Unit 2

BASIC AERODYNAMICS
INTRODUCTION
• Earth-75% Water & 100% Air
• Presence of atmosphere
• Everything that moves is affected by atmospheric air
• Generation of forces & moments
• Different types of forces
AIRCRAFTS
• Forces-Lift, Drag, Thrust & Weight
• Weight-Downward Force-Pulls the Aircraft downward
• Thrust-Forward Force -Propels the aircraft forward
• Lift- Upward force-Against Weight or gravity
• Drag-Rearward Force-Resists forward motion
• Aerodynamic modification- Streamlined body
• Benefits- Induces High Lift & Low drag
ROCKETS
• High friction at high speeds
• Huge heat dissipation
• Generation of Bow shock wave
• Aerodynamic modification- Streamlined but rounded and blunt nose cone
• Benefits- Reduces aerodynamic heating
CARS
• Generation of lift & drag
• Lift-Negative Direction
• Drag-Reduction
• Aerodynamic modification- Rear spoiler
• Benefits- Enhances performance, safety and efficiency
Drag Reduction

• Highly streamlined bodyline-Aerodynamic Shaping

• Proper Fairings
• Better Fuel Economy and range
Winglets for Sports Bikes
TRUCKS
• Box type construction
• Large projected area
• High drag-Increased fuel consumption
• Aerodynamic modification -Front & side fairings
• Benefits-Reduced fuel consumption upto 20 %
 APPLICATION AERODYNAMIC EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC
FORCES AERODYNAMICS MODIFICATIONS

AIRCRAFTS Lift •High Lift •Streamlined Structure

Drag •Low Drag •Pointed Nose

ROCKETS Drag •Minimizing Aerodynamic •Rounded Nose

Heating •Streamlined Structure
•Low Drag

CARS Lift •Negative Lift •Streamlined

Drag •Reduce Drag •Wing Spoilers

TRUCKS Drag •Minimize Drag •Fairings

EXAMPLES
• Aircrafts
• Helicopters
• Rockets
• Missiles
• Automobiles
• Tall Rise Buildings
• Soccer and Golf Balls etc.
WHY AERODYNAMICS?
• Aerodynamic Forces-Lift & Drag
• Aerodynamics- study of dynamics of air and their interaction with solid bodies
• Describe the actual flow pattern
• Determination of aerodynamic force and moments
• Design of highly efficient aerodynamic bodies
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• To understand fluid behaviour for different conditions of flow
• Parameters that define the behaviour of a fluid
• Qualitative & Quantitative analysis
• Helps in developing solutions to various engineering problems involving fluids
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Density
• Viscosity
• Velocity etc.
 WING PLANFORM GEOMETRY

• Wing span
• Wing area
• Chord c
• Aspect ratio AR
• Wing sweep
• Dihedral & Anhedral
angle
 Fig: Swept Back & Forward Swept Wing
Fig: Constant Chord Wing & Tapered wing Configurations

Fig: Low, Moderate and High Aspect Ratio Wings

Fig: Illustration of Dihedral and Anhedral angles

Fig: Sweep Angle Λ

AIRFOIL GEOMETRY OR AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE
Airfoil- Cross Section of a WING
2D Representation of a Wing

NOMENCLATURE OF AIRFOIL
• LEADING EDGE
• TRAILING EDGE
• CHORD LINE
• CHORD
• MEAN CAMBER LINE
• CAMBER
• THICKNESS
Types of Airfoils

• Symmetric Airfoil
• Cambered Airfoil
• Laminar Airfoil
• Supercritical Airfoil
• Reflex Airfoil
• Flat Bottom Airfoil
• Flat Trailing Edge Airfoil
• Low Reynolds Number Airfoil
NACA AIRFOILS

• Established 1915
• National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Types of NACA Airfoils
1. NACA 4 Series
2. NACA 5 Series
3. NACA 6 Series
4. NACA 7 Series
5. NACA 8 Series
6. NACA 16 Series
Other Airfoils

• CLARK Airfoils
• RAF Airfoils
• Jukowsky Airfoils
• Gottingen Airfoils
• NREL Airfoils
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
• First postulated by Swiss mathematician- Daniel Bernoulli
• Distinguished mathematician
• Bernoulli’s theorem-Important equation in fluid dynamics
• Establishes a very important relation between the velocity, pressure and the gravitational
potential energy.
• statement of conservation of energy principle
Assumptions
• Equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline
• Fluid velocity everywhere on the fluid is less than M=0.3, is V=90m/s
• Flow must be steady-Turbulent flows streamlines are messed up and not straight and laminar
anymore
• Friction, work done, heat transfer processes are neglected
STATEMENT OF BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE
• Bernoulli's principle states that “in a steady flow and along any given streamline, the total
mechanical energy of the fluid comprising of the pressure energy, the gravitational potential
energy and the kinetic energy remains constant".

Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy + Gravitational Potential Energy = Constant

1
P V 2  gh  Const
2
1 2 1 2
P1  V1  gh1  P2  V2  gh1
2 2
AV  Const
Centre of Pressure Cp
• Any object moving through a fluid will experience pressure forces all over its surface.
• The total effect of distributed pressure fields generated on the airfoil surface can be
represented by a single force called as the Resultant Force.

• The location of the resultant force should be such that, it produces the same force and
moment as produced by the distributed pressure field.

• The location on the chord of an airfoil where the resultant force act is called as the centre of
pressure.

• Another way of defining centre of pressure is the point where the aerodynamic moment is
zero.

• The location of centre of pressure is very important in aerodynamics. The resultant force
should be located on the body such that it produces the same effect as the distributed loads.
Significance of Cp
• Centre of pressure does not remain at a fixed location on the chord of the airfoil, but keeps
varying with angle of attack .
Derivation for Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

• Consider an airfoil moving through air

• Resultant forces due to distributed forces

• Resultant R can be split into different components w r t chord and free stream velocity
• N=Normal Force-Component of R perpendicular to Chord c
• A=Axial Force-Component of R parallel to Chord c
• Similarly,
• L=Lift Force-Component of R perpendicular to AoA α
• D=Drag Force-Component of R parallel to AoA α
• Derive forces on a 2D body
• From figure, find the elemental normal and axial forces acting on the elemental surface dS

• The Primes on N and A denote force per unit span

• Similarly on the lower surface, the forces are

• The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating the equations 3 to 6 from leading edge to
trailing edge
• In turn to get the total lift and drag per unit span equation 7 and 8 to be substituted in equation 1 and 2.
To find aerodynamic moments
• The moments per unit span on the upper surface of the elemental area ds is

• Similarly, the moment on bottom surface is

• Integrating equation 9 and 10 from LE to TE we get the equation for moment about
the LE per unit span
Lift and Drag Forces
• Lift can be defined as the component of the resultant aerodynamic force perpendicular to the
free stream air or free stream velocity .
1
L  * v 2 * S * Cl
2
• Drag is defined as the component of the resultant aerodynamic force parallel and opposite to
the free stream air or free stream velocity .
1
D  * v 2 * S * Cd
2
AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
• Major objective of aerodynamics – determine lift, drag, moments etc
• Few more quantities are important-AERODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS

• Aerodynamic coefficients for a force can be defined as the ratio of the aerodynamic force to
the free stream dynamic pressure and the characteristic area S.
• AD Coefficients are like Specifications for an airfoil-similar to Power, BHP in Automobiles
• Aerodynamic Coefficient Force
C
Dynamicpressure * Area

1 2
q    v
2
• Lift coefficient L
CL 
q S

L
CL 
1
  v 2 S
2
2L
CL  2
  v S
• Drag coefficient
D
CD 
q S

D
CD 
1
  v 2 S
2

2D
CD 
  v 2 S
Numericals
• A Boeing 777 airplane has a wing planform area of 427m2. Assuming a take-off weight of
22500kN and a take-off velocity of 71.5m/s, calculate the lift coefficient at the take-off for
standard sea level conditions and also when the airplane is cruising at an altitude of 30,000ft
with a speed of M=0.83. Take density at 30,000ft as 0.40kg/m3.

S=427m2 1
L V 2 C L S
W=22500kN 2
V=71.5m/s CL 
L
CL sea Level=? 1
V 2 S
2
CL 30,000ft=? L
(C L ) Take Off 
1
V 2 S
2

22500
(C L ) Take Off 
1
* 1.23 * (71.5) 2 * 427
2

(C L ) Take Off  1.67

Find the Coefficient of Lift CL at 30,000 feet
V
M
a
V
0.83 
332
V  282.2m / s
L
(C L ) 30, 000 
1
V 2 S
2
22500
(C L ) 30,000 
1
* 1.23 * (282.2) 2 * 427
2

(C L ) 30, 000  0.264

• An aircraft has an effective wing area of 78m2. It is in level flight at a speed of 750km/h at an
altitude where the density is 0.467kg/m3. If the weight of the aircraft is 495kN, find the
coefficient of lift for the wing section. If the coefficient of drag is 10% of the CL, then
determine the thrust required for level flight.
L
S=78m2 CL 
1
V=750kmph=208.33m/s V 2 S
2
Ρ=0.467kg/m3
495
W=495kN CL 
1
CL=? 2
* 0.467 * 208.33 2 * 78
CD=10%CL
T=? C L  0.626
C D  10%C L

C D  0.1 * 0.626

C D  0.0626
 D
CD 
1
V 2 S
2

D
0.0626 
1
* 0.467 * 208.33 2 * 78
2

D  49483.3N

D  4948kN

But in a level flight, L=W and D=T

Therefore,
T  49483.3 N
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF AERODYNAMIC DRAG

TYPES OF DRAG
• Parasite drag
• Lift induced drag
• Profile drag
• Interference drag
• Form drag or pressure drag
• Skin friction drag
• Wave drag & Ram Drag
• Induced Drag
• Form Drag or Pressure Drag

Fig : Generation of form drag from tires and its reduction using faring on the undercarriage
• Skin Friction Drag/Viscous Drag

• Profile Drag
• The sum of skin friction drag and form drag is known as profile drag.

• Interference Drag
• Parasitic Drag
• Combination of profile drag (skin friction + from drag) and interference drag.

• Wave Drag and Ram Drag

• Drag due to shock formation at supersonic speeds

Total Aerodynamic Drag = Parasite Drag + Induced Drag

Flow Over a Symmetrical Airfoil

Flow Over a Cambered Airfoil