Joining processes

for ceramics and

composites
 Engineering Ceramics

• High specific strength

• High temperature applications
• Achieve highest efficiency in
thermodynamic engines
• Wear resistance
• Refractoriness
• High hardness
• High stiffness
• High compression strength
• Low density
• Transparent to electromagnetic waves

Compound melting Compound melting

temperature, oC temperature, oC
Hafnium carbide, HfC 3950 Boron carbide, B4C 2450
Titanium carbide, TiC 3120 Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 2050
Tungsten carbide, WC 2850 Cristobalite, SiO2 1715
Magnesium oxide, MgO 2798 Silicon nitride, Si3N4 1900
Silicon carbide, SiC 2500 Titanium dioxide, TiO2 1605
 Toughness of Ceramics

• Inherent low toughness because ionic-covalent bonding

• Four-point beam fracture bend test
• Fracture toughness equation: K IC  Y a

a
• Griffith flaw. Critical stress:  c 2
r
 Fracture Toughness

1. Higher strength and

2. lower fracture
toughness than alloys
 • Powder Compaction Routes for
green preforms:
Processing of – Cold pressing
Ceramics • Concerns: non-homogenous
packaging leads to failure
– Injection molding
– Slip casting
• Concerns: organic binders have to
be removed; and introduce
impurities
• Sintering
– Diffusion
– Thermal decomposition
– High temperature increases cost
• Hot Isostatic/uniaxial pressing
(HIP)
– High pressure: 200 MPa
– Good control of shape and
microstructure
– May cause property anisotropy
– Expensive
• Reaction Processing: next
 Composite Ceramics
• Continuous fiber reinforced
– Significant increases in toughness and notch sensitivity
– Early carbon fiber composite are temperature limited
– SiC fibers (Nicalon, Tyranno) handle higher T
• Oxide Matrix Composites:
– High Fracture toughness, high flexural strength
– Glass matrix composites
– Glass-ceramic
– Ceramic matrix
• Non-oxide Matrix Composites
– Very tough (fiber pull-out)
– Thermal shock resistant
– Carbon/carbon
– SiC/SiC
– C-SiC
• Fibrous Ceramics
– STS thermal protection
– Silica and alumina fibers
Rolls-Royce AMED gas turbine engine
Ceramics in Aerospace

Combustor
Support Struts
Flameholder
Re-heat shields
Nozzle
Turbine Airfoils
Turbine Casing
Exhaust Cone
Jet Pipe

H.M. Flower, High Performance Materials in Aerospace, Chapman & Hall, 1995
 Ceramic Tiles

The space shuttle is covered with approximately 24,000 ceramic

tiles made from a silica fiber compound.
 Ceramic Strengthening

• Seek ways to make fracture more difficult

• Flaws can be controlled by quality control
– pressing and sintering
– Increase the dispersion of particles of a second phase
– Fiber-strengthening
– Cermets or cemented carbides
Joining of Ceramics
 Joining of Ceramics

• Ceramics difficult to bolt or rivet

• Use techniques which minimize stress
– Diffusion bonding
– Glaze bonding
• Ceramics are joined to metals by
– Metal coating and brazing
– Adhesives
– Resins
– Clamping
Composite Material
• Composites or Advanced composite materials – a material
consisting of tiny diameter, high strength, high modulus fibers
embedded in an essentially homogenous matrix
• The orientation of the fibers can be different in different layers
• This results in a material that is anisotropic ie. Having
mechanical and physical properties dependent on fiber
direction
• This also results in heterogeneous property ie. It consists of
dissimilar constituents that are separately identifiable.
• A composite material can be broadly defined as an assembly
two or more chemically distinct material, having distinct
interface between them and acting to produce desired set of
properties
• Properties / behavior depends on properties, size
& distribution, volume fraction & shape of the
constituents, & the nature and strength of bond
between constituents.

• Mostly developed to improve mechanical

properties i.e strength, stiffness, creep resistance
& toughness.
 Composite Material
• Composites differ from metals:
• Properties are not uniform in all directions
• Strength and stiffness can be tailored to meet loads
• Possess a greater variety of mechanical properties
• Poor through the thickness strength, short transverse
• Composites are usually laid up in two dimensional form, while
metal may be used in billet, forged, bar forms
• Greater sensitivity to environmental heat and moisture
• Propagation of damage will be through delamination rather than
through thickness cracks
Condition Composite Behavior relative to metals
Load Strain relationship More linear strain to failure
Static Greater sensitivity
Notch-sensitivity
Fatigue Less sensitivity
Transverse Properties Weaker
Mechanical Properties variability Higher
Sensitivity to Hydrothermal environment Greater
In-plane delamination instead of through
Damage growth mechanics
thickness cracks
 Composites
• Advantages of composites over metals
• Light weight
• Resistance to corrosion
• High resistance to fatigue damage
• Reduced machining
• Tapered sections and compound contours easily accomplished
• Can orient fibers in direction of strength or stiffness
• Reduced number of assemblies and hence reduced number of fasteners when
cocured or cobonded
• Absorb radar microwaves
• Thermal expansion close to zero reduces thermal problems in outer space
applications
• Disadvantages of composites over metals
• Material is expansive
• Lack of established design allowables
• Corrosion problems from improper coupling with metals, especially when
carbon or graphite is used
• Degradation of structural properties under temperature extremes and wet
conditions
• Poor energy absorption and impact damage
• May require lightning strike protection
• Expensive and complicated inspection methods
• Reliable detection of substandard bonds is difficult
• Defects can be known to exist but precise location cannot be determined.
 Composites

Organic Matrix Metal Matrix

• High strength fibers such as boron, • Boron/Aluminum

graphite which provide basic strength • Graphite/Aluminum
• Matrix such as epoxy, polyamide or • Titanium and nickel are under
any other thermo plastic material research
stabilizing these thin fibers in • High temperature application
compression • Metal matrix provides better
• Matrix also acts to redistribute load resistance against buckling for
in shear between fibers in case of filaments in compression and hence
individual fiber failure or laminate provide much higher compression
transition capability especially at higher
temperatures
 Composites
• Most commonly used fibers are:
• Carbon
• Graphite
• Kevlar
• Boron
• Magnesium etc.
• Available as unidirectional tapes or woven cloth
• Collimated
• Preimpregnated
• Matrix
• Resins- most commonly used in aerospace applications
• Metalic
• Ceramic materials
– The matrix is cured by means of time, pressure and temperature
– The most important element in determining the material behaviour
– The selected matrix formulation determines the cure cycle and affects the
properties such as

• Creep
• Compressive strength
• Shear strength
• Thermal resistance
• Moisture resistance
• Ultraviolet resistance

All these above properties affect the long term stability of the composite structure
 Matrix Materials

Magnesium
• Lowest density (37% lighter than aluminum)
• Aerospace applications
• Creeps at low temp
• Relatively low strength
• Prone to variety of corrosion problems

Aluminum
• Easy to process, inexpensive
• Density only 35% of Steel
• Can be alloyed to fairly high strengths
• 57% stiffer than Magnesium
• Excellent corrosion resistance
• Most widely used material
 Matrix Materials

Titanium
• Twice as strong as aerospace aluminum
• 65% heavier than aluminum, but 65% stiffer
• Temp & corrosion resistant = use in demanding environments

Copper, Iron, Nickel, Tungsten

• Special use alloys
• Electronic Circuits
• Metal forming dies
• Jet engines
• Military applications
 Reinforcements

Other
Ceramics • Graphite (C)
• Silicon Carbide (SiC)
• Titanium Diboride (TiB2)
• Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)
• Titanium Carbide (TiC)
• Boron Carbide (B4C)

Metal Filaments
• Boron
• Steel
• Tungsten

Choice of matrix and reinforcement depends on:

• Desired properties of composite
• Compatibility between matrix and reinforcement
• MMC Processing route
Composites
• Basically there are three types of matrix materials:
• - Thermoplastic
• - Thermosetting
• - Metals.

• Advantages of thermoplastic over thermoset are

• High service temperature
• Shorter fabrication cycle
• No refrigeration required for storage
• Increased toughness
• Low moisture sensitivity
• No need for chemical cure.

• The matrix is susceptible for moisture absorption

• This degrades its mechanical properties
• For airframe structures this loss of mechanical properties should
be taken care in design stage
Composite Material

Relative Advantage
Mechanical
Properties Thermoplastics Thermosets Metal

Corrosion
xxx xxx x
Resistance
Creep xxx xxx x
Damage
xx x xxx
Resistance
Design flexibility xxx xxx x
Fabrication time xxx xx x
Final part cost xxx xx x
Finished part cost xxx xx x
Moisture resistant xx x Xxx
Physical
xxx xxx Xxx
properties
xxx
Processing cost xx X
Raw material cost x xx xxx
Reusable scrap xx - Xxx
Shelf life xxx x xxx
Solvent resistance xxx xx X
Specific strength xxx xxx X
Strength xxx xxx X
Best Good fair
Weight Saving xxx xx NA
 composites
Matrix Properties
• most widely used
0
• Max. temp 93 C
Epoxy • best structural properties
• easy to process
• toughened versions available now
0
• Max. temp 180 C
Bismaleide • easy to process
• toughened versions available now
• variety of matrix types
0
• Max. temp 320 C
Polyimide
•difficult to process
• expensive
• relatively poor structural characteristics and hence limited usage in
polyester structural components
• easy to process
• same as polyester
• more difficult to process
Phenolic
• can be used at higher temperature than polyesters and expoxies
•Low smoke generation
• greater improved toughness
Thermoplastics •Unique capabilities
• have processing difficulties
 composites

Property Desired properties

• Increases fiber strain
Impact • Good Matrix shear strength
• Moderate interlaminar fracture toughness
• Moderate interlaminar fracture toughness
Delamination • Moderate matrix fracture toughness
• Good fiber/matrix interfacial adhesion
• Good fiber/matrix interfacial adhesion
• high compressive strength in 0 0 direction
Compression • high post impact compressive strength
• high matrix modulus
• good time-dependent properties: fatigue, creep etc,
• Low viscosity prepregging matrices
• Melt processible matrices
Processing
• Solvent-resistant matrices
• Thermo-oxidative stability
Rule of Mixtures

X c  X m Vm  X r Vr
Where
X property  considered
V  volume  fraction
c composite
m matrix
r re inf orcement
 Designation for MMC

Matrix + Reinforcement / Volume % Form

Matrix = metal or alloy designation of matrix

Reinforcement = chemical formula of reinforcement
Volume % = Volume percent without the % sign
Form = Form of the reinforcement
• f, fiber or filament
• c, chopped fiber
• w, whisker
• p, particulate

Example: 6061 + SiC/20w

 Particulate Composite

Short-Fiber Composite

Long-Fiber Composite Laminated Composite

Manufacturing Processes
Processing Methods

•Solid State
•Semi-solid
•Liquid
 Solid State Processing

Bonding of continuous fibers between metal foils to make panels

• Aerospace Applications
• Ti/Sic; Al/B

Laminated Composite

Powder Metallurgy
• Mix particles of matrix with reinforcement
• Vacuum hot press (near solidus)
• Extrude or roll
• Al/B4C; Al/SiC
 Semi-Solid Processing

Spray Deposition

Chilled Plate
………..
MMC Build Up

Flame Spray Matrix

Flame Spray Reinforcement

Rheocasting
• Mix reinforcement into matrix held between solidus and liquidus

x
TEMP

COMP
 Liquid Processing
Infiltration
• Interfacial reactions can be a problem
Applications
Applications
 Time-Temp Effect of Chem Reaction

Arc
Welding
Resistance
Welding
Joining processes:

- Brazing and Soldering

- Solid State (Friction, Ultrasonic) Welding
- Fusion Weld
 Brazing (B) and Soldering (S)
• In these processes, the base metals are heated but do not melt; only the filler
metal melts
• The two processes are distinguished by the melting points of the filler metals
• Brazing filler metals having a melting point above 450°C
• Soldering filler metals have a melting point below 450°C
Advantages
• Joins without melting the base metal
• Used to join unweldable materials
• Joined parts can be taken apart at a later time
• Batch furnace can easily process multiple parts
• Portable when joining small parts
• Can be used on metals and ceramics
Limitations
• Joint tolerance is critical
• Cannot join wide gaps
• Large parts require large furnaces
• Strength of joint inadequate for some applications
• Some manual operations require highly skilled labor
• Some applications require flux.
 Brazing is a technique of joining two materials using a filler material
whose melting point is below the melting points of the materials to be
brazed. A typical brazing procedure involves cleaning of the surfaces to
be joined, interposing a filler material between the two surfaces, holding
the parts to be brazed with suitable fixtures and heating to a temperature
slightly above the melting point of the filler material. Heating cycle should
ensure that thermal equilibrium is maintained between the filler material
and the components to be brazed.

The components react with atmospheric gases like nitrogen, oxygen,

moisture etc. When this is not acceptable brazing will have to be carried
aut under a protective environments like inert gas, hydrogen gas or
vacuum. Brazing is possible only if the molten filler material wets the
surfaces and flows properly. This depends on the properties of the filler
material as well as the surfaces to be brazed. Commercially a number of
filler materials are available in the form of wires, foils, powders and
pastes. Choice depends on the properties of the materials to be brazed
and the temperature and other environmental factors in which the brazed
components are to be used.
 Brazing of ceramics
Ceramics are widely used in industries due of their electrical, thermal
and mechanical properties. But joining of ceramics to metals and to
themselves is not straight forward. There are basically two problems.
First, the usual brazing fillers do not wet the surfaces of ceramics.
Second, there is a big difference in the thermal expansion coefficients of
metals and ceramics. This induces tremendous stresses in the brazing
process which can lead to cracking. Special techniques have been
developed for brazing ceramics.
Moly-manganese metallisation is the main practiced for brazing
ceramics.
Here a paint of the refractory metal molybdenum with 10% manganese
is applied to the ceramic and sintered around 1400 o C. In this process
manganese oxidises and diffuses into ceramic forming transition layer
between the ceramic and the molybdenum layer. This reduces the
thermal mismatch between ceramic and molybdenum. This then
protected from oxidation by plating with nickel. Brazing is then carried out
using conventional filler materials either in vacuum or in an inert
atmosphere.
 Active brazing is a relatively new technique. A family of brazing alloys called
active brazing alloys are made by adding a small percentage of titanium or
vanadium to conventional filler material compositions. Brazing is carried out
under high vacuum in clean conditions. During brazing titanium is oxidised by
the ceramic forming titanium oxides and liberating some aluminium atoms. This
interlayer forms some kind of chemical bridge between ceramic and the metal.
An alternate way is to have a titanium coating on the ceramic and then carry
aut regular brazing. At high temperatures titanium reacts well with ceramics as
well as other metals. Usual brazing alloys wet titanium surface well leading to a
good brazed joint.

Brazing of graphite
Graphite is an important material in nuclear industry. Brazing of graphite is as
problematic as brazing ceramics. It has very low thermal expansion coefficient.
It reacts with very few materials to form carbides. Brazing of graphite to
molybdenum alloys can be been realised. Brazing filler materials like Cu-Ti-Ag,
Cu-Ti, Ti, Zr and Zr alloys can be used. Today have been developed several
filler alloys in the form of flexible ribbons for brazing copper and beryllium
based alloys with graphite.
There are several groups engaged in developing suitable technologies.
 Figure 2. Ceramic piece brazed to titanium block

A coating of 10-15 m of titanium is sufficient on ceramics and graphite

to various metals using an eutectic alloy of copper and silver.

For vacuum joints special care may have to be taken in the presence of
sharp corners or other special features. The same technique can also be
used on ceramic to ceramic, graphite to graphite, ceramic to graphite and
metals to metals
 Ceramics such as Si3N4(SN) are designed for ever higher temperature
applications and as such SN joints are expected to survive in corrosive
environments at high temperatures under stress. Nowadays ceramics are
bonded at fairly high temperatures, but the service temperatures of the
joints are much lower.
E.g. brazing temperatures of 800°C or higher are employed when using
Ag-Cu-Ti filler metals, but the joints realised with these brazes can hardly
survive beyond 400°C in oxidising environments.
Aiming for a SN joint capable to withstand loads at 900°C in oxidising
environments several commercial filler metals can be identified, with
solidus temperatures higher than 900°C. To mention a few, Au-Pd, Pd-Ni
and Ni-Cr based ones do satisfy this criterion.
 Recent developments have led to a new class of brazes, active metal
brazes that react chemically with the ceramics to form wettable conditions on
their surfaces and, thus, do not require prior modification of the ceramic
surface. However, the service temperatures achievable with the common
active brazes that are on Ag-Cu matrices are low. The Ni brazes with active
additives, such as Cr, have been considered as refractory alternatives.
The ceramic joining technologies used today (few of which have been
developed specifically for this class of materials) range from simple
mechanical attachment such as the compression fit used in spark plugs,
figure 2a, through to liquid phase processes such as adhesive bonding and
brazing. The thermal protection system for the space shuttle uses
adhesives, and the ceramic turbocharger rotor uses brazing, figure 2b.

Figure 2. (a) Spark plugs manufactured using compression fitting and (b) turbocharger
rotor assemblies made from silicon nitride
 4. Welding
A. Thermal welding
Electron welding: Electrons are applied to a joining compund that is activated by
their presence. Strong, but very costly.
Heat welding: Simple hot gas welding. Very easy, but not as strong. Can deform
some composites.

B. Electromagnetic welding: Less common

Induction: Passes a magnetic field through a material, creating heat and thus a
weld
Resistance welding: A metal insert is trapped between two composites, and then
heated by induction, creating a weld at that location.
C. Ultrasonic welding:
Ultrasonic joining has been used for ceramic/metal combinations such as
alumina/aluminium, alumina/stainless steel, zirconia/steel and glass ceramic
(cordierite-based)/copper. Typical applications include batteries, thread guides,
textile cutting equipment and heavy duty electrical fuses.
Advantages: very fast joining times (less than one second), the fact that surface
preparation is not critical (contrary to almost every other ceramic joining process)
and the lack of melting and intermetallic formation. However, to join hard metals
such as steel, soft, deformable interlayers are needed.
Disadvantage: only films or thin sheets of metal can be joined to a ceramic.
 Ultrasonic joining requires a transducer assembly operating at about
20kHz (the source of the ultrasound) coupled to a sonotrode. The
sonotrode tip is placed in contact, usually under a clamping load of 1-
10Nmm-2, with the workpiece. The heat generated is localised at the
interface, creating a temperature of up to 600°C when using aluminium
interlayers.

The bonding mechanism relies on the vibratory shear stress of the metal
exceeding its elastic limit, coupled with the breakdown of surface oxide films
exposing atomically clean metal. The clamping force exerts plastic
deformation on the metal, which increases the interfacial contact between the
metal and ceramic. Mechanical keying then occurs across the interface and
the joint is formed, perhaps along with some chemical interactions.
 D. Friction welding
Friction welding: Pieces are put one against each other, heated up and pressed.
The material then cools under pressure and bonds together. Limited in application
to round profiles.
Friction Stir Welding:
The range of applications is limitless.
Patented in 1991 by TWI
- Joining without melting
- Commercial and military users
(aerospace, automotive, marine transportation

Problem: limited to soft metals

Although geometry limited, friction welding has been shown to be extremely

effective in the joining of particulate-reinforced aluminum.
Designing with composite

• A composite materials usually are more expensive on a

cost.
• Used when weight saving is possible when the relevant
specific property (property/density) of the composite is
better than conventional material
• E.g. specific strength (strength/density), specific
elastic modulus ( elastic modulus/density)
• Efficient use of composite can be achieved by tailoring
the material for the application
• E.g., to achieve max. strength in one direction in a
fibrous composite, the fibers should be well aligned in
that direction
46
 • If composite is subjected to tensile loading,
important design criterion is the tensile strength in
the loading direction
• Under compression loading, failure by buckling
become important.

Fatigue behavior:
• Steel- show an endurance limit or a stress below
which fatigue does not occur
• Composite-fatigue at low stress level because
fibrous composites may have many crack, which
can be growing simultaneously and propagate
through the matrix.
47
 COMPOSITE – DESIGN, MANUFACTURING, MATERIAL

• Design, e.g.:
- Integral or differential
- Monolithic and/or sandwich
- Frame-Stringer or Spar-Rips, etc.
• Design philosophy
- Safe life
- Fail safe
- damage tolerance • Process limitations
• Strength and stiffness requirements • Laminate quality:
• Static and dynamic analysis - Fiber volume fraction
• Further considerations: - Internal and external defects
- Inspection - Dimensions
- Repair procedure • Surface condition
- Lightning protection Design • Quantity
- Electrical grounding • Quality control
• Process qualification
• Costs
Interaction
• Material properties
• Semi-finished products
Material Manufacturing
• Environmental influences:
- Temperature
- Humidity
• Quality control
• U. Thomann
Availability 48
• Price
 Comparation (aerospace)
Composite Metal

Proof Tests
• Aircraft-specific specimens
• Demonstrate ultimate load or fatigue
capability
• Include defects, damage, Same as composite
environmental effects
Validate Design

Very little tests in case of

Material Tests special design features
• Generic specimens
• Determine material
data
• Understand No tests due to
deformations and standardized material and
failure modes long-term experience
Establish Design

49
 Composite Materials
SAFETY FACTORS
• Safety factors impose constraints on the design of
structures
• Cardinal rules for the choice of safety factors are no failure
at ultimate loads and no yield at limit loads
• In composite construction the rational for selecting safety
factors is different from that for metal construction because
the quality of a composite structure is influenced by many
factors
 condition and handling of the raw materials
 Peculiarities of the curing process
 volume and distribution of fibers
 environmental conditions