Hallmarks of Research Chapter2

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
The hallmarks or main distinguishing

characteristics of scientific research may be
listed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision and Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony
Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1.
Purposiveness
It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
The focus is on increasing employee
commitment.
Increase employee commitment will translate
into less turnover, less absenteeism and
increased performance levels.
Thus it has a purposive focus.
2. Rigor
A good theoretical base and sound methodological design
would add rigor to the purposive study.
Rigor adds carefulness
Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level
of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the
manager reaches several conclusions on how employee
commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for
the following reasons:
Based on few employees

2. Bias and incorrectness
3. There might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a researcher
to know
Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and
thought out methodology.
These factors enable the researcher to collect the right
kind of information from an appropriate sample with
the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable
analysis of the data gathered.
1.
3. Testability
After random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how manager
employee commitment can be enhanced, then
these can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purpose.
The researcher might hypothesize that
those employees who perceive greater
opportunities for participation in
decision making would have a higher
level of commitment.
4. Replicability
It means that it can be used again if similar
circumstances prevails.
Example:
The study concludes that participation in
decision making is one of the most important
factors that influences the commitment, we will
place more faith and credence in these finding
and apply in similar situations. To the extent
that this does happen, we will gain confidence
in the scientific nature of our research.
Confidence
Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,
but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our
results would be true and there is only a 5%
chance of our being wrong.
This is also known as confidence level.
6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
the results of data analysis should be objective; that
is, they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our subjective
or emotional values.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater
participation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment and this was not supported
by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher
continues to argue that increased opportunities for
employee participation would still help!
7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the research
findings in one organization setting to other settings.
Example: If a researchers finding that participation
in decision making enhances organizational
commitment are found to be true in a variety of
manufacturing, industrial and service organizations,
and not merely in the particular organization
studied by the researcher, then the generalizability
of the findings to other organizational settings is
enhanced. The more generalizable the research, the
greater its usefulness and value.
8. Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are
identified, which when changed would raise the
organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that
would be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it
were recommended that he should change 10 different
variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%.
The Building Blocks of Science in

Research
Deduction and Inductions

Answers to issues can be found
either by the process of
deduction or the process of
induction, or by a combination
of the two.
Deduction (Top-Down)
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a

reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact. Quantitative research
Example: we know that all high performers are highly

proficient in their jobs.
If Ahmad is a high performer, we then conclude that
he is highly proficient in his job
Induction
Induction is a process where we observe certain

phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
In other words, in induction we logically

establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
The Building Blocks of Science
Observation
Observation is the first stage, in which
one senses that certain changes are
occurring or that some new behaviors,
attitudes and feelings are surfacing in
ones environment (i.e., the work
place).
Preliminary Information Gathering:

It involves the seeking of information in depth, of
what is observed.
This could be done by talking informally to several
people in the work setting or to clients or to other
relevant sources, thereby gathering information on
what is happening and why. (Unstructured
interviews)
Then it is followed by structured interviews.
Additionally by doing library research or obtaining
information through other sources, the investigator
would identify how such issues have been tackled
in other situations.
Theory Formulation (Theoretical

Framework)
It is an attempt to integrate all the
information in a logical manners, so that the
factors responsible for the problem can be
on conceptualized and tested.
The theoretical framework formulated is
often guided by experience and intuition.
In this step the critical variables are
identified and examined as to their
contribution or influence in explaining why
the problem occurs and how it can be
solved.
Hypothesizing
It is the next logical step after theory
formulation.
From the theorized network of associations
among the variables, certain testable
hypotheses or educated conjectures
(assumptions) can be generated.
Hypothesis testing is called deductive
research.
Further Specific Data Collection

After the development of the
hypotheses, data with respect
to each variable in the
hypotheses need to be
obtained.
Further data are collected to
test the hypotheses that are
generated in the study.
Data Analysis
Data gathered are statistically analyzed
to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
Co relational method will be used to
analyze and determine the relation ship
of two or more factors in the
hypotheses for example: stock
availability and customer satisfaction.
Deduction
Deduction is the process of
arriving at conclusions by
interpreting the meaning of
results of the data analysis.
Other Types of Research
1.
2.
Case studies and action research

are sometimes used to study
certain types of issues.
Case Studies
Action Research
Case Studies
It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an

individual person, a couple, a group, or an
organization .
It is an intensive description and analysis of a case.
The examples could be a case study of a highly
successful organization, a project (Orangi Pilot
Project, Karachi), a group, a couple, a teacher, and a
patient.
Action Research
Those who are being
studied
participate in research process;
research incorporates popular
knowledge; focus on power with
goal of empowerment increase
awareness; tied to political action.

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Hallmarks of Research Chapter2

Uploaded by

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The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

The hallmarks or main distinguishing

Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Based on few employees

The Building Blocks of Science in

Deduction and Inductions

Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a

Example: we know that all high performers are highly

Induction is a process where we observe certain

In other words, in induction we logically

The Building Blocks of Science

Preliminary Information Gathering:

Theory Formulation (Theoretical

Further Specific Data Collection

Other Types of Research

Case studies and action research

It is an in-depth analysis of a unit which could be an

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