UNIT-1

Reciprocating Compressor

Asst. Prof Kunal Gadgil

 Syllabus Unit-1
• UNIT I : Reciprocating, Air Compressions :-
Industrial uses of compressed air
• Methods of compression and efficiencies of
compression
• Methods of reducing losses during compression
single and multistage of compressions
• clearance volume and its effect on work done and
volumetric efficiency
• condition for minimum work in tow stage
compression
• inter-cooling and its effects, Overall, isothermal
and adiabatic efficiencies
• IHP, BHP, requirements and after cooler
 Industrial Uses of Compressed Air
• Operating tools in factory exp; power tools wrenches etc
• Excavating tools
• Tunneling & mining
• Starting diesel engines & operating brakes an buses trucks
etc.
• Large quantity of air at moderate pressure for smelting of
metals,
• In Cupola works etc.
• Large quantity of air at moderate is also required for air
conditioning ,drying & ventilation fields. As pressure
requirement is low, only fans are enough. They provide
nessesary direction to the flow.
 Applications

Compressors have many everyday uses, such as in :

• Air conditioners, (car, home)

• Pneumatic devices

• Home and industrial refrigeration

• Hydraulic compressors for industrial machines

• Air compressors for industrial manufacturing

 Classification of Compressor
Compressor classification can be described by following flow chart:
 Classification of Compressor

• Air Pumps & Exhauster– Use to produce

Vacuum, removes air from enclosure and
create negative pressure inside it
• Blowers & Supercharger – These are
essentially air compressors with pressure ratio
0.7 to 1.05 bar
• Boosters – Raise the pressure of already
compressed air used when loss of pressure
occurred in a long delivery line.
Reciprocating compressor
Work done in reciprocating
compressor
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
Thus, comparison between the Isothermal Work and the Actual Work is important.
Isothermal Work
Isothermal Efficiency, ηiso =
Actual Work
Thus, more the Isothermal Efficiency, more the actual compression approaches to the
Isothermal Compression.
Actual Work = Wact = Area 4-1-2-3-4
3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C Wact = Area (4-1) – Area (1-2) – Area (2-3)
(Isothermal) P2V2  P1V1

PV  C  P1V1   P2V2
(Adiabatic)
n 1
 P V  P1V1 
4
PV n  C  P1V1  P2V2    2 2 
P1
1 (Polytropic)  n  1 
 PV  P2V2 
 P1V1  P2V2    1 1 
V2 V1  n 1 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 1 
Wiso  1   P1V1  P2V2 
 n 1 
 n 
3 2’ 2 2”   P1V1  P2V2 
P2 PV  C  n 1 
(Isothermal)
 n   P2V2 
PV   C   P1V1 1  
(Adiabatic)  n 1   P1V1 
PV n  C
P1V1  P2V2
n n
4 1 (Polytropic) Now,
P1
1/ n
V2  P1 
V2
   
V1 V1  P2 

 n  
 P2 P1 
1/ n


Wiso    P1V1 1    
 n  1   P1  P2  
 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 n   P  P 1/ n 
Wiso    P1V1 1  2  1  
 n 1   P1  P2  

 n   P  P   1/ n 
P2
3 2’ 2 2”
PV  C   P1V1 1  2  2  
(Isothermal)
 n 1   P1  P1  
PV   C  n 1

(Adiabatic)  n    P2   n
PV n  C Wiso   P1V1 1    
4 1 (Polytropic)  n 1    P1  
P1  
 n 1

V2 V1  n    P  n

Delivery Temperature, Wiso   mRT1 1   2  
n 1  n 1    P1  
 
 P2  n
T2  T1 
 P 
The solution of this equation is always negative.
 1 This shows that Work is done ON the Compressor.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 m 1
  m 1

n  P   n n  P   n
Wact  P1V1 1   2    P4V4 1   3  
6 3 2 n 1   P1   n  1   P4  
P2    
 m 1

n   P2  n 
 Wact  P1V1 1  
 P  
n 1   1 
 
PV n  C
 m 1

n   P2  n 
 P1V4 1  
 P  
5 4 1 n 1   1 
 
P1
V3 V4 V1

Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4 

 P2  P1  
1/ n
 n  
Clearance Volume, Wact   P1 V1  V4  1    
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs  n 1  

P1  P2  


Total Volume, V1
But, P4 = P1 and P3 = P2
 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency :

Ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor.

6 3 2 Ratio of Effective Swept Volume to Swept Volume.
P2
Presence of Clearance Volume
 Volumetric Efficiency less than 1. ( 60 – 85 % )
PV n  C
Effective Swept Volume
Volumetric Efficiency =
5 4 1 Swept Volume
P1
V1 – V4
V3 V4 V1
=
V1 – V3
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4
Clearance Volume, Clearance Volume
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs Clearance Ratio =
Swept Volume
Total Volume, V1
Vc
= = γ ( 4 – 10 % )
Vs
 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency
↑ Pr. Ratio ↑ Effect of Clearance Volume
….Clearance air expansion through greater volume before intake


6 3


Cylinder bore and stroke is fixed.

2
P2  Effective Swept Volume (V1 – V4) ↓ with ↑ Pr. Ratio

 ↓ Volumetric Efficiency
V1  V4
 vol 
5 4 1 V1  V3
P1

V1  V3   V3  V4   1
V3

V4
V3 V4 V1
Effective Swept Volume,
V1  V3  V1  V3  V1  V3 
V1-V4 V3 V4 V
Clearance Volume,  1   3
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
Total Volume, V1 V3 V3 V
 1   4
V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

6 3 2
V3  V3 
P2 vol  1 1  
V1  V3  V4 
V3  V3 
vol  1    1
V1  V3  V4 

V3   P3 
1/ n

5 4 1 vol  1    1
P1 V1  V3   P4  
 
V3 V4 V1
  P 1 / n 
Effective Swept Volume, vol  1      3   1
V1-V4   P4  
Clearance Volume,  
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs

Total Volume, V1
 Reciprocating Compressor – Actual P-V Diagram
Receiver Pressure 1-2-3-4-1 : Theoretical P-V Diagram.

3 2 At 4, inlet valve does not open due to :

P2
1. There must be a pressure difference across the valve to open.
2. Inlet valve inertia.
Pr. Drop continues till sufficient level for
Atmospheric Pressure valve to force its seat.
Intake Depression
4 Some valve bounce is set (wavy line).
1
P1 Eventually, the pressure sets down at a level lower
Valve Bounce than atmospheric pressure. This negative pressure
difference is known as Intake Depression.

Similar situation appears at 2, i.e. at the start of the delivery.

Pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and then pressure settles at a level higher than the
delivery pressure level.

Air delivery to a tank / receiver, hence, generally known as Receiver Pressure.

P-V diagram at different delivery pressure
• In a single-stage reciprocating compressor if the
delivery is restricted the delivery pressure will
increase. If the delivery pressure is increased too
far, however, certain disadvantages appear.
• Referring to Fig. 7 assume that the single-stage
compressor is compressing to pressure p2, the
complete cycle to 1234.
• Clearance air expansion will be 3-4 and mass flow
through the compressor will be controlled by the
effective swept volume (V1 – V4).
• Assume now that a restriction is now placed on
delivery. The delivery pressure becomes p5 say,
and the cycle is then 1567.
• Clearance expansion being 6-7. The mass flow through
the compressor is now controlled by effective swept
volume (V1 – V7), which is less than (V1 – V4).
• In the limit, assuming the compressor to be strong
enough, the compression would take place 1-8, where
Vs = clearance volume, in which case there would be
no delivery.
• It is seen, therefore, that as the delivery pressure for a
single-stage, reciprocating compressor is increased so
the mass flow through the compressor decreases.
Note, also that as the delivery pressure is increased, so
also will the delivery temperature increase. Referring
to Fig. 7, T8 > T5 > T2. If high temperature air is not a
requirement of the compressed air delivered, then, any
increase in temperature represents an energy loss.
 Disadvantages of single stage compression

• If high pressure is to be delivered by a single-

stage machine then it will require heavy
working parts in order to accommodate the
high pressure ratio through the machine.
• This will increase the balancing problem
• The high torque fluctuation will require a
heavier flywheel installation.
• Such disadvantages can be overcome by multi-
stage compression.
 Multistage compression
• Multi-stage compression is very efficient and
is now-a-days almost universally adopted
except for compressors where the overall
pressure rise required is small.
• The method is not only advantageous from a
thermodynamic point of view, but also has
mechanical advantages over single-stage
compression.
 Advantages of Multistage compression

• 1. The air can be cooled at pressures

intermediate between intake and delivery
pressures.
• 2. The power required to drive a multi-stage
machine is less than would be required by a
single-stage machine delivering the same
quantity of air at the same delivery pressure.
• 3. Multi-stage machines have better
mechanical balance.
• 4. The pressure range (and hence also the
temperature range) may be kept within desirable
limits. This results in
(i) reduced losses due to air leakage
(ii) improved lubrication, due to lower
temperatures and
(iii) improved volumetric efficiency.
• 5. The cylinder, in a single-stage machine, must
be robust enough to withstand the delivery
pressure.
• 6. The down pressure cylinders of a multi-stage
machine may be lighter in construction since the
maximum pressure therein is low.
• If an intercooler is installed between cylinders, in
which the compressed air is cooled between
cylinders, then the final delivery temperature is
reduced.
• This reduction in temperature means a reduction
in internal energy of the delivered air, and since
this energy must have come from the input
energy required to drive the machine, this results
in a decrease in input work requirement for a
given mass of delivered air.
• It is common to find machines with either two or
three stages of compression. The complexity of
the machinery limits the number of stages.
 Reciprocating Compressor – F.A.D.
Free Air Delivery (F.A.D.) : If the volume of the air compressor is reduced to atmospheric
temperature and pressure, this volume of air is called FAD (m3/min)
Delivered mass of air = intake mass of air

PtVt P1 V1  V4  P2 V2  V3 

 
Tt T1 T2
If clearance volume is neglected

PtVt P1V1 P2V2

 
Tt T1 T2
Where

Pt  101.325KN / m 2

Tt  15 C  288K
0
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

High Pressure required by Single – Stage :

 1. Requires heavy working parts.

2. Has to accommodate high pressure ratios.
3. Increased balancing problems.
4. High Torque fluctuations.
5. Requires heavy Flywheel installations.

This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!

 Why multistage compressor?

•High temp rise leads into limitation for the maximum achievable pressure
rise.

•Discharge temperature shall not exceed 150ºC and should not exceed 1350C
for hydrogen rich services

•Amultistage compressor compresses air to the required pressure in

multiple stages.

•Intercoolers are used in between each stage to removes heat and decrease
the temperature of gas so that gas could be compressed to higher pressure
without much rise in temperature
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from earlier cylinder (i.e.
discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet).

L.P. = Low Pressure

Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

Air Delivery
Pressure
H.P. = High Pressure

L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compressed air is cooled
between cylinders.

Intercooler

Air Intake
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Delivery Pr. 6 9 3 5 Overall Pr. Range : P1 – P3
Perfect Intercooling
P3 or Pd
Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6
Without Intercooling
H.P. Without Intercooling :
Intermediate Pr. 7
PV n  C L.P. : 8-1-4-7
4
P2 2 H.P. : 7-4-5-6
PV  C
L.P. With Intercooling :
Intake Pr. 8 1 L.P. : 8-1-4-7
P1 or Ps
H.P. : 7-2-3-6
Volume
Perfect Intercooling : After initial compression in L.P. cylinder, air is cooled in the
Intercooler to its original temperature, before entering H.P. cylinder
i.e. T2 = T1 OR
Points 1 and 2 are on SAME Isothermal line.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Ideal Conditions for Multi – Stage Compressors :

A. Single – Stage Compressor :

6 9 3 5 Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6

 n

n   P5  
n 1
H.P.
W P1 V1 1   
n 1   P1  
7 4
PV n  C  
2 PV  C Delivery Temperature,
L.P. n 1
8 1  P5  n
T5  T1 
P  
 1
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
B. Two – Stage Compressor (Without Intercooling) :
Without Intercooling :
6 9 3 5 L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-4-5-6

H.P.  n 1

n   P4  
n

PV n  C W  P1 V1 1   
7 4 n 1   P1  
 
2 PV  C
L.P.  n 1

n   P5   n
8 1  P4 V4 1   
n 1   P4  
 

Without Intercooling  Delivery Temperature also remains SAME.

This is SAME as that of Work done in Single – Stage.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :

With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
6 9 3 5
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   4  
n P n
W 
H.P.
n 1   P1  
 
7 4
PV n  C
 n 1

P 
PV  C P2 V2 1   3  
2 n n

L.P. n 1   P2  
8 1  
Delivery Temperature,
n 1 n 1
 P3  n  P3  n
T3  T2    T1   , as T2  T1
 P2   P2 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :
6 9 3 5
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7

7 4
PV n  C Now, T2 = T1
P2V2 = P1V1
2 PV  C
L.P.
8 Also P4 = P2
1

 n 1 n 1

n   P2  n  P3  n

W  P1 V1 2      
n 1   P1   P2  
 
Shaded Area 2-4-5-3-2 : Work Saving due to Intercooler…!!
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Condition for Min. Work :
Intermediate Pr. P2 → P1 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

Intermediate Pr. P2 → P3 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

6 9 3 5
 There is an Optimum P2 for which Area 2-4-5-3-2 is
maximum,
H.P. i.e. Work is minimum…!!

7 PV n  C 
 
n 1
 
n 1

P1 V1 2   2    3  
4 n P n P n
W
2 PV  C n 1   P1   P2  
L.P.  
For min. Work,
8 1
 n 1 n 1

P  P 
d  2 
n n
   3 
 P1   P2  
dW  
  0
dP2 dP2
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Condition for Min. Work :  n 1 n 1

   
d  2    3  
P n P n

 P1   P2  
 
 
dW
 0
dP2 dP2

 n 1   n 1   n 1    n 1   n 1  
 P2    P3       P2  n    0
1   1     1
n 1
 n n

P1  n  n    n  

6 9 3 5
P2 1/ n  P1 P 
 n 1 

 n 

  2 n 1  3
H.P. P2  n 
PV n  C
P2 2  P1 P3 
7 4
2 PV  C
L.P.
P2 P
8 1 P2  P1 P3 OR  3
P1 P2
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
P2 obtained with this condition (Pr. Ratio per stage is equal) is the Ideal Intermediate Pr.
Which, with Perfect Intercooling, gives Minimum Work, Wmin.

 
Equal Work per cylinder…!!

 n 1

W
2n  P P 1/ 2
P1 V1 1   1 3  
 n

n 1  P1  
  

 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   2  
2n P n
W
n 1   P1  
 

 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   3  
2n P 2 n
W
n 1   P1  
 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency

Isothermal work done / cycle = Area of P – V Diagram

= P1V1 loge(P2/P1)

Isothermal Power = P1V1 loge(P2/P1) N

kW
60 X 1000

Indicated Power : Power obtained from the actual indicator card taken during a
test on the compressor.

Compressor Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Indicated Power

Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Shaft Power
NOTE : Shaft Power = Brake Power required to drive the Compressor.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency

Adiabatic Efficiency : Ratio of Power required to drive the Compressor; compared

with the area of the hypothetical Indicator Diagram; assuming
Adiabatic Compression.

 1
 
   
P1 V1 1   2  
P
 1   P1  
 
 adiabatic 
Brake Power required to drive the Compressor

Mechanical Efficiency : Ratio of mechanical output to mechanical input.

Mechanical Efficiency, ηmech = Indicated Power

Shaft Power
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?

A. Spray Injection : Assimilation of water into the compressor cylinder towards the
compression stroke.
Object is to cool the air for next operation.

Demerits : 1. Requires special gear for injection.

2. Injected water interferes with the cylinder lubrication.
3. Damage to cylinder walls and valves.
4. Water must be separated before delivery of air.

B. Water Jacketing : Circulating water around the cylinder to help for cooling the
air during compression.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?

C. Inter – Cooling : For high speed and high Pr. Ratio compressors.
Compressed air from earlier stage is cooled to its original
temperature before passing it to the next stage.

D. External Fins : For small capacity compressors, fins on external surfaces are useful.

E. Cylinder Proportions : Short stroke and large bore provides much greater surface
for cooling.
Cylinder head surface is far more effective than barrel surface.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
Clearance Volume : Consists of two spaces.
1. Space between cylinder end & the piston to allow for wear.
2. Space for reception of valves.

High – class H.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 3 % of Swept Vol.

: Lead (Pb) fuse wire used to measure the gap between
cylinder end and piston.

Low – grade L.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 6 % of Swept Vol.

: Flattened ball of putty used to measure the gap
between cylinder end and piston.
Effect of Clearance Vol. :
Vol. taken in per stroke < Swept Vol. ↑
Size of compressor

↑ Power to drive compressor.

 Reciprocating Compressor – Work Done
Assumption : Compression and Expansion follow same Law.

Work / cycle = Area 1-2-3-4-1

6 3  n 1
  n 1

2 n   P2  n
  n P V 1   P3  n

P2 W  P1 V1 1    
n 1   P1   n 1
4 4
  P4  
   

P3 = P2 and P4 = P1
 n 1

5 4 1 n   P2  n

P1 W  P1 (V1  V4 ) 1   
n 1   P1  
V3 V4 V1  
Effective Swept Volume,
V1-V4  n 1

P 
P1 Va 1   2  
Clearance Volume, n n
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V4=Vs 
n 1   P1  
Total Volume, V1  
 Reciprocating Compressor – Work Done

 n 1

n   P2  
n
W m1 R T1 1   
P2
6 3 2
n 1   P1  
 
m1 is the actual mass of air delivered.

5 4 1 Work done / kg of air delivered :

P1
V3 V4 V1
 n 1

Effective Swept Volume,
n   P2  
n
V1-V4
W R T1 1   
Clearance Volume,
V3=Vc n 1   P1  
 
Swept Volume, V1-V4=Vs

Total Volume, V1
 How to select a particular type of compressor ?
Graph showing operating regions of various compressors

Taken from
PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection
Guidelines
Table showing operating conditions of various compressors

Taken from
PIP REEC001
Compressor Selection Guidelines
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dynamic compressors

Advantages Disadvantages

Dynamic
Compressors
Centrifugal •Wide operating range •Instability at reduced flow
•High reliability •Sensitive to gas composition
•Low Maintenance change

Axial •High Capacity for given •Low Compression ratios

size •Limited turndown
•High efficiency
•Heavy duty
•Low maintenance
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Positive displacement
compressors
Advantages Disadvantages
Positive displacement
compressor
Reciprocating •Wide pressure ratios •Heavy foundation required
•High efficiency •Flow pulsation
•High maintenance

Diaphragm •Very high pressure •Limited capacity range

•Low flow •Periodic replacement of
•No moving seal diaphragm

Screw •Wide application •Expensive

•High efficiency •Unsuitable for corrosive or dirty
•High pressure ratio gases