dar es salaam institute of technology

SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITÈS (SI): some derived units

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL DEFINITION

DEFINITION

Electric Current that produces a force of 2.10-7 newtons per

ampere A meter between a pair of infinitely long parallel wires
current
1 meter apart in a vacuum.

coulomb Quantity of electricity carried by a current of 1 ampere for 1

Charge C
second.

Energy joule Work done by a force of 1 newton moving through a

J
distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force.
Power watt W Energy expenditure at a rate of 1 joule per 1 second.
Resistance that produces a 1 volt drop with a 1 ampere
Resistance ohm W current.

Frequency hertz Hz Number of cycles in 1 second.

Pressure due a a force of 1 newton applied over an area of

Pressure pascal Pa 1 square meter.
Rate of movement in a direction of 1 meter in 1 second.

Potential volt The potential when 1 joule of work is done in making 1

V
(emf) coulomb of electricity flow.
 A measuring instrument is a device built to accurately
detect and display an electrical quantity in a form readable
by a human being. Usually this "readable form" is visual:
motion of a pointer on a scale, a series of lights arranged to
form a bargraph,or some sort of display composed of
numerical figures. In the analysis and testing of circuits,
there are meters designed to accurately measure the basic
quantities of voltage, current, and resistance.
 Electrical instruments may be classified based on
the following.

Function
Effects of electric current on
the instruments.
 The electrical instruments may, in a broad sense, be classified
according to the manufacturing standards into absolute instruments and
secondary instruments.

Absolute instruments: These Secondary instruments: In these

instruments give the value of instruments the value of electrical
quantity to be measured in terms of quantity (voltage, current, power, etc.)
deflection and instrument constants. to be measured can be determined
A good example of an absolute from the deflection of the instruments
instrument is the tangent on the calibrated dial.
galvanometer.
 Secondary instruments are further classified according to their
functions, that is, whether the instrument indicates, or records the
quantity to be measured. Accordingly, we have indicating, integrating and
recording instruments.

Indicating instruments: These instruments, as shown in Figs, indicate the value of voltage, current
power etc. directly on a graduated dial. Ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeter’s belong to this class.

Integrating instruments: These instruments measure the total amount, either the quantity
of electricity or the electrical energy, supplied to a circuit over a period of time. Ampere hour
meters and energy meters belong to this class. Fig shows the Kilowatt hour/energy meter.

Recording instruments: These instruments register the quantity to be measured in a given

time, and are provided with a pen which moves over a graph paper. With this instrument,
the quantity can be checked for any particular date and time. Recording voltmeters,
ammeters and power factor meters belong to this class. Fig shows such a recording
instrument.
Indicating instruments Integrating instruments Recording instruments
 Secondary instruments may also be classified according to the
various effects of electricity upon which their operation depends.
The effects utilized are as follows.

 Magnetic effect
 Heating effect
 Chemical effect
 Electrostatic effect
 Electromagnetic induction effect
 The following three forces are essential requirements of
an indicating instrument for its satisfactory operation. They
are-

 Deflecting force
 Controlling force
 Damping force.
 This causes the moving system of the instrument to move
from its 'zero' position, when the instrument is connected to
the supply. To obtain this force in an instrument, different
effects of electric current, such as magnetic effect, heating
effect, chemical effect etc. are employed.
 How this deflecting force is developed in an instrument will
be explained later while explaining the individual type of
instruments.
  This force is essential to control the movement of the moving system and to
ensure that the magnitude of the deflection of the pointer is always the same
for a given value of the quantity to be measured. As such, the controlling
force always acts opposite to the deflecting force, and also brings the pointer
to zero position when the instrument is disconnected from the supply.
 The controlling force could be produced by any one of the following ways.
Gravity control & Spring control

Gravity control: In this method, small Spring control: The most common
adjustable weights are attached to the arrangement of spring control utilises two
opposite extension of the pointer . These phosphor-bronze or beryllium-copper spiral
weights are attracted by the earth's hair-springs , the inner ends of which are
gravitational pull, and thereby, produce the attached to the spindle. The outer end of the
required controlling force (torque). The spring is fixed, whereas that of one is attached
instruments with gravity control are to be to the end of a lever pivoted , thereby enabling
used in the vertical position only. the zero adjustment to be easily effected when
needed.
Gravity control Spring control
 This force is necessary to bring the moving system to rest in its final
deflected position quickly. Without such damping, the combination
of the inertia of the moving system and the controlling force makes
the pointer (moving system) to oscillate about its final deflected
position for some time before coming to rest, resulting in a waste of
time in taking the reading.

It is also divided in to 3 types

 Under damping.
 Over damping.
 Critical damping.
 The damping torque is proportional to the speed of rotation of
the moving system, that is

 Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in the

moving system, the instrument may have any one of the
following conditions as depicted in above graph
 Critical damping: If the pointer moves quickly to its
final deflected position without any sort of oscillation,
the damping is called as 'critical damping' .
 Under damping: If the pointer of the instrument is
the 'dead beat‘ & will oscillate before coming to the
final deflected position is called under-damped
instrument.
 Over damping: If the pointer of the instrument
comes slowly to the final deflected position is called as
over damping instruments.
 I.E. Eddy current damping & Air friction damping.
 Eddy current damping: Here a copper or aluminium disc D,is attached to the spindle 'S'. When
the pointer moves, the disc also moves.
 The disc is made to move in the air gap between the poles of a permanent magnet M. The moving
disc cuts the flux, thereby inducing eddy currents in the disc. According to Lenz's law, the flux
produced by the eddy current opposes the movement of the disc, thereby effecting the damping
force.
 In the case of moving coil instruments, the moving coil is wound on a thin aluminium former. The
eddy currents induced in the former produces the damping force.
 Air friction damping: In this method of obtaining air friction damping. Accordingly a thin metal
vane V is attached to the spindle S, and the vane is made to move inside a sector shaped box C while
the pointer moves on the graduated scale.
 Alternatively, the vane in the form of a piston could be arranged to move inside an air chamber
(cylinder)as shown in Fig. In the above two cases, the air inside the air chamber opposes the
movement of the vane/piston, and, thereby, the damping force is created.
 The most commonly used instrument to measure DC quantities like voltage and current, is
the permanent magnet moving coil (P.M.M.C) instrument.
 Principle: The working of the P.M.M.C instrument is based on the principle that when a current-
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force which tends to move the
conductor.The DC motor also works on this principle.
 Construction: The P.M.M.C instrument consists of a permanent magnet and a rectangular coil
wound with a very fine gauge insulated copper wire on a thin light aluminium former. The
aluminium former not only supports the coil but also produces eddy current for damping. The coil
and the former are attached with spindles on either side, and supported by jewelled bearings so as to
make the assembly move freely in the air gap as shown in Fig. The two ends of the coil are connected
to two phosphor-bronze springs, fixed one on each spindle to lead in and lead out the current. The
springs are spiralled in the opposite direction in order to neutralize the effect of temperature
changes. The horseshoe shaped permanent magnet is made of an al/ay called 'Alnico' and it has soft
iron pole pieces which are shaped to distribute uniform flux in the air gap.
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

 The P.M.M.C instrument consumes  The P.M.M.C instrument Can be

less power.
used only in DC.
 Has uniform scale and can cover an
arc up to 2700.  Is very delicate.
 Has high torque/weight ratio. Is costly when compared., to a
 Can be modified as voltmeter or moving iron instrument.
ammeter with suitable resistors May show errors due to loss of
 Has efficient damping. magnetism of the permanent
 Is not affected by stray magnetic magnet.
fields, and has no loss due to
Hysteresis.
 Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure
alternating voltages and currents. In moving-iron instruments the
movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft
iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic
field produced by the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely:

1. Repulsion (or double iron) type.

2. Attraction (or single-iron) type.
 The deflecting torque in any moving-iron instrument is due to forces on a
small piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying
the operating current. In repulsion type moving–iron instrument
consists of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current-
carrying coil. One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free
to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic
field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns if the instrument
is an ammeter or of many turns if the instrument is a voltmeter.
 Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and
repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional
rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current
in the coil, making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity
Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces the restoring torque.
Only the fixed coil carries load current, and it is constructed so as to
withstand high transient current.
 Moving iron instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat
crowded in the lower range of calibration.
 Advantages: Disadvantages:
 The instruments are suitable for • Error due to variation in
use in AC and DC circuits. temperature.
 The instruments are robust, owing •Error due to friction is quite small
to the simple construction of the as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving parts. moving coil instruments.
Stray fields cause relatively low
 The stationary parts of the
values of magnetizing force
instruments are also simple.
produced by the coil. Efficient
 Instrument is low cost compared to magnetic screening is essential to
moving coil instrument. reduce this effect.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus •error due to variation of frequency
less frictional error. causes change of reactance of the
coil and also changes the eddy
currents induced in neighbouring
metal.
•Deflecting torque is not exactly
proportional to the square of the
current due to non-linear
characteristics of iron material.
 Analogue type Digital type
 It is difficult to read the exart  It is very easy to read.
value.  The electronices item tend to be
 Here more mechanical cheaper than the mechanical item.
arrangements are required.  The date from the instruments can
 We can’t record the data for future be recoded for future referance.
referance.  The output of the digital devices
 Physically we can visualise the data. can be obtained in the computer.
Measuring Instruments
 Voltage a unit of measure
is the driving force, or potential
difference behind electron flow,
and hence the force behind the
flow of current in a electrical
circuit. Energy always flows
from an area of high energy to
low energy. So to measure the
difference we are using
voltmeter & it is connected in
parrell form.
 A meter designed to measure electrical
current is popularly called an
"ammeter" because the unit of
measurement is "amps."
 In ammeter designs, external resistors
added to extend the usable range of the
movement are connected in parallel with
the movement rather than in series as is
the case for voltmeters.
 This is because we want to divide the
measured current, not the measured
voltage, going to the movement, and
because current divider circuits are
always formed by parallel resistances.
 Vibrating type frequency meters
are most commonly used circuit
meters.
 They can be used to spot check the
frequency of power sources or
equipment signals.
 Magnetizing coil A is connected in
series with a large value of
resistance. Coil B is connected in
series with a large inductance and
the two circuits are supplied in
parallel by the source.
 The electrical energy supplied by
the Electricity board should be
billed, based on the actual amount
of energy consumed. We need a
device to measure the energy
supplied to a consumer.
 Electrical energy is measured in
kilowatt hours in practice. The
meter used for this is an energy
meter.
 In AC, an induction type of energy
meter is universally used for
measurement of energy in domestic
and industrial circuits.
 Overview of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter
Single phase induction type energy meter is also popularly known
as watt-hour meter.
Induction type energy meter essentially consists of following
components:
i. Driving system
ii. Moving system
iii. Braking system and
iv. Registering system
Driving system
It consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series”
magnet, of laminated construction. A coil having large number of turns
of fine wire is wound on the middle limb of the shunt magnet.
 Overview of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter

Driving system
This coil is known as “pressure or voltage” coil and is connected across
the supply mains. This voltage coil has many turns and is arranged to be
as highly inductive as possible. In other words, the voltage coil produces
a high ratio of inductance to resistance.
 An adjustable copper shading rings are provided on the central limb of
the shunt magnet to make the phase angle displacement
between magnetic field set up by shunt magnet and supply voltage is
approximately 90 degree.
 The copper shading bands are also called the power factor
compensator or compensating loop. The series electromagnet is
energized by a coil, known as “current” coil which is connected in
series with the load so that it carry the load current. The flux
produced by this magnet is proportional to, and in phase with the load
current.
 Overview of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter

Moving system
 The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium
disk mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the
aluminium disk is connected by a gear arrangement to the clock
mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that
consumed energy by the load.
 The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc
 The number of rotations of the disk is therefore proportional to the
energy consumed by the load in a certain time interval and is
commonly measured in kilowatt-hours (Kwh)
 Overview of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter

Braking system
 Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet,
located diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes
between the magnet gaps. The movement of rotating disc through the
magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc
that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque.
 By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the
flux there form, the speed of the rotating disc can be controlled.

Registering or Counting system

The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train,
driven either by worm or pinion gear on the disc shaft, which turns
pointers that indicate on dials the number of times the disc has turned
 Overview of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter

Registering or Counting system

The energy meter thus determines and adds together or integrates all
the instantaneous power values so that total energy used over a period
is thus known.

nnn
 Working of Single phase induction type Energy Meter
The basic working of Single phase induction type Energy
Meter is only focused on two mechanisms:
i. Mechanism of rotation of an aluminum disc which is
made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power.
ii. Mechanism of counting and displaying the amount of
energy transferred
 Working of Single phase induction type Energy Meter
Mechanism of rotation of an aluminum disc
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is
connected 0r arranged in such a way that it produces a
magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other
produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The
field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag
coil.
A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional
to the speed of rotation of the disc – this acts as a brake
which causes the disc to stop spinning when power stops
being drawn rather than allowing it to spin faster and faster.
This causes the disc to rotate at a speed proportional to the
power being used
 Working of Single phase induction type Energy Meter

Mechanism of displaying the amount of energy

transferred
 The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm
gear which drives the register. The register is a series of dials
which record the amount of energy used.
 The dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like
display that is easy to read where for each dial a single digit is
shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the
pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit.
 It should be noted that with the dial pointer type, adjacent
pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the
gearing mechanism.
 Advantage and Disadvantage of Single phase Induction
type Energy Meter
Advantage
 No moving iron.
 High torque is to weight ratio.
 The moving element has no electrical contact with the circuit.
 Less affected by stray magnetic field.
 More accurate on a wide range of loads.
 Good damping.
Disadvantage
 Without proper compensation measures, a considerable amount of
errors are caused in the measurement due to temperature, waveform
and frequency changes.
 Induction meters can use only for AC measurements.
 They consume a considerable amount of power.
 They have nonlinear scales
 Three Phase energy meter
• An energy meter is used to measure the energy consumed in the
kilowatt hours. This is used in each and every house and industry for
calculating the energy consumed by them. A 3-phase energy
meter has same elements as in case of a single-phase energy
meter.
Construction of three phase energy meter:
 A 3-phase energy meter has following systems. This systems are
same for both single phase and three phase energy meters.They are:
1. Driving System.
2. Moving System.
3. Breaking System.
4.Registering or Counting System.
 Three Phase energy meter
A 3-phase induction motor has same four systems but they are
arranged in a different way as shown in the figure given below.
 Three Phase energy meter
• For same power/energy the driving torque should be equal in both
elements. For adjusting torque in both the elements we have two
current coils connected in phase opposition and two potential coils
connected in parallel.
• Full load current passes through current coil and this arrangement
causes two torques to be in opposition and the disc doesn't move if
torques are equal. Magnetic shunt is adjusted if there is inequality in
torques to make the disc to stand still. Before testing a 3 phase
energy meter torque balance is obtained in this way.
• Aluminum discs are acted upon by the two coils one is voltage coil
and the other is current coil. Voltage coil produces magnetic flux
proportional to voltage and current coil produces magnetic flux
proportional to current. The voltage coil field lags by 90 degrees by
using a lag coil.
 Three Phase energy meter
 Due to this two torques eddy currents are produced in the
aluminum discs and discs rotate on a common shaft. Force exerted
on the aluminum disc is proportional to product of instantaneous
current and voltage. To this shaft a gear arrangement is made and a
needle is attached to this gear so when discs rotates this needle
moves on dial and counts the number of rotations of the disc.
 A permanent magnet is used to produce a force in opposition and
proportional to the speed of disc. When power is switched off this
acts as break and makes the disc to stop rotating instead of rotating
faster. Disc rotates at a speed proportional to power consumed
 Advantage and Dis of Three Phase energy r
Advantage
• The instrument is more accurate than the thermal type
• Its scale is uniform
Disadvantages
• This meter is costly since it involves it involves mechanism of great
complexity
• The meter suffer from a serious disadvantage. If maximum demand
occurs after start of one time interval and continue over only a part
of the real maximum is not indicated since it is split up into two
different time interval.
 Power in an electric circuit is the product
(multiplication) of voltage and current, so any
meter designed to measure power must account
for both of these variables.
 A special meter movement designed especially
for power measurement is called the dynamometer
movement, and is similar to a D'Arsonval or
Weston movement in that a lightweight coil of
wire is attached to the pointer mechanism.
 However, unlike the D'Arsonval or Weston
movement, another (stationary) coil is used
instead of a permanent magnet to provide the
magnetic field for the moving coil to react
against.
 The moving coil is generally energized by the
voltage in the circuit, while the stationary coil is
generally energized by the current in the circuit. M-POWER SUPPLY
L-LOAD
C-M SHORTED
V-NEUTRAL
 When the need arises to correct for poor
power factor in an AC power system, you
probably won't have the luxury of knowing
the load's exact inductance in henrys to use
for your calculations.
 You may be fortunate enough to have an
instrument called a power factor meter to tell
you what the power factor is (a number
between 0 and 1), and the apparent power
(which can be figured by taking a voltmeter
reading in volts and multiplying by an
ammeter reading in amps).
 In less favorable circumstances you may have
to use an oscilloscope to compare voltage
and current waveforms, measuring phase
shift in degrees and calculating power factor
by the cosine of that phase shift.
First, we need to calculate the apparent power in kVA. We can do this by multiplying load voltage
by load current:

THEN
 A tachometer (revolution-counter,
Tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an
instrument measuring the rotation
speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor
or other machine.The device usually
displays the revolutions per minute
(RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial,
but digital displays are increasingly
common.
 A multimeter is used to measure voltage
(ac/dc), current or
resistance,capacitor,frequency, electronics
componets, depending upon the function
selected.
 A voltmeter is used to measure voltage
across a component or circuit
 An ammeter is used to measure current
through a circuit
 An ohmmeter is used to measure
resistance
 A clamp meter (clamp-on ammeter)
is a type of ammeter which measures
electrical current without the need to
disconnect the wiring through which the
current is flowing.
 Clamp meters are also known as tong
testers.
 Modern ammeter designs are of digital
type,and use an analog to digital converter
to measure the unknown current which is
shown on a digital display
 A handy inexpensive item to add to a tool
box is the one dollar neon tester. It is useful
to identify polarity in DC and identify the
ungrounded conductor in AC circuits.
 For DC there is a polarity indicator. In AC
simply hold one end of the tester between
your fingers and touch the other end of the
tester to the conductor to be measured. A
slight glow will be present if you are on the
ungrounded conductor.
 Another type of neon tester is the receptacle
outlet tester, a very useful tool for every
electrician. This item, when plugged into an
outlet, will give you detailed indication of
how the receptacle is wired.
 A light meter is a device used to
measure the amount of light.
 In photography, a light meter is often
used to determine the proper
exposure for a photograph.
 Typically a light meter will include a
computer, either digital or analog,
which allows the photographer to
determine which shutte speed and f-
number should be selected for an
optimum exposure, given a certain
lighting situation and film speed.
 Oscilloscopes
 Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical signal
over time, such that voltage and time describe a shape which is
continuously graphed against a calibrated scale. The observed
waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude,
frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion and others
The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as
it varies over time. Most scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with
time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.

An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display

and analyze the waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device
draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time
 Instrument Transformers
.
 Instrument Transformers
What is an Instrument Transformer ?
 It is a transformer that is used in conjunction with any measuring
instrument (i.e., Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Watt-hour-meter,
…etc.)or protective equipment (i.e., Relays).
 It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation
properties to measure high ac current and voltage.
Types of instrument transformers :
These instrument transformers are of two types:-
1. Current transformers
2. Potential transformers
 Instrument Transformers
What is an Instrument Transformer ?
 It is a transformer that is used in conjunction with any measuring
instrument (i.e., Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Watt-hour-meter,
…etc.)or protective equipment (i.e., Relays).
 It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation
properties to measure high ac current and voltage.
Types of instrument transformers :
These instrument transformers are of two types:-
1. Current transformers
2. Potential transformers
 Applications of Instrument Transformers:
 For measurement of high ac current, it is usual to use low range ac ammeter with
suitable shunt.
 For measurement of high ac voltage, low range ac voltmeters are used with high
resistances connected in series.
 For measurement of very high ac current and voltage, we cannot use these methods.
Instead, we use specially constructed HV instrument transformers to insulate the
high voltage circuit from the measuring circuit in order to protect the measuring
instruments from burning
 Application of Instrumentation Transformers In dc circuits for current and voltage
measurement, we use low range dc ammeters and voltmeters with rectifiers
connected in their secondary circuits.
 The vast primary application of Instrument Transformers is for the
protection and control of power system and power equipment of high
and very high ratings.
 The working of these instrument transformers are similar to those of
the ordinary transformers.
 Instrument Transformers

Basic Construction and Magnetic Circuit of Instrument Transformers

 Instrument Transformers

 Polarity of Instrument Transformers

 Current Transformers
What is current Transformer (CT)
 A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its
secondary winding low current, which is proportional to the high
current flowing in its primary winding.
 The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the
primary current.
 The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected
to its secondary winding. Measuring instrument or Protective
instrument.
-Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results
up to a maximum of 125% of its normal full-load rated current.
-Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to
20 times of its normal full-load rated current.
 Current Transformers
Construction of C.T.:
 C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick wire connected
in series with the line whose current is to be measured.
 The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of fine wire and is
connected across an ammeter or a relay’s terminals.
 Construction Types of Current Transformers

 Window-type Bar-type
Current Transformers
Function of CT:
 The principal function of a CT is to produce a proportional current at a
level of magnitude, which is suitable for the operation of low-range
measuring or protective devices such as indicating or recording instruments
and relays.
 The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5
or 1000/5 .
 With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary winding will result in
5A flowing in the secondary winding, provided that the correct rated
burden is connected to the secondary winding.
Current Transformers Stepping:
 These are used with low range ammeters to measure current in high voltage
alternating circuits where it is not practical to connect instrument and
meters directly to lines.
 They are step-up transformers (voltage ratio) because when we step-up
the voltage the current decreases.
 The current is a step-down in a known ratio called the current ratio .
Connections of Current Transformers

Single-Ratio Multi-Ratio CT
Current Transformers
Working (Measurement):
 If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5 then
it steps up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20 times of its
actual value.
 If we know the current ratio and the reading of an a.c. ammeter, the primary current can be calculated as:
Primary Current = CT ratio × ammeter reading
Why CT secondary should never be open ?:
 Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works as a
short-circuited instrument.
 If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short-circuited with the help of a short-circuit
switch.
 If this is not done, then a high m.m.f. (Ampere-turns IT) will set up a high flux
in the magnetic core and it will produce excessive core loss which produce
heat and high voltage across the secondary terminals .
 The high voltage can damage any electronic components in secondary side.
 Hence the secondary of any current transformer should never be left open.
 Current Transformers
.

Transformer Ratio = Primary Current

_____________________
Secondary Current

Primary Current Secondary Current

(100 amps) (5 amps)

100
___ = 100:5 or 20:1
5
 Potential Transformers
What is a Potential Transformer (PT) or (VT)
 A PT or sometimes called VT is a step-down transformer having many primary turns but few
secondary turns.
 In a step-down transformer the voltage decreases and the current increases, thus voltage can be easily
measured by using a low-range voltmeter instrument.
 The voltage is stepped-down in a known ratio called the voltage ratio.
Construction and working of P.T.:
Construction
 A potential transformer has many primary winding turns but few number of secondary winding turns
that makes it a step-down transformer.
 A Voltmeter is connected to the secondary winding is usually a voltmeter of 150 V.
Working (Measurement):
 Primary terminals are connected in parallel across the line to which the voltage is to be measured.
 The voltmeter reading gives the transformed value of the voltage across the secondary terminals.
 The deflection of the voltmeter when divided by the transformed ratio gives the actual voltage across
the primary winding as:
The Line voltage = deflection / transformation-Ratio
Where transformation ratio = V2/V1
 Potential Transformers
Precaution for P.T.
 Since the secondary of a p.t. is connected to relays, their ratings are
usually 40 to 100 Watts.
 For safety purpose the secondary should be completely insulated from
the high voltage primary and should be in addition grounded.
Types of P.T. :
Some types of p.t. are:
 Shell type
 Dry type
 Oil type
Rating Type
1. Below 5000 v Shell type
2. 5000-13800 v Dry type and oil type
3. Above 13800 v only oil type
Basic important rules for Instrument Transformers
Rule # 1
 Never open circuit a current transformer secondary
while the primary is energized
CTs are intended to be proportional current devices.
Very high voltages can result from open circuiting the
secondary circuit of an energized CT. Even very small
primary currents can cause damage
Rule # 2
Never short circuit the secondary of an energized VT
 VTs are intended to be used as proportional voltage
devices. Damaging current will result from short
circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized VT
Basic important rules for Instrument Transformers
Rule # 3
CT secondary leads must be added to the CT burden
Electronic relays usually represent very little burden to the CT
secondary circuit. In many cases the major burden is caused
by the CT secondary leads.
Rule # 4
 Never use a 60 Hz rated VT on a 50 Hz System
60 Hz VTs may saturate at lower frequencies and exceed
temperature limitations. VT failure is likely…severe equipment
damage is possible.
 Measurement Errors
 Practically all measurements of continuums involve
errors. Understanding the nature and source of these
errors can help in reducing their impact.
 Error: It is the deviation of the measured (or indicated) value
from the true (or expected) value of a quantity. In other words,
error is the difference between the measured value and the true
value of the unknown quantity.
The types of errors include:
1. Systematic errors and
2. Random errors.
 Systematic errors
 Systematic error are deterministic; they may be predicted and
hence eventually removed from data.
 Systematic errors may be traced by a careful examination of
the measurement path: from measurement object, via the
measurement system to the observer.
 Another way to reveal a systematic error is to use the
repetition method of measurements.
 NB: Systematic errors may change with time, so it is
important that sufficient reference data be collected to allow
the systematic errors to be quantified
Random errors
 Systematic error are deterministic; they may be predicted
and hence eventually removed from data.
 Random error vary unpredictably for every successive
measurement of the same physical quantity, made with
the same equipment under the same conditions.
 We cannot correct random errors, since we have no
insight into their cause and since they result in random
(non-predictable) variations in the measurement result.
 When dealing with random errors we can only speak of
the probability of an error of a given magnitude.
 NB: Random errors are described in probabilistic terms,
while systematic errors are described in deterministic
terms. Unfortunately, this deterministic character makes
it more difficult to detect systematic errors.
 Purpose of Calibration
 Purpose of Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting
the precision and accuracy of measurement equipment.
 Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the
standard) and the measurement using your instrument and
Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to
maintain instrument accuracy. Calibration is the process of
configuring an instrument to provide a result for a sample within an
acceptable range
 There are three main reasons for having instruments calibrated: To
ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other
measurement.
 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings. To establish
the reliability of the instrument i.e. that it can be trusted
 Purpose of Calibration
The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of
measurand by comparison with standard ones. The standard of device
with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The
instrument which is unknown & is to be calibrated is called
test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is
compared with standard instrument.
Types of calibration methodologies:
There are two methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test
instrument & standard instrument. These methodologies are
i. Direct comparisons
ii. Indirect comparisons
 Purpose of Calibration
Direct comparisons:
In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to
the meter under test. The ratio of what meter is indicating & the known
generator values gives the meter’ s error.
In such case the meter is the test instrument while the generator is the
standard instrument.
The deviation of meter from the standard value is compared with the
allowable performance limit.
 Purpose of Calibration
Indirect comparisons:
In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the
response
standard instrument of same type i .e., if test instrument is meter,
standard
instrument is also meter, if test instrument is generator; the standard
instrument is also generator & so on.
If the test instrument is a meter then the same input is applied to the test
meter as well a standard meter. In case of generator calibration, the
output of the generator tester as well as standard, or set to same nominal
levels. Then the transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of
both standard and test generator.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
i. Static characteristics
ii. Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not
vary with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility
vi) Repeatability
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
vii) Resolution
viii) Threshold
x) Stability
xi) Tolerance
xii) Range or span
Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true
value of the quantity to be measured.
Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in
the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.
Linearity:
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically & linearly.
Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of
time.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will
again be found that output does not change at all until a certain
increment is exceeded.
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will
be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected.
This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is
specified operating life.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
Tolerance:
 The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in
terms of some value which is called Tolerance.
Range or span:
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument
is designed to measure is called its range or span.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
Dynamic characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly
with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various dynamic characteristics are:
i. Speed of response
ii. Measuring lag
iii. Fidelity
iv. Dynamic error
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to changes in the measured quantity.
 Performance characteristics of an instrument
Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity.
Fidelity:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error
is assumed. It is also called measurement error.