 m of the pipe and the shear stress at the pipe wall. Assume the flow is
laminar.
Solution
𝜌 = 900 kgΤm3 ; 𝜇 = 0.08 kgΤ(m. s); 𝐷 = 50 mm = 0.05 m; 𝐿 = 300 m
𝑄 = 3.5 litresΤ𝑠 = 3.5 × 10−3 m3/s
2𝜏0 𝐿
∆𝑃 128𝜇𝑄 Δ𝑃 =
= 𝑟0
𝐿 𝜋𝐷4
𝑟0 Δ𝑃
128𝜇𝑄𝐿 128 × 0.1 × 3.5 × 10−3 ⟹ 𝜏𝑤 =
∆𝑃 = 4
= 4
× 300 2𝐿
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 0.05
0.025 × 684.5 × 103
∆𝑃 = 684.5 kPa 𝜏𝑤 =
2 × 300
The wall shear stress 𝜏0 is given by = 28.52 Pa
 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 3: Derive an expression for the velocity distribution between horizontal, concentric
pipes for steady, incompressible developed flow.
 SOLUTION
𝑝2𝜋𝑑𝑟 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 + 𝜏2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑥 − 𝜏 + 𝑑𝜏 2𝜋 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Simplifying, there results
𝑑𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
=− −
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Substituting 𝑟 = − 𝜇𝑑𝑢Τ𝑑𝑟 we have
𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑2 𝑢
= 𝜇( + 2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
= (𝑟 )
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
This is integrated to yield
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑟 = 𝑟 +𝐴
𝑑𝑟 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Integration again gives
1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝐵
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Where A and B are arbitrary constants.
They are found by setting 𝑢 = 0 at 𝑟 = 𝑟1 and at 𝑟 = 𝑟2 ;
 1 𝑑𝑝 2
That is, 0= 𝑟 + 𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑟1 + 𝐵
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 1
1 𝑑𝑝 2
0= 𝑟 + 𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑟2 + 𝐵
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2

The solution is
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑟1 2 −𝑟2 2
𝐴=
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 )

𝑟2 2 𝑑𝑝
𝐵 = −𝐴𝑙𝑛𝑟2 −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
thus

1 𝑑𝑝 2 2
𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2
𝑢 𝑟 = [𝑟 − 𝑟2 + ln(𝑟Τ𝑟2 )]
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 )
This is integrated to give the flow rate
𝑟2
𝑄 = න 𝑢 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑟1
2 2 2
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 4 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
= [𝑟2 − 𝑟1 4 +
8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 ln(𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 )
 HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
It is often necessary to determine the head loss, hL in a pipe flow.
• Consider a typical piping system shown below.
• Identify the sources of head loss
Gate
Standard 45 P2 =
Valve
elbow

Standard 90 elbow 2

10 m Standard 45
P1 = 250 kPa
elbow

1 Standard 90 elbow

• Head losses: friction in pipes, 90° and 45° elbows, gate valve, contraction
 Types of Head Losses

Total Head losses

(𝒉𝒍𝑻 = 𝒉𝒍 + 𝒉𝒍𝒎 )

Major losses Minor Losses

(𝒉𝒍 ) (𝒉𝒍𝒎 )

frictional/viscous forces

Valves Fittings: bends, expansions and

contractions
 Calculation of Major Losses

The major head losses in a pipe flow can be expressed as follows:

𝐿 𝑉ത 2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
𝐿 is the length of the pipe
𝐷 is the pipe diameter
𝑉ത is average velocity
𝑓 is the friction factor
 Calculation of Friction Factor, 𝒇

• The friction factor, 𝑓 depends on

• Flow regime (Re): Laminar or Turbulent

• Surface condition (for turbulent flows): Smooth or Rough

• The friction factor, 𝑓 can be obtained from correlations (equations) or Moody chart

• For a laminar flow, 𝑓 depends only on Re:

64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
 Calculation of Friction Factor, 𝒇

• For turbulent flow (𝑅𝑒 > 2300), the walls of the pipe may be

• hydraulically smooth

• transitionally rough

• fully rough.

• For a turbulent flow over a smooth wall (2300 < 𝑅𝑒 < 105 )

Blasius correlation:

𝑓 = 0.3164𝑅𝑒 −0.25
 Calculation of Friction Factor, 𝒇
• Turbulent flow over transitionally rough or fully rough walls
• Colebrook correlation:
1 𝑒/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + [1]
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 𝑓

1.11
1 𝑒/𝐷 6.9 [2]
= −1.8 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒

−2
𝑒/𝐷 5.74 [3]
𝑓𝑜 = 0.25 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 0.9
3.7 𝑅𝑒
 Calculation of Friction Factor (Moody Chart)
• The moody chart can also be used to determine the friction factor, 𝑓

𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒

𝑹𝒆 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒆/𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐

 Calculation of Friction Factor (Moody Chart)
• Find the friction factor, 𝒇 for 𝑹𝒆 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 and 𝒆/𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
 Calculation of Friction Factor (Moody Chart)
• Find the friction factor, 𝒇 for 𝑹𝒆 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 and 𝒆/𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏

0.038
Roughness, 𝒆
 Summary of Major Head Losses

𝑳𝑽ഥ𝟐
𝒉𝒍 = 𝒇
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

❑ Calculate Reynolds number

❑ Determine flow regime: Laminar vs Turbulent
• If turbulent, determine if surface is smooth or rough
• If rough, determine pipe material and determine roughness height
❑ Determine friction factor, 𝑓, using Moody chart of appropriate correlation
 Calculation of Minor Losses

• Minor head losses are usually expressed in one of the following two ways:

ഥ𝟐
𝑽
𝒉𝒌𝒍𝒎 =𝑲 [6a]
𝟐

where 𝑲 is the loss coefficient.

ഥ𝟐
𝑳𝒆 𝑽
𝒉𝒌𝒍𝒎 =𝒇 [6b]
𝑫 𝟐

where 𝑳𝒆 is an equivalent length of a straight pipe

• 𝒇 is the friction factor obtained from the flow through the main pipe

• Values of the loss coefficients, 𝑲 and dimensionless equivalent lengths 𝑳𝒆/𝑫 for some
common fittings are available in your textbook
Minor Loss: Contraction and Expansion

ഥ𝟐
𝑽
𝒉𝒍𝒎 =𝑲
𝟐
Minor Loss: Pipe Entrances

ഥ𝟐
𝑽
𝒉𝒍𝒎 =𝑲
𝟐
Minor Loss: Valves and Fittings

ഥ𝟐
𝑽
𝒉𝒍𝒎 =𝑲
𝟐
 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems: Single Path

𝑃1 ∆𝑷 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑃2

𝑄 𝐷

1 2

𝐿
 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems: Single Path

𝑳𝑽ഥ𝟐 ഥ𝟐
𝑽 ഥ𝑫
𝑽
𝒉𝒍 = 𝒇 𝒉𝒍𝒎 = 𝑲 𝒇(𝑹𝒆 = , 𝒆/𝑫)
𝑫 𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝝂

Our goal is to determine one of the following:

1. Find ∆𝑝 for a given 𝐿, 𝐷 and 𝑄: Use energy equation directly

2. Find 𝐿 for a given ∆𝑝 , 𝐷 and 𝑄: Use energy equation directly

3. Find 𝑄 for a given ∆𝑝 , 𝐿, and 𝐷:

`` Manually iterate energy equation and friction factor formula to find 𝑉 (or 𝑄), or

Directly solve, simultaneously, energy equation and friction factor formula using Excel

4. Find 𝐷 for a given ∆𝑝 , 𝐿, and 𝑄:

Manually iterate energy equation and friction factor formula to find 𝐷, or

Directly solve, simultaneously, energy equation and friction factor formula using Excel
 Noncircular Ducts

𝑳𝑽ഥ𝟐 𝒆 ഥ𝑫 𝑽
𝝆𝑽 ഥ𝑫
𝒉𝒍 = 𝒇 𝒇= (𝑹𝒆, ) 𝑹𝒆 = =
𝑫 𝟐𝒈 𝑫 𝝁 𝝂

• For non-circular ducts, we use the concept of hydraulic diameter, i.e., we replace the
diameter (𝐷) in our analysis by the hydraulic diameter (𝐷ℎ ) of the non-circular duct.

• The hydraulic diameter can be calculated from the following:

4𝐴
𝐷ℎ =
𝑃

where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area, and P is the wetted perimeter.

Noncircular Ducts
𝟒𝒉𝟐
𝑨=𝒉 𝒉; 𝑷 = 𝟒𝒉 𝑫𝒉 = =𝒉
𝟒𝒉
Square duct

𝟒𝒃𝒉 𝟐𝒃𝒉
𝑨 = 𝒃  𝒉; 𝑷 = 𝟐 𝒃 + 𝒉  𝑫𝒉 = =
𝟐 𝒃+𝒉 𝒃+𝒉
Rectangular duct

𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟐
𝑨= ; 𝑷 = 𝑫  𝑫𝒉 = =𝑫
𝟒 𝑫
Circular duct

𝟒𝒃𝒉
𝑨 = 𝒃  𝒉; 𝑷 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒉 𝑫𝒉 =
𝒃 + 𝟐𝒉
Open channel
 FURTHER EXAMPLES
Example 1: Water at 20℃ is transported for 500m in a 4 cm diameter wrought iron horizontal pie
with a flow rate of 0.003 𝑚3 Τ𝑠. Calculate the pressure drop over the 500m length pipe.

Solution

The average velocity is

𝑄
𝑉=
𝐴

0.03
= = 2.39 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝜋 𝑥 0.022

The Reynolds number is

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣

2.39 𝑥 0.04
= = 9.6 𝑥 104
10−6
 FURTHER EXAMPLES
but 𝑒 = 0.046, we have, using 𝐷 = 40𝑚𝑚,
𝑒 0.046
= = 0.00115
𝐷 40
The friction factor is read from the Moody diagram to be 𝑓 = 0.023

The head loss is calculated as

𝐿 𝑉2 500 2.392
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 = 0.023 84 𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 0.04 2 𝑥 9.81

This answer is given to two significant numbers since the friction factor is known to at most two
significant numbers. The pressure drop is found to be

∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝐿

= 9800 𝑥 84 = 820 000 𝑃𝑎

 FURTHER EXAMPLES
Example 2: A pressure drop of 700kpa is measured over a 300m length of horizontal, 10cm
diameter wrought iron pipe that transports oil (𝑆 = 0.9, 𝑣 = 10−5 𝑚2 Τ𝑠). Calculate the flow rate.

Solution
𝑒 0.046
The relative roughness is = = 0.00046
𝐷 100
Assuming that the flow rate is completely turbulent (Re is not needed), the Moody diagram
gives 𝑓 = 0.0165

The head loss is found to be

∆𝑝 700 000
ℎ𝐿 = = = 79.4 𝑚
𝛾 9800 𝑥 0.9

The velocity is calculated to be

1Τ2
2𝑔𝐷ℎ𝐿 2 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 7.94 1Τ2
𝑉= = = 5.61 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑓𝐿 0.0165 𝑥 300
 FURTHER EXAMPLES

This provides us with a Reynolds number of

𝑉𝐷 5.61 𝑥 0.1 4
𝑅𝑒 = = = 5.61 𝑥 10
𝑣 10−5
𝑒
Using the Reynolds number and = 0.00046, the moody diagram gives the friction factor as𝑓 =
𝐷
0.023
This corrects the original value for 𝑓. The velocity is recalculated to be
1Τ2
2 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 7.94
𝑉= = 4.75 𝑚Τ𝑠
0.023 𝑥 300
The Reynolds number is then
4.75 𝑥 0.1 4
𝑅𝑒 = = 4.75 𝑥 10
10−5
From the Moody diagram 𝑓 = 0.023 appears to be satisfactory. Thus the flow rate is
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 4.75 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.052 = 0.037 𝑚3 Τ𝑠
 FURTHER EXAMPLES
Example 3: Drawn tubing of what diameter should be selected to transport 0.002 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 of 20℃
water over a 400m length so that the head loss does not exceed 30m?

Solution
In this problem we do not know D. Thus, a trial-and-error solution is anticipated. The average
velocity is related to D by
𝑄 0.002 0.00255
𝑉= = 2
=
𝐴 𝜋𝐷 4 Τ 𝐷2
0.002 0.00255
2
=
𝜋 𝐷 Τ4 𝐷2
The friction factor and D are related as follows:
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
 FURTHER EXAMPLES
Solution

The friction factor and D are related as follows:

𝐿 𝑉2 400 (0.00255/𝐷2 )2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 30 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2 × 9.8
𝐷5 = 4.42 𝑥 10−6 𝑓

The Reynolds number is

𝑉𝐷 0.00255𝐷 2550
𝑅𝑒 = = −6
=
𝑣 1 × 10 𝐷
Now, let us simply guess a value for 𝑓 and check with the relations above and the
Moody diagram.
 FURTHER EXAMPLES
Solution contd

The value of 𝑓 = 0.02 is acceptable, yielding a diameter of 3.88 cm. Since this
diameter would undoubtedly not be standard, a diameter of
𝐷 = 4𝑐𝑚

would be the tube size selected. This tube would have a head loss less than the limit
ℎ𝑙 = 30𝑚 imposed in the problem statement.

Any larger diameter tube would also satisfy this criterion but would be more costly,
so should not be selected.