How The Ideas of The Atom, Along With The Idea of The Elements Evolved

HOW THE IDEAS OF THE ATOM, ALONG
WITH THE IDEA OF THE ELEMENTS

EVOLVED
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
HOW THE IDEAS OF THE ATOM, ALONG WITH THE
IDEA OF THE ELEMENTS EVOLVED
Learning Competencies 5 to 14
The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

1. The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom
2. The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic
Particles
3. Understanding the Structure of Atom: The Contributions of J.J.
Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr
4. The Nuclear Model of the Atom
5. The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements
6. The Contributions of the Alchemists to the Science of
Chemistry
7. The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements
8. The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New
Elements
9. Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements: The
Contributions of John Dalton
The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom
Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher

Leucippus of Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were Greek scholars who
believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles until
such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They
became the first proponents of the atomic theory.
1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called

atoms, which come from the Greek word atomos meaning
uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and
unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously
moving in a “void” that surrounds them, repelling each other
when they collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no
void or empty space inside that will make them prone to
disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal
structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms.
He disregarded the existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus
and Democritus.
He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms. Instead,

he believed that everything in the universe is made up of the
four elements, air, fire, water, and earth. He stated that
believing in atoms would mean putting restriction on the gods,
who have the power to divide elements smaller than the atom.
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages
in Europe, where Roman Catholics were strongly influenced by
his ideas. They believed that ideas about the atoms equated to
Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was
dismissed for centuries.
However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's

arguments were rediscovered in France at the start of the
Renaissance period. The theory of Aristotle was proven
incorrect, and Democritus' and Leucippus' theory on the
existence of atoms was proven right.
The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom
and its Subatomic Particles
What is the structure of the atom?
Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed
the idea that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles
called atoms (atomos). However, their atomic theory was
based only on assumptions. It was not until the early 1800s that
experiments were performed to develop models for the
structure of the atom.
What is the structure of the atom?
In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on
mixtures of gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of
the particles making up different gases must be different. After
several experiments, he concluded that all matter is
composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken down
into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of one element are
identical to each other but different from the atoms of another
element.
The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model
In 1897, Joseph John
Thomson, a British physicist,
proposed an atomic model
known as the plum pudding
model. His model consisted of
negatively charged particles
(plum) spread evenly
throughout the positively
charged material (pudding). The
small, negatively charged
particles are called electrons.
The Protons in the Planetary Model
In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born
physicist, established the planetary model which described
the atom as small, dense, and has a positively charged core
called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged
particles called the protons. The nucleus is surrounded by
negatively charged particles or electrons. The electrostatic
attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the
gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.
The Neutrons
In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the
neutron, which is also situated in the nucleus together with
the proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike the
latter, it has no electric charge.
Bohr’s Atomic Model
Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus
have opposite charges which according to the laws of physics,
will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would have
electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom
unstable. Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that
the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels. An
electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher
energy level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower
energy level.
Quantum Mechanical Model
The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a
nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons called orbitals.
It explains that it is impossible to determine the exact location
of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable
location. It incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where
the electrons move in one orbital to another by absorbing or
emitting energy.
Understanding the Structure of Atom: The Contributions of J.J.
J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a
series of experiments using a high-vacuum cathode-ray tube
that was composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times
lighter than the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of
positive charge for the overall neutrality of the atom. He then
proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model
depicting a sphere of positive charge (pudding) with negatively
charged particles (plums) embedded all throughout.
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing
positively charged particles called protons. He advised his
students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to bombard a thin
sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha
particles would just pass straight through the foil, meaning an
atom has a void space.
Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

However, after the experiment, some particles passed right
through it, and some were deflected. He arrived at these two
conclusions:
1) The atom contained an empty space, as some particles went
through the foil; and
2) The atom had a very dense center of positive charge.
From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He

believed that the electrons moved around a nucleus.
Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use
of X-ray in studying the structure of the atom. During this time, a
coherent structure of the atom was being developed, starting
from J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s
publication of his planetary model. He published results of his
measurements of wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some
elements that coincided with the order of their atomic numbers.
Moseley’s experimental data backed up Rutherford’s
structure of the atom with a very dense center of positive
charge. The data also justified that the atomic number of an
element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.
Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In
Rutherford’s model, since the electron and the nucleus have
opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus,
making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by
proposing that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or
orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.
The Nuclear Model of the Atom
The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that
the nucleus is small, dense, and
located at the center of the
atom. It contains protons and
neutrons. Overall, it is positively
charged. It contains nearly all
the mass of the atom. The
electrons orbit around it. The
nuclear model has been
deduced from the experiment
done by Rutherford.
Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and
Ernest Marsden, an undergraduate student, shot a narrow beam
of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil and measured the
scattering pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was observed that
some particles deflected, and others penetrated through the sheet
of gold foil.
Geiger-Marsden Experiment
There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the
positively charged alpha particles by a positively charged material. If
this charge existed in a sphere with the same size of the atom, the
force should have been weak. This led to the assumption that the
charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the
atom were concentrated in a small part of the total volume of the
atom called the nucleus.
The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements
What are the primordial substances from which everything is made up of?
Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the this question. Some

of them believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus
supposed it was fire; Thales believed that it was water; and
Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, are
the primordial substances. He called them roots.
Plato first used the term element. The word element came from
the Greek word “στοιχεῖον” (stoicheion) which means smallest
division.
Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named them
Platonic solids. Air was an octahedron; fire was a tetrahedron;
water was an icosahedron; and earth was a cube. He also added a
fifth one, a dodecahedron, which was the shape of the Universe.
Aristotle, a student of Plato,

described each element with two
qualities. He stated that air was wet
and hot; fire was hot and dry; water
was wet and cold; and earth was dry
and cold. He then added a fifth
element, aether. He thought aether
was the finest of all substances
associated with the heavenly realm.
It was neither hot nor cold and was
neither wet nor dry.
The Contributions of the Alchemists to the
Science of Chemistry
How did alchemy evolve into the science of chemistry?
Long before the fundamentals of chemistry were established, there
was alchemy. Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of
finding the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone, which could
transform base metals into gold.
Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and

Europe.
Asian Alchemy
Alchemy developed independently in India. Major accomplishments
of Indian alchemists included isolation of metallic zinc, the invention
of steel, and use of flame to identify metals.
In China, alchemy was started by monks. The creation of gold was

an aim, but the ultimate goal was prolonging life. While trying to
find the elixir of life, the Chinese were able to invent gunpowder.
Also, through their experiments with sulfur, mercury, and arsenic,
they were able to create poisons such as mercuric sulfide.
Asian Alchemy
In Baghdad, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, a famous Islamic alchemist, used
controlled experiments in his investigations. He was diligent in
writing his activities and observations. His works were the first to
mention silver nitrate and red oxide of mercury (mercuric oxide).
His writings also described a handful of laboratory techniques —
distillation, crystallization, reduction, calcination, dissolution, and
sublimation.
Egyptian Alchemy
Alchemy probably evolved from the Egyptian metallurgy, extending
back to 3500 B.C. Some of the Egyptian documents on alchemy
contained manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. They also
contained recipes for dyes and procedures for making artificial
gemstones and fabricating pearls. The recipes and procedures were
combined with the knowledge of the classical elements, air, fire,
water, and earth.
European Alchemy
Alchemy also thrived in Europe. One of the foremost alchemists
was Paracelsus, who believed that the organs of the body worked
alchemically. He proposed that the three essentials or tria prima,
salt, mercury, and sulfur, should be balanced to maintain health. He
also treated diseases with alchemical approach. He used inorganic
salts, minerals, and metals to treat illnesses. He also created
laudanum, an opium tincture used as a painkiller.
The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry
As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and

more cryptic. They used unintelligible names for substances. They
borrowed symbols and words from myths. Even the simplest
formula read like a magic spell. Even though they used common
techniques, alchemists had no standardized scientific practice.
The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry
By the 17th century, alchemy began to decline, as the scientific
method was being established. Although alchemists failed in their
lofty goals, they left behind a rich knowledge of chemical
information. They contributed to the vast uses of chemicals such as
inks, paints, and cosmetics. They were able to create procedures to
prepare liquors. They developed porcelain material that became
China’s most valuable commodity. Their contributions had been
valuable to advancing civilization.
Nonetheless, alchemy had been crucial in the development of the
field of Chemistry.
The Atomic Number and the Synthesis
of New Elements
Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley
was an English physicist who
demonstrated that the atomic
number, the number of
protons in an atom,
determines most of the
properties of an element. He
began his study of radioactivity
in Ernest Rutherford’s
laboratory but later decided
to explore more on X-rays.
of New Elements
In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the arrangement of the
elements in the Periodic table based on their atomic numbers. He
used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an
element. He bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements
and measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed
that frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was
mathematically related to the position of that element in the
Periodic table. The frequency is proportional to the charge of the
nucleus, or the atomic number.
of New Elements
When the elements were arranged according to their atomic
numbers, there were four gaps in the table. These gaps
corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These
elements were later synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear
transmutations.
of New Elements
Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the transformation
of one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded
alpha particles from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He
showed that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to the alpha particles to
form an oxygen nuclei.
of New Elements
Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively
charged, so they tend to repel each other. Therefore, instead of
using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements,
atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral
particles) in particle accelerators.
of New Elements
The Discovery of the Missing Elements
Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of
these elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle
accelerators.
A particle accelerator is a
device that is used to speed up the
protons to overcome the repulsion
between the protons and the
target atomic nuclei by using
magnetic and electrical fields. It is
used to synthesize new elements.
of New Elements
In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element
with atomic number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He
bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The
newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the
Greek word "technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-
made element.
of New Elements
In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered
element with atomic number 85. They bombarded atoms of
bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A
cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses alternating electric
field to accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the
presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from
the Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.
of New Elements
The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were
discovered through studies in radioactivity. Element-61
(Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission of
uranium while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a
breakdown product of uranium.
of New Elements
Synthesis of New Elements
In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an
atomic number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an
element having an atomic number 93 could be created. He used a
particle accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and
created an element with an atomic number 93 which he named
neptunium.
of New Elements
At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg,
McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with
deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a
cyclotron. Element-94 was named plutonium.
of New Elements
Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of
uranium) are called transuranium elements. Hence, neptunium
and plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable
and decay radioactively into other elements. All of these elements
were discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated
synthetic elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or
particle accelerators.
The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the
What happens during nuclear transmutation?
A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the
transformation of one element into another element. It happens
when a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle to produce a
more massive nucleus. It occurs only on special conditions such
as the collision of the target nuclei with a beam of particles with
high energies.
What happens during nuclear transmutation?
In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford.
He bombarded nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles to form oxygen
nuclei. In the next decades, other nuclear reactions were
discovered by bombarding other elements with alpha particles.
However, since these particles have a strong repulsive force with
the target nuclei (both are positively charged), the progress in
discovering elements was slow. Scientists then tried other particles
with higher energies. In 1932, major advancements in nuclear
reactions took place. Particle accelerators, which use a projectile
of high-energy particles, were invented.
Transuranium Elements
Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are
greater than 92. They are all unstable and undergo radioactive
decay. Many of the transuranium elements were prepared using
particle accelerators, and much of this work was facilitated by a
group of scientists led by the American chemist, Glenn Theodore
Seaborg, and later, nuclear scientist Albert Ghiorso in the
University of California.
Transuranium Elements
The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements
specifically in the lower members of the series (elements 93 to
95), was through nitrogen bombardment. As for the heavier
transuranium elements (96 to 101), they were generally prepared
with high-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons,
carbon nuclei, and ions.
Neptunium (Z = 93)
The first transuranium element was identified by Edwin McMillan
and Philip Abelson in 1940. It was named neptunium, bearing an
atomic number of 93. They acquired the radioactive isotope of
neptunium through the bombardment of uranium oxide with slow
neutrons.
Plutonium (Z = 94)
After the discovery of 239Np, the decay of this element led to the
discovery of another element, bearing an atomic number of 94.
Seaborg, together with McMillan, Wahl, and Kennedy bombarded
uranium with deuterons to form 238Np, with a half-life of two days,
which then decayed into 238Pu, with a half life of 92 days.
Nuclear Decay Reaction
Nuclear decay reaction, also known as radioactive decay, is a
reaction in which the nucleus emits radiation and transforms into
a new nucleus. The parent nuclei are unstable, and the resulting
daughter nuclei are more stable, having lower mass and energy.
Transuranium elements are unstable that they undergo radioactive
decay resulting in more stable elements.
The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of

transuranium elements are alpha decay, beta decay, and
spontaneous fission.
Alpha Decay
The alpha decay is a reaction that emits helium-4 nucleus or alpha
particle. This decay produces a daughter nucleus with an atomic
number reduced by two, and a mass number reduced by four
compared with the parent nucleus. Most nuclei with mass numbers
greater than 200 undergo this type of decay.
where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents

the parent nucleus, and Y represents the daughter nucleus.
Alpha Decay
For example, neptunium-237, the most abundant isotope of
neptunium, undergoes alpha decay to form protactinium-233.
Beta Decay
In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and emits an
electron in the form of a beta particle. The atomic number goes up
by one while its mass number remains the same.
Beta Decay
For example, curium-249 undergoes decay by beta particle
emission to form berkelium-249.
Spontaneous Fission
In spontaneous fission, the nucleus breaks into pieces into different
atomic numbers and mass numbers. This occurs in very massive
nuclei. For instance, californium-254 undergoes spontaneous
fission, making various sets of fission products.
Try it!
1. The alpha decay of Uranium-235
2. The alpha decay of Radium-226
3. The beta decay of Radium-228
4. The beta decay of Thorium-234
Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements:
The Contributions of John Dalton
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering
work in the development of the atomic theory. In his theory, he
proposed that elements differ due to the mass of their atoms.
1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses
but differ from another element’s.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each
other in a fixed, whole number ratio.
5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the
discovery of isotopes, subatomic particles, and nuclear
reactions. However, Dalton’s atomic theory has been widely
recognized because it became the foundation of the modern
concept of the atom.
Dalton's Table of Elements
Dalton published his atomic theory in New System of Chemical
Philosophy. Back then, he needed to propose a new set of standard
symbols for chemical elements because the Greeks' and
alchemists' symbols for elements were not supported by his
theory. He first published his table of elements according to
increasing relative atomic weights. The elements were hydrogen,
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. He assumed that
the atomic weight of hydrogen was one, and calculated the rest of
the elements' atomic weights based on hydrogen. After more
experiments, he listed 20 elements with different symbols and
atomic weights.
Law of Multiple Proportions
In 1806, French chemist Joseph Proust published his law of
definite proportions. This law states that a chemical compound is
formed by elements in fixed mass ratios. For example, carbon
monoxide (CO) is comprised of one carbon and one oxygen. By
mass, carbon monoxide can be described by the fixed ratio of
12:16 (mass of carbon:mass of oxygen), and simplified as 3:4.
Expanding on the work of Proust, Dalton developed the law of
multiple proportions. This law was based on Dalton's observations
of the reactions of atmospheric gases. It states that when two or
more elements can form multiple combinations, the ratio of the
elements in those compounds can be expressed in small, whole
numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen can combine to form
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In CO, the
ratio of carbon to oxygen is 1:1. It is a fixed ratio of whole
numbers. In CO2, the fixed ratio is 1:2.
Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms. He
published seventeen compounds in the New System of Chemical
Philosophy. He listed the compounds as binary, ternary, quaternary,
quinquenary, sextenary, and septenary.
A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two

atoms of azote (nitrogen) may combine to form a binary compound. A
ternary compound is formed by three atoms. For example, when one
atom of nitrogen combines with two atoms of oxygen, then the
resulting compound, nitrogen dioxide, is ternary. Similarly, quarternary
compounds are made of four atoms; quinquenary are made of five;
sextenary are made of six; and septenary are made of seven.
Dalton’s system of naming elements

and compounds were then replaced
with the chemical symbols and
formulae by Jons Berzelius. Berzelius’
symbols are the ones we use today.
QUIZ!!!
DA HU!
1. Who concluded that matter is of composed of spherical atoms which cannot

be broken down into smaller pieces?
2. Who proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels?
3. Who discovered the electrons?
4. Who added a fifth element?
5. Who established the planetary model of an atom?
6. Who proposed that air, fire, water and earth are the primordial substances?
7. Who used alchemical approach in treating diseases?
8. Who proved the existence of the neutron?
9. Who used X-ray in studying the structure of the atom?
10. Who developed the idea and assumed that matter is composed of tiny,
indivisible particles called atomos?
DA HU!
1. John Dalton
2. Niels Bohr
3. Joseph John Thomson
4. Aristotle
5. Ernest Rutherford
6. Empedocles
7. Paracelsus
8. James Chadwick
9. Henry Moseley
10. Democritus and Leucippus

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HOW THE IDEAS OF THE ATOM, ALONG

WITH THE IDEA OF THE ELEMENTS

The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

The Indivisible Atom

Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms. Instead,

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's

J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

The Nuclear Model

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the this question. Some

Aristotle, a student of Plato,

Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and

In China, alchemy was started by monks. The creation of gold was

As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and

The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of

where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents

A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two

Dalton’s system of naming elements

1. Who concluded that matter is of composed of spherical atoms which cannot

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