MS. MEDELYN SALCEDO LACUNSAY, RC., MSCRIM.

INSTRUCTOR
 Nominal Definition
- Philosophy comes from Greek word
“philo” which means friend and “sophia”
which means wisdom. It means “the love of
wisdom” or a “friend of wisdom”.

 Real Definition
- Philosophy is the science of all exist (of
beings) in their ultimate cause through the
aid of the human intellect alone.
 It is a science - a systematic body of
organized methods tried and true knowledge
which is concerned with rectituted of
reasoning.

 It is an art – because argument is logic is

done beautifully with habitual validity, ease,
clarity, correctness, objectivity and certainty.

 Of correct thinking - because it conforms to

the rules of correctness, in an argument,
premises have sufficient grounds as basis of
conclusion.
 Philosophy and Science are alike.
 They are both interested in the knowledge.
 Both of them are fields on inquiry and
investigation.
 Both seek to ask questions and determine
answers to these questions.
 Philosophy Science
- seeks ultimate knowledge - Seeks knowledge of facts
- Takes full cognizance in the - Seeks to determine facts and
findings facts are its end products.
- Begins its work with these facts
- It makes use of them
- It is significance of the facts,
which interest a person as a
genuine philosopher.
- He believes that he can aid man
by helping him determine the
significance of facts.
- The method of Philosophy involve
interpretation and explanation of
the ultimate relation and meaning
of the facts.
 In their ultimate cause –because it asks and
answers only facts and proximate causes but
also the deepest causes of things.
- Its task is to give answers not only to
the question “what” but most importantly is the
question “why”.

Through the aid of the human intellect alone

– because philosophy uses natural reason and
not Divine Revelation of the recourse to the
Bible.
- It is the product of one’s own thinking and
not of imagination or fantasy.
 Arts Philosophy
- The artist’s treatment of beauty -The philosopher’s is theoretical
is actual
- The artists enjoy and appreciate, - Philosophers intellectualize
express and create. artistic experience.

Note:

Their chief task is to parallel the experience of

beauty with an intellectual understanding of its
Nature.
 The study of philosophy has a value and effects
upon the lives of those who study it.

 Philosophy is to be studied, but not for the

sake of finding the definite answers to its
questions, since no definite answer can, as a
rule, be known to be true.

 Rather, it is studied for the sake of the

question themselves, because these questions
enlarge our conception of what is possible and
thus enrich our intellectual imagination.
1. Pure Philosophy or Speculative Philosophy
 When “BEING” is considered in Itself

a. Metaphysics/Ontology (being in its most general

form) – the study of being as a being while taking
into consideration the essence and existence are
constitute of being.
- Metaphysics is the study of many different topics but
they all revolve around the core question of what we
are and what our purpose is.
 Example:
 Existence and Reality

 Believe it or not, the question of whether or not we

really exist was one of the first questions asked in
metaphysics. Yoda once said we are 'luminous
beings.' Many religions believe that everything we
are is in our souls and that our bodies are nothing
more than shells holding our souls inside.
2. Cosmology (being in the non living world) – the
philosophical study of the material world with regards
to its order in the universe.
- the scientific study of the form, content, organization, and
evolution of the universe

Example:
3. Theodicy (highest in its highest form) – the
philosophical stud of God with consideration to its
nature and existence as absolute.

Example:
4. Anthropology (being with its body and soul) – the
philosophical study of man with regard to the union
between the body and soul.

Example:
5. Rational Psychology (being with its soul) – the
philosophical study of immaterial soul and its faculties
with consideration to its as the life principle of every
living being.

Example:
2. When “Being” is considered in Relation to Man.

a. Logic (considering the procedure of man’s

thought) – the science and the art of correct
thinking.
b. Epistemology (value of our thought) – the
philosophical study of human knowledge with
regard to certainty and truth.
c. Ethics (considering man’s will) – the
philosophical study of the morality of the
human act that distinguishes good from evil
and right from wrong.
 The results of Pure Philosophy are applied to
special topic and problems in the different aspects
of man’s life such as education, society, history,
business, religion, and others.
 Some branches:

1. Philosophy of Man – the inquiry into man as a

person.
2. Social Philosophy – the study of the relationship
between man and society.
3. Philosophy of Religion – the study of man’s
relationship with God.
4. Axiology – the study of man’s value.
5. Aesthetics – the study of beauty and perfection.

6. Oriental Philosophy – the study of Oriental ways of

life and mind.

7. Philosophy of Education – the philosophical

approach to teaching and learning processes.
 What is Logic?

 Nominal Definition
Logic – comes from the Greek word “logos”, which
means thought, word, speech or science.

 Real Definition
◦ Logic - is order and consistency.
 - it is the science of those principles, laws and
methods which the mind of man follow in its
thinking for secure and accurate attainment of
truth.
 is the science and art of correct thinking.
 It is a science, because it is a body of organized
methods of tried and true knowledge which is
concerned with the rectitude of reasoning.

 It is an art, because argument in logic is done

beautifully with habitual validity, ease, clarity,
correctness, objectivity and certainty.

 Of correct thinking, because it conforms to the

rules of correctness : in an argument, premises
have sufficient grounds as basis for conclusion.
 Logic deals with the acts of the mind –
mental process THINKING.
 Most of the time, it is associated with some
mental process like memorizing, simple
recall and a like.
 Others may say that imagining and
daydreaming are thinking, but these are not
the kind that we consider in logic.
 According to Corazon Cruz (1995), there are
two criteria for mental process to be
considered in thinking:

 When the Objective is Truth

Examples: analysis, definition and classification

 When the Truth we have become the nucleus

for further knowledge
Example: criticism (as books, movies and people),
comparison, contrast, synthesis and generalization
and the like.
 Thinking is the process of drawing out conclusions
from previously known data. We also called it
reasoning or inference.

 Correct Thinking - is a process of thinking or

reasoning that follows the right procedure.

- The reasoning may not always be true.

- Logic does not investigate the truth as the certainty of the
data but rather focuses on the correct operation of
thinking.
- Correct Thinking and true knowledge are two different
things
True Knowledge – deals with knowledge
which conforms to reality.

Examples:

1. Girls are sweet

Rosette is sweet
Rosette is a girl ------ correct and true

2. All animals are rational

Dogs are animals
Dogs are rational ------correct and true
 Logic deals with reasoning. T
 The soundness of reasoning is the one that is
important.
 The first concern of logic is validity.
 It leads man in the truth from the known
towards the unknown and from easiest
towards the most difficult.
 An argument is sound when it is both valid
and true.
Examples:
All plants need water.
All flowers are plants.
Therefore, flowers need water.

Consider the argument which follows:

All lawyers are honest.
Some defenders of our rights are lawyers
Therefore, some defenders of our rights are
honest.
Valid Argument – is one whose premises, if
they are assumed to be true, entail this
conclusion.
 Since not all lawyers are honest, the
proposition is not true.

Proposition - is true when it describes an

actual state of affairs. Therefore, even
though the inference is valid, it is sound,
because it is not both valid and true.
 In contrast, Logic is generally interested
only in the correctness or validity of
reasoning.
 It is concerned with truth or falsify of the
premises or of conclusion.
 Consider the following arguments:

Examples:
All men are rational beings
Armand is a man
Therefore, Armand is a national being
All animals are rational
Dogs are rational
Therefore, dogs are animals

All plants grow

Ice factory is a plant
Therefore, ice factory grows

 Of all the above mentioned inferences, only

the first one is sound, the second pone is
only a minor premise, which are false while
the third one has a major premise and a
conclusion, which are both false.
 Valid Inferences – they satisfy the
requirements of a correct or valid reference.

 The formal object if Logic is the

correctness or validity of reasoning.
 It refers to the inner consistency of the
reasoning process.
 For reasoning, to achieve consistency, it
should be in accordance with the principles
and laws which logic teaches.
1. It develops the habit of clear thinking.

 Logic is a course in analysis.

 It teaches us how to think and reason about
anything that we hear, say and read.
 It is only when we learn to think clearly or
when others commit mistakes or errors that
we can pinpoint such errors and can correct
them.
2. It is a guide in the process of drawing
conclusions.

 In our daily lives, we experienced a lot of

things and it is within those that we live.
 Sometimes, we make wrong decisions and
conclusions.
 The knowledge of logic will instruct us to
understand more because most of the
confusions is due to carelessness in the
assignment of meaning to words.
 Because of logic, we become self- confident
when we communicate with each other.
3. It emphasizes the importance of definition.

 One of the important requirements of

effective reasoning is precision in the use of
terms.
 Logic train us in the art of debate and
argument.
 It is very important in reasoning that we know
how to use the terms so that confusion can be
avoided in the assignment of meanings to
the terms that we used.
 Clarity and precision in the use of terms is
one of the most important requirements of
4. It helps us to interpret facts adequately.

 Proper and accurate interpretation of facts is

very important in the attainment of truth.
 The study of logic will train us in analyzing,
classifying, defining, describing, précising
and interpreting facts.
 These facts that are based on the science of
Logic are utilized in the art of argumentation
or in the art of rhetoric.
5. It cultivates the habit of looking for the
assumptions presupposed in reasoning.

 Examination of the causes of incorrect

reasoning puts us on guard against errors
both in our thinking and in the thinking of
others.
 Many people are often confused be delicate
and unnoticeable arguments.
6. It trains us in the technique in determining
implications.

 The study of Logic provides training that will

develop our ability to perceive implications
and will equip us with techniques in
determining assumptions.
7. It helps us to detect fallacies, avoid self-
deception or paralogisms and combat
sophisms.

 It helps us to detect illogical reasoning.

 Every normal person has the gift of common
sense or natural logic, but common sense
must be honed and developed in order to
transform into a fitting instrument of
philosophical thinking.
8. It helps us persuade and convince others.

 No man live for himself alone.

 To love ourselves is to acknowledge and to
share life with others.
 Life usually a continuous process of winning
people to our way of thinking and thus to our
way of living.
 It trains us in the various methods of
producing a firm belief in the thinking of
othets.
9. It stimulates scientific thinking and love of
truth.

 All discipline requires clear, concise and

orderly reasoning.
 Logic is an important tool for understanding
other fields of sciences.
 The aim of logic is truth, and by truth we
mean absolute truth.
 To simplify the truth of a statement or an
argument.
 it seeks a statement or an argument of
quality which can assert itself for acceotance.
10. It familiarizes us with terminology and
problem in philosophy.

 Everyone is beset with problems regarding the

whys, hows, and whats a thing.
 The curiosity includes the relationship
between things as well as on things
themselves.
 Everyone thinks because thinking is a pathway
to philosophy.
1. Based on the Form and Content

a. Formal Logic – is concerned with the aspect

of form, its structure, correctness, sequence
and the following of the rules.
- It looks at whether there is conformity with the
given standards or with existing rules of Logic.

Example:
Peter is a student.

- From this we can ask: what is the subject? The

verb? The predicate? Our concern is how it is
structured or built to create a sound reasoning.
b. Material Logic – is concerned with the
subject matter, content or truth.
- It looks at whether there is conformity
with reality.

Example: Peter is a man.

- From this example we can ask: is Peter

really a man as he exists in reality? If so,
then our statement is true.
2. Based on the Process of Thinking

a. Deductive Logic – is one which the

premises flow logically into conclusion.
- It is from universal to particular or as
McCall says, “from more to the less
universal by a way of a middle term”.

Example: All Filipino are industrious (general)

Peter is a Filipino. (particular)
Therefore, Peter is industrious. (particular)
b. Inductive Logic – is one in which the
argument flows from specific to general or
particular to universal.
- Inductive Logic implies a sense of
improbability.
- As Copi says, “may provide some
evidences of truth”.

Example: This chalk falls, this book falls, this

pen falls and this eraser falls.
Therefore, all bodily objects fall.
 Simple Apprehension – is the process
through which the mind grasps the
objective reality as it is outside of the
mind.
- When something is grasped, an idea or
concept is formed which is then
expressed through the use of terms.

Example: man, mortal, Peter

 Judgment – is the process through
which the mind can assert or deny
something.
- The second process can be achieved only
after having ideas because it is the idea
that are put together in order to come up
with judgment.
- The expressions of judgment are called
“propositions” .

Example: Every man is mortal

 Reasoning – is the process through which
the mind arrives at a conclusion from
previously possessed judgments.
 It draws out new propositions from
premises.
 We also call this Inference. This is
expressed through syllogism.

Example: Every man is mortal

But, Peter is a man.
Therefore, Peter is mortal.
 What is language?
 Informative
 Expressive
 Directive
 Multiplicity of Language
 According to Corazon L Cruz “Music
may be language of the soul, but stuff
with which we live out our daily life is
words”.

 According to Irving Copi (1978) lists

three basic functions of language.
These are informative, expressive and
directive which are based on the three
integral parts of man: head, heart and
guts.
 This is the common function of the
language wherein we inform about
things we know and ask about things
we do not know yet.
 Informative discourse – detailed
information about different ideas and
principles we have to reflect on and
think about.
 On Logic, we see this function at
work in propositions and arguments,
where something is either denied or
 This kind of discourse is best
illustrated in poetry where emotions
and attitudes are expressed
beautifully.
 Ben Johnson’s “Song to Celia” is
replete with beautiful emotion- laden
lines such as:
“Drink to me with thine eyes and I will
pledge with mine or leave a kiss but in
the cup and I’ll not look for wine”.
 According to Cop (1978) – expressive
discourse is used either to express the
speaker’s feelings or evoke certain
feelings on the part of the author. Of
course it is may do both.
 This function of language is most
easily seen in commands or requests.
It is that which lets go or prevents an
action to be done.
 Example: Kindly arrange all the
requirements before leaving.
 One can say that this is either true or
false. Whether the command or
request is obeyed or not is irrelevant
to its truth-value, which is
nonexistent in the first place.
 According to William Butler Yeats that
“Think like a wise man but
communicate in the language of the
people”.
 Another school of thought advances a
distinct set of language functions:
1. Heuristic – for teaching/giving
instruction.
2. Imaginative – for literary expressions.
3. Ideational- for expressing one’s
ideology.
4. Manipulative – for others to make
things done.
 What is concept?
 Types of Concepts
 What is Term?
 Types of Terms
 Properties of Terms
 What does Supposition Mean?
 What does Definition Mean?
 What is concept?

 A concept is representation of an object by

the intellect through which man
comprehends a thing.
 It is also considered a mental image of an
object or an idea about something.
 Ideas are formed by simple apprehension
which may be in the form of following
operations as mentioned by Alviar,.et.at//
(1995)
 It is the mental act by which the mind fixes
its considered upon one particular object
after having sensed it.

 Example: A driver stops his car when he

sees that the red light is on.
 It is a mental act by which the mind studies
the physical characteristics or the
individualizing notes of the particular object
with regard to color, size, style, material,
then goes of the purpose of the object.

 Example: When he goes to the mall to buy

a pair of shoes or a dress, the process of
abstraction is used.
 It is a mental act of becoming aware of
itself, of its act or of its state so as to look
of these things objectively.
 It is a mental act comparing the likeness
and differences between objects belonging
to the different essences and classes.

Example: Leg of a woman and leg on a table.

 It is a mental act by which the mind notices
the likeness and differences in the objective
having the same essence or belonging to
the same class.

 Example: Pedro and Puppie

 It is a mental act by which the mind gives
direct attention to the essentials or the
basic similarities of an idea.

 Example: Man is a living organism who is

sentient and rational.
 It is an act by which the mind puts together
two or more ideas to form a single ideas.

 Example: Blue Water

 It is too easy for us to classify the
different kinds of concept if we will
carefully note the point of view from each
type such as intention, the subject or
form, the substance, the accident and the
existence or possession.
 An Intention is an act of the mind as a
perspective of a thing.

1. First Intention Concept – this concept by

which we understand what a thing is
according to what it in reality, regardless
of what we think.
- It is that by which we grasp what a thing is
according to its proper being without
adverting to the special mode of existence
that a thing has as it exists in the mind
and gets as a result of being Known.
 Example: Man is a social being
Man is rational being
Man is an embodied spirit
Man is a biological being
2. Second Intention Concept – this is a
concept by which we understand not only
what a thing is in reality but also how it is
in our mind.
 After grasping what a thing is according to
its own proper being, we also advert to
the special mode of existence that the
thing has as it exists in the mind.
 Example

Triangle is a shape.

 Does the predicate “shape” belong to the

subject “triangle” as its exists in the real
order or only as it exists in the mind.

 Answer: It does in the real order, it is in

the first intention.
 Form – is that which makes an object exists
as it is.
 It is the perfection or an attribute of the
subject.
 It is also called as the essence/quiddity.
 On the other hand, a subject is that which
has or which is looked upon as having a
perfection or attributes embodied in itself.
Example:
Form – Animality is the perfection that makes
an animal is a real animal.
- Beauty makes a thing beautiful.
- Length expresses what is that makes
long abject long.

Subject – Table has quiddity example tabl’ness

- White having whiteness.
1. Concrete Concept – it is a concept that
expresses a form and a subject.

Example: body, spirit, woman

2. Abstract Concept – It is a concept which

expresses form only.

Example: kindness, holiness beauty, simplicity

 Substance – is that which exists in itself
without requiring another being as a subject
of its inherence.

Example: man, tree and angle

 Accident – is that which cannot exists in

itself but only as a perfection or
modification of the subject.

Example: white, honest and beautiful

1. Absolute Concept – It signifies the meaning
of a complete substance endowed with its
independent reality.
- It is also called Abstract Concept when it
signifies something to the mind which
shows the quality of an abstract noun.

Example: Independence Abstract

moon brilliance
insect humanity
2. Connotative Concept – it signifies the object
as an accident existing in the substance.
- It represents a form without the subject.

Examples: All modifiers like the ones below are

called connotative concepts:
wise, pretty, young, long, carpenter, and
the like.

Nouns which are considered to be incomplete

substance or accidental modifiers are also
called connotative concept.
drivers, teachers, love carpenter, student,
Peter
1. Positive Concept – it signifies the existence
or possession of something.

Example: peace, beautiful, happy, love

2. Negative Concept – It signifies the

nonexistence or nonpossession of
something.

Example: war, unhappy, loveless, nonbeautiful

 Term is an external sign of a concept and the
ultimate structural element of a proposition.

 It is a conventional tool of expressing an

idea.

 A Term is oral uttered: It is written if its

drafted.
1. According to the Kind of Concepts

1.1 First Intention and Second Intention

1.2 Abstract and Concrete Term
1.3 Absolute and Connotative Term
1.4 Positive and Negative Term
2. As an Ultimate Element of a Proposition

1. Subject – it is that which is being spoken

of in a proposition

2. Predicate – it is that which speaks about

the subject.

 Simple – when it is only a single word as

in the term “Pampanga”.
 Complex – when it is a group of words
standing from one idea as in the term
“almost all outstanding employees”.
3. As a Sign of a Concept

3.1 Significant Term – It is when it stands

for the essence of something. In this
case, subjects, predicates, and nouns
are all significant terms.

3.2 Non Significant Terms – when it does

not stand for the essence of something.
In this case, demonstrative pronouns,
adjectives, and proper nouns.
4. As to the Relation of Term with Another
Term

4.1 Compatibility Terms – these terms

that can co-exits or simultaneously
exists in a subject.

Example: father – son

my mother – my best friend
farmer - veterinarian
4.2 Incompatibility

2.2a. Contradictory Terms – these terms

are those wherein one affirms what the
other denies.

Example: life – lifeless

thing – nothing
4.2b Contrary Terms – these terms are
those represents the two extremes
among objects of a series belonging to
the same class.

Example:
Hot – cold Happy - miserable
(temperature) (emotion)
3.3c Privative Terms – these terms are
those wherein one conforms a perfection
and other denies a perfection in a
subject which naturally ought to possess
it.

Example:
health – weakness wealth – poverty
4.4d Relative Terms – these terms those
wherein one cannot be understood
without the other.

Example:
mother – child wealth – poverty
5. As to the Definiteness

5.1 Univocal Terms – these are terms with

exactly the same meaning in at least two
occurrences.

Example: Every monkey eats banana.

Banana is a tropical fruit.
 In the two examples, the term “banana” is
used exactly with the same meaning.
5. As to the Definiteness

5.2. Equivocal Terms – these are terms that

have completely different meaning in at
least two occurences.

Example: Pens are used for writing.

The pigs are in the pens.
 In this example, the term pens in the first
proposition means instrument for writing, while the
second means enclosure for pigs.
5. As to the Definiteness

5.3. Analogous Terms – these terms that

have partly the same and partly different
meanings in at least two occurences.

Example: Peter stands with one foot at the

foot of the mountain.
 Analogue/Analogate – it is the point of
inferior or the terms which is analogous
term is apply.

2 Classifications:

1. Primary Analogous/Analogates – if the

terms apply to them primarily and
absolutely.

Example: The bright light has blinded the

 The primary meaning of the word
“light” is stimulus to sight, hence, it is a
primary analogue.

2. Secondary Analogue/Analogates – if the

terms apply to them secondarily and
relatively , these are known as
secondary analogues/Analogates.

Example: You are the light of my life.

 Here, “light” means splendor of love
that makes a person happy.

3. Intrinsic Analogy – if the concept they

signify is realized in all its analoguous.

4. Extrinsic Analogy – of the concepts

signify realized only in their primary
analogues.
1. Comprehension- it is the sum-total of
all notes (elements that comprise the
significance of an idea) which
constitute the meaning of the concept.

2. Extension – it is the sum-total of

particulars to which the comprehension
of a concept can be applied.
1. Absolute Extension – is any definite or
thinkable subject predicated by a term.

2. Functional Extension – it is the

quantifiable subject present in the mind
at the moment of discourse.
 Supposition – it is a property of a term
acquired from its use in the
proposition.

 Kinds of Supposition

1. Formal Supposition- this kind of

supposition uses a word for its real
meaning.

Example: Pandaka Pigmea is the smallest fish.

2. Material Supposition – this kind of
supposition uses a words uses a word
from its real meaning.

Example: Love has four letter

BPSC stands for Bataan Polytechnic
State College
 Definition – it is a phrase that gives
the meaning of a terms.

 This word is derived from Latin word

“definire” which means “to enclose
within the limits”.
 Originally, it meant “ to mark the
boundaries or limits as of a field”.

 Boundary of a Field – is defined by

indicating the limits within which it is
marked off from other fields.
1.Nominal Definition – “definitio
nominis” meaning a definition of a
name.
 It is merely indicates that a thing is
signified by a term without declaring
the nature of that thing.
 Nominal Definitions are given at the
beginning of debates to ensure
agreement among disputants as to
the exact point of issue.
 On the basis of the various ways in
which they indicate the thing signified
terms, are follows:

1. Etymological Definition – this kind of

definition defines a word by giving the
meaning of the word or words from
which it is derived.

Example: philo and sophia (which means

love of wisdom)
2. Definition by Synonym – this kind of
definition defines word by giving
words with similar meanings and are
better known than the word being
defined.

Example: anthropos means man

to connects means to put together
3. Definition by Description – this
kind of definition defines a word
by describing the thing that
signified by a term, not for the
purpose of revealing its nature and
essence, but merely to indicate
what a thing is being spoke.
Example: chalk for instance can be defined
by a sort definition as the material of
which is made the little stick that a
teacher uses to write on the blackboard.
4. Definition by Example – this kind of
definition can be made by indicating
an example of a thing signified by a
term to be defined.

Example: what is a chalk? And you show

him a piece of chalk, you are giving
him a nominal definition by example.
2. Real Definition – (“definitio re” means
definition of a thing) not only
indicates that a thing is signified by a
term but also declares the nature of
that thing.

 It manifests the intelligible structure

of the thing explicitly by the term
that is to be defined.
 Real Definition is always a complex
terms consisting of at least two parts:

1. Genus – the note that the thing has in

common with similar kind of things.
2. Specific Difference – the note that
differentiates the thing being defined
from others.
1. The definition must be clearer that the
thing to be defined. Hence
metaphorical expressions and unusual
terms must be avoided.

Example: A lie is an intentional

terminological inexactitude.
2. The definition must not contain the
term to be defined (circular definition).

Example: A gentlemen is a men who is

gentle.

3. The definition must be convertible with

the idea defined.

Example: Man is a rational animal

4. The definition must be positive
whenever possible.

Example: Immensity is limitless

magnituted.
 Copi (1975) singles out five types of
definition. These are:

1. Stipulative – those given brand new

items introduced for the first time.

Example: commercial codes and scientific

formulas
2. Lexical – those that try to list ambiguity
or to increase one’s vocabulary of a
term, which has already been used.

Example: mini and maxi dress

3. Precising – those which attempt to give
a clear cut decision on vague and
ambiguous terms starting from the
established usage of the terms.

Example: juridical cases

4. Theoretical – those that attempt to
state theoretical explanations of
objects or happenings.

Example: philosophical and scientific

theories
5. Persuasive – those intended to influence
attitude.

Example: commercial advertisements

 What is Judgment?
 Logical Statement
 Logical Form
 What is Proposition?
 Types
 Categories
 Symbols of Categorical Propositions
 What Venn Diagram?
 Hypothetical Propositions
 Judgment – is a mental act which
affirms or denies something.

 It produces a mental propositions or if,

expressed, becomes an oral or written
propositions.
 A proposition is a sentence which
affirms or denies something.
 A logical statement or a proposition is a
sentence that asserts or denies
something and could either be true or
false.

 Example: This is a dog

This is not a dog.
 Interrogative Sentence – asks a
question.

 Imperative Sentence – makes a

request.

 Exclamatory Sentence – expresses a

strong feeling.
 For Bachhuber (1987) – A proposition
is expressed by a declarative sentence
for it denies or asserts something.

 Example:
Ma’am Perdilio is our department head in
BSIT.
(we are asserting that……)

Mang Boy is not our College Registrar.

(we are denying that….)
 For Irving Copi (1978) – He insists that
there must be a clear distinction
between form and function of a
propositions.

 Example:
 Form: (declarative, interrogative,
imperative and exclamatory)
 Function: (informative, expressive and
directive)
 For Aristotle – says that “A
He
proposition (logical statement) is a
sentence that could be either true or
false.
 All propositions are not in logical form.
 Most of the statements that affirm or
deny do not use copula (a quantifier of
a proposition) to link the subject and
predicate.

 Example: Jose Rizal, wrote the poem “Sa

Aking Mga Kabataan” when he was
eight years old.
1. Keep the original subject.
2. Do not use the progressive tense for
your predicate.
3. Avoid the use of one for your
predicates. Think of a more appropriate
word.
4. Avoid redundancies.
5. Be simple and direct in your answer.
 Proposition – is a sentence or statement
which expresses truth or false.

 It is a verbal expression of a fact which

is generally accepted.
 There are two types of proposition
based on structure:

1. Categorical Proposition – is an
attributed proposition that has a
subject-predicate relationship: its
subject is either affirmed or denied by
the predicate.
1. Subject – that which is talked about in
the sentence.

2. Predicate – that which tells something

about the subject, either an affirmation
or denial.

3. Copula – a qualifier of a proposition. It

links the subject and the predicate.
2. Hypothetical Proposition – it is a
proposition which affirms or denies the
relationship of two (2) propositions by
means of a nonverbal elements.
(connectives).
 Quantity of Proposition – is the
quantity of the subject.

 We can refer to the rules of functional

extension in identifying if the
proposition is singular, particular or
universal.

 Subject Term – is the quantifier of a

proportion.
 Quality of Proposition – the copula is
the qualifier of a proportion.

 Through the copula, we can identify if

the proposition is negative or
affirmative.
 An Affirmative Proposition – it is a
proposition that unites the subject and
the predicate by means of an
affirmative copula “s”.

 An affirmative proposition affirms the

identity of “s” and “p”.
 A Negative Proposition – is a
proposition that unites the subject and
the predicate by means of a negative
copula “is not”.

 A negative propositions denies the

identity of “s” and “p”.
 To avoid confusion, you have to follow
the rules in making as proposition.

1. Identify the copula of the proposition.

Example:
He who is not a college graduate is ineligible.

Not the copula of The copula of

2. Look for the negative particles
(“not”/negation).

Example:
He who is not a college graduate is ineligible.

Negative particles
3. Analyze whether the negative particle
modifies the copula of the propsition or
not.

Example:
Modifies Modifies

He who is not a college graduate is ineligible.

Negative particles
 Quantity of the Predicate – Aristotelian
logic consigns matter to the subject and
form to the predicate.

 This does not mean to say that the

quantity of the predicate is equivalent to
the quantity of the subject.
1. Find out if the predicate is singular. If it is
singular if it is refers to a single definite
individual or a group. The proposition may
either be affirmative or negative.

Example:
DR. Francis Pilapil is the most
outstanding veterinarian because he is my
best friend.
(Veterinarian is the simple predicate and is singular because it
is being modified by an adjective “the most outstanding”.
2. If the predicate is not singular and the
proposition is affirmative, then the
predicate is particular.

Example: Tasyo is a philosopher.

(the simple predicate “philosopher” is not singular because it is

particular through the use of article “a” which is the sign of
particularly and the quality of the proposition affirmative).
3. If the predicate is not singular and the
proposition is negative, then the
predicate is universal.

Example: Some men are not moralists.

(the simple predicate “moralists” is not singular because there

is no sign of a singularity being used and the proposition is
negative).
 Universal/singular
A E

affirmative
Negative

I O
particular
 Since Aristotle’s time, there have been
demands to make logic a science of
symbols to achieve shortcuts to correct
reasoning.

 Among these symbols for the four

categorical statements, namely A, E, I
and O which are taken from the two
vowels Affirmo (Affirm) and E and O of
the two vowels of nEgO (negate/deny)
 On the basis of both quality and quantity,
propositions have been classified into….

A – stands for the universal or singular and

affirmative sentence.
E - stands for universal or singular and
negative statements.
I - stands for particular and affirmative
statements.
O - stands for particular and negative
statements.
1. All flowers are fragrant.
2. Man is a being.
3. Every student should wear his ID.
4. Armand is a scholarly guy.
5. Each one seeks happiness.
1. No man should lie.
2. No lakes are mountains.
3. A squash is not an eggplant.
4. He loves me not.
5. Bad habits are not virtues.
6. No student is present.
7. Every student is not immortal.
1. Most bird build nests
2. Some dogs are cheaper security
guards.
3. Most teachers are underpaid.
4. Computers are now widely used.
1. All sea creatures are not fishes.
2. Many college graduates are not
employed.
3. All that shines is not gold.
4. Pearls are not for decorations.
5. Most Americans are not lovers of
music.
6. Not every student is present.
 A Venn Diagram is often to have a
clear presentation of categorical
statements (A, E, I and O) .

 John Venn- the first man introduced

the venn diagram.
- He is 19th Century Mathematician
and Logician.
 Venn Diagram – uses two
overlapping circles to present
categorical proposition.

 Since the subject and the predicate

are two essential elements of the
proposition, the first circle is the
representation of the class of subject
and the second circle is a
representation of the class of the
predicate.
THE CLASS OF THE CLASS OF
THE SUBJECT PREDICATE