SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

CHAPTER 2

1
Topics Discussed
 The Hallmarks of Science
 The Building Blocks of Science and
Hypothetico-Deductive Method of Research
 The Seven Steps of the Hypothetico-
Deductive Method
 Other types of Research
- Case studies
- Action research

2
The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
 The Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be listed
as follows:

1. Purposiveness 5. Precision
2. Rigor 6. Objectivity

3. Testability 7. Generalizability

4. Replicability 8. Parsimony

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The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
We will explain each of these
characteristics in the context of the
following example:
Consider the case of a manager who is
interested in investigating how
employees’ commitment to the
organization can be increased.

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Purposiveness .1
 The manager has started the research with a
definite aim or purpose.
 The focus is on increasing the commitment of
employees to the organization, as this will be a
beneficial in many ways.
 An increase in employee commitment will
translate into less turnover, less absenteeism,
and increased performance levels, all of
which would definitely benefit the organization.

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Rigor .2
 A good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design would add
rigor to a purposive study.
 Rigor means carefulness, and the
degree of exactitude in research
investigations.

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In the case of our example of increasing
:the commitment of employees
 Let us say that the manager of an
organization asks 10 of its employees to
indicate what would increase their level of
commitment to the organization.
 If the manager depends solely on the basis of
their responses reaches to several
conclusions on how employee commitment
can be increased, the whole approach to
the investigation would be unscientific.
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An approach to an investigation
would lack rigor for the following
:reasons
1. Incorrect conclusions because they are based on the
responses of just a few employees (lacks of
methodological sophistication).
2. the manner of framing and addressing the questions
could have introduced bias in the responses (lacks of
methodological sophistication).
3. There might be many other important influences on
organizational commitment that this small sample did
not verbalize during the interviews, and the researcher
would have failed to include them (lacks of a good
theoretical framework).
Conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a good
theoretical framework and methodological
sophistications would be unscientific.

8
Testability .3
 After taking random selection of employees of the
organization, and the study of previous research
done of the area of organizational commitment, the
researcher develops certain hypotheses on how
employee commitment can be enhanced. Then these
hypotheses can be tested by applying certain
statistical tests to the data collected for the
purpose.
 Scientific research tends itself to testing
logically developed hypotheses to see whether or
not the data support the hypotheses that are
developed.

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Replicability .4
 The results of the tests of hypotheses
should be supported again and
again when the same type of research
is repeated in other similar
circumstances.
 If the results are repeated, we will gain
confidence in the scientific nature of our
research.
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Precision and Confidence .5
 Precision refers to the closeness of the
findings to reality based on a sample.
 Precision reflects the degree of
accuracy of the results on the basis of
the sample, to what really exists in the
universe.

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Precision and Confidence
 In business research, we are not able to
draw “definitive” conclusions on the basis
of the results of data analysis. The reasons
are:
1. We have to base our findings on a sample
that we draw from the universe. The
sample may not reflect the exact
characteristics of the phenomenon we try to
study.
2. Measurement errors and other problems are
bound to introduce an error in our findings.
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Precision and Confidence
 We would like to design the research in
a manner that ensures that our
findings are as close to reality as
possible, so that we can place
reliance or confidence in the
results.

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Precision and Confidence
 Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
 It is not enough to be precise, but it is also
important that we can confidently claim that
95% of the time our results would be true and
there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.
This is also known as confidence level.
 The greater the precision and confidence we
aim at in our research, the more scientific is
the investigation and the more useful are the
results.

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objectivity .6
 The conclusions drawn through the
interpretation of the results of data analysis
should be objective.
 The conclusions should be based on the facts
of the findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
 The more objective the interpretation of the
data, the more scientific the research
investigation becomes.

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Generalizability .7
 Generalizability refers to the scope of
applicability of the research findings in
one organizational setting to other
settings.
 The wider the range of applicability
of the solutions generated by research,
the more useful the research is to the
users.
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Parsimony .8
 Parsimony refers to simplicity in explaining
the phenomena or problems that occur, and
in generating solutions for the problems.
 Economy in research models is achieved when
we can build into our research framework a
lesser number of variables that would
explain the variance far more efficiently than
a complex set of variables that would only
marginally add to the variance explained.

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Parsimony
 Parsimony can be introduced with a
good understanding of the problem and
the important factors that influence it.
 A good conceptual theoretical
model can be realized through
interviews with the concerned people,
and a thorough literature review of
the previous research work in the
particular problem area.
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Deduction and Induction

 Deductive reasoning: application of a

general theory to a specific case.
 Hypothesis testing

 Inductive reasoning: a process where

we observe specific phenomena and on
this basis arrive at general conclusions.
 Counting white swans

 Both inductive and deductive processes

are often used in research.
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Example 2.1
 A sales manager might observe that
customers are perhaps not pleased as they
used to be. The manager may not be certain
that this is really the case but may
experience anxiety and some uneasiness that
customer satisfaction is on the decline.
 This process of observation or sensing of
the phenomena around us is what gets most
of the research- whether applied or basic-
started.
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Example 2.1 (cont.)
 The next step is to determine whether there is a
real problem, and if so, how serious it is. This
problem identification calls for some
preliminary data gathering.
 The manager might talk to a few customers to
find out how they feel about the products and
customer service. The manager might find that
the customers like the products but are upset
because many of the times the product is out of
stock, and they perceive the salesperson as not
being helpful.

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Example 2.1 (cont.)
 From discussions with some of the
salespersons, the manager might
discover that the factory does not
supply the goods on time. Salespersons
might also indicate that they try to
please the customers by communicating
the delivery dates given to them by the
factory.
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Example 2.1 (cont.)
 Integration of the information obtained
through the informal and formal
interviewing process has helped the
manager to determine that the problem
does exist.
 It also helps the manager to formulate
a conceptual model or theoretical
framework of all the factors contributing
to the problem.
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Example 2.1 (cont.)
 Thus, the following factors contribute to
the problem:
 Delays by the factory in delivering goods
 The notification of later delivery dates that are
not kept
 The promises of the salespersons to the
customers that cannot be fulfilled
All of these factors contribute to customer
dissatisfaction.
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The hypothetico-Deductive
Method

Theseven steps involved in the
hypothetico-deductive method of
research stem from the building blocks discussed
above and listed below:
1. Identify a broad problem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data

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Identify a broad problem area
 If the manager notice a drop in sales,
incorrect accounting results, low-
yielding investment, disinterestedness
of employees in their work, and the
like, could attract the attention of the
manager to do a research project.

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Define the problem statement
• Scientific research starts with a
definite aim or purpose.
• A problem statement states the
general objective of the research.

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Develop hypotheses
 The network of associations between the
problem and the variables that affect it is
identified.
 A scientific hypothesis must meet two
requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can
only prove our hypotheses until they are
disproved).
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Determine measures
 The variables in the theoretical framework
should be measurable in some way.
 Some variables can not be measure
quantitatively, such as unresponsive
employees, we need to operationalize this
variable.
 Measurement of variables is discussed in Chs.
6 and 7.

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Data collection
 Data with respect to each variable in
the hypothesis need to be obtained.
 There are two types of data:
- Quantitatative data
- Qualitative data

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Data Analysis
 In this step, the data gathered are
statistically analyzed to see if the
hypotheses that were generated have
been supported.
 Analyses of both quantitative and
qualitative data can be done to
determine if certain relations are
important.
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Data Analysis
 Qualitative data refer to information
gathered through interviews and
observations. These data usually for objects
than can not be physically measured, like
feelings and attitudes.
 Quantitative data refer to information
gathered about objects that can be physically
measured. The researcher could obtain these
data through the company records,
government statistics, or any formal records.
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Interpretation of data
 Now we must decide whether our
hypotheses are supported or not by
interpreting the meaning of the results
or the data analysis.
 Based on these results, the researcher
would make recommendations in
order to solve the problem in hand.

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Example 2.2 of the Application of
the Hypothetico-Deductive
Method
 Observation of the CIO Dilemma
The Chief Information Officer (CIO) of a
firm observes that the newly installed
Management Information System (MIS)
is not being used by middle managers as
much as was originally expected.
“There is surely a problem here,” the
CIO exclaims.
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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Information Gathering through Informal
Interviews
- Talking to some of the middle-level
managers, the CIO finds that many of
them have very little idea as to what
MIS is all about, what kinds of
information it could provide, and how to
access it and utilize the information.
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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Obtaining More Information through
Literature Survey
- The CIO immediately uses the Internet to
explore further information on the lack of use of MIS
in organizations.
- The search indicates that many middle-level
managers are not familiar with operating personal
computers.
- Lack of knowledge about what MIS offers is also
found to be another main reason why some
managers do not use it.

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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Formulating a Theory
- based on all this information, the CIO
develops a theory incorporating all
the relevant factors contributing to the
lack of access to the MIS by managers
in the organization.

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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Hypothesizing
From such a theory, the CIO generates
various hypotheses for testing, one
among them being:
- Knowledge of the usefulness of MIS
would help managers to put it to
greater use.

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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Data Collection
The CIO then develops a short questionnaire on the
various factors theorized to influence the use of the MIS
by managers, such as:
- The extent of knowledge of what MIS is
- What kinds of information MIS provides
- How to gain access to the information
- The level of comfort felt by managers in using
computers in general
- How often managers have used the MIS in the
preceding 3 months.

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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Data Analysis
The CIO then analyzes the data
obtained through the questionnaire to
see what factors prevent the managers
from using the system.

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Example 2.2 (cont.)
 Interpretation of data
Based on the results, the manager deduces or
concludes that managers do not use MIS owing
to certain factors.
• These deductions help the CIO to take necessary
actions to solve the problem, which might
include, among other things:
- Organizing seminars for training managers on
the use of computers, and
- MIS and its usefulness.
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Other Types of Research
 Case studies, and
 Action research
Are sometimes used to study certain
types of issues.

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Case Studies
 Case studies involve in-depth analyses
of similar situations in other
organizations, where the nature and
definition of the problem is the same as
experienced in the current situation.
 If a particular hypothesis has not been
supported even in a single other case
study, the researcher could ignore that
hypothesis.
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Case Studies
 Case studies are not often undertaken
in organizations because:
1. It is very seldom to find similar
problems happened in an organizations
of the same size and same type of
setting.
2. Many companies prefer to guard their
problems and their data.
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Action Research
 Action research is sometimes
undertaken by consultants who want to
initiate change processes in
organizations.
 Action research methodology is most
appropriate while effecting planned
changes.

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Action Research
 The researcher begins with a problem that is
already identified, and gathers relevant data
to provide a tentative problem solution.
 This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintended
consequences following such implementation.
 The effects are then evaluated, defined, and
diagnosed, and the research continues on an
ongoing basis until the problem is fully
resolved.
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VISIT THE LIBRARY
 Zeithaml, V., Berry, L. and Parasuraman
A. (1996). “The behavioral
consequences of service quality”.
Journal of Marketing, 60(2), 31.

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