SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

• Social stratification is the study of

social structure in which various
individuals have been assigned
different roles and statuses (both
achieved and ascribed) in such a
way that certain persons are at
the top while others are at the
bottom.
• Social stratification is a hierarchy of
layers or strata that are unequal in
terms of property, power and
prestige.

• This stratification and division of

people into different groups and
specialization of roles and statuses is
very important for the dynamism of
the society. Every individual/ group
will perform the allotted duty and
role then the society will be bought
from stagnancy into the dynamic
form.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff:
‘The process by which individuals
and groups are ranked in more or
less enduring hierarchy of status is
known as stratification.”
• Lundberg:
“A stratified society is one marked
by inequality, by differences among
people that are evaluated by them
as being “lower” and “higher”.
• The Holy Quran says,
O mankind! We (God) created you from a single pair of
male and a female; and made you into peoples and
tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may
despise each other). Verily the most honored in the
sight of God is (he who is) the most righteous among
you…
(The Holy Quran, Surah al-Hujuraat, verse 13)
• Serve God, and join not any partners with Him; and do
good—To parents, orphans, those in need, neighbors
who are near, neighbors who are strangers; the
companion by your side, the way-farer (ye meet), and
what your right hands possess: For God loveth not the
arrogant, the vain glorious;—
Qur'an 4:36
• Once class position is not directly
proportional to once income. A
social class is basically a way of
life. money or wealth and income
is a strong and fundamental base
for creation of social stratification
and social stratification leads to a
class society
• As the people developed specialized
kind of work they also want the idea
that some kind of work were
honorable than others.
• People tend to assign class, status
according to their occupation. A
persons status standard of living
kind of education amount etc can
be guessed through the occupation.
 Social class and education interact in
at least two ways
• First a higher education requires
money plus motivation
• Second the amount and kind of
education effects the class ranks
secured
So education leads to specialization
of occupation which in direct leads
to social stratification
• Due to the ideological differences,
social differentiation develops and
then it leads to social
stratification.
• Different groups and strata
developed in Islam include Sunni,
Shia, Wahabi etc
• There is no society in this world
which is free from stratification.
Modern stratification differs from
stratification of primitive societies.
• It is a worldwide phenomenon.
According to Sorokin “all
permanently organized groups
are stratified.”
• It is true that biological qualities do not
determine one’s superiority and
inferiority.
• Factors like age, gender, intelligence as
well as strength often contribute as the
basis on which statues are distinguished.
• But one’s education, property, power,
experience, character, personality etc.
are found to be more important than
biological qualities. Hence, stratification
is social by nature.
• Stratification system is very old. It
was present even in the small
wondering bonds. In almost all
the ancient civilizations, the
differences between the rich and
poor, humble and powerful
existed.
• The forms of stratification is not uniform
in all the societies
• In India a special type of stratification in
the form of caste is found.
• The ancient Greeks were divided into
freemen and slaves and the ancient
Romans were divided into the patricians
and the plebeians.
• So every society, past or present, big or
small is characterized by diverse forms
of social stratification.
• Social stratification is based upon
a variety of principles. So we find
different type of stratification.
• The major types of stratification
are
(i) Class
(ii) Caste
• Caste is a hereditary endogamous
social group in which a person’s
rank and its accompanying rights
and obligations are ascribed on
the basis of his birth into a
particular group. For example-
Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas
and Sudra Caste.
• Class-Stratification on the basis of
class is dominant in modern
society. In this, a person’s position
depends to a very great extent
upon achievement and his ability
to use to advantage the inborn
characteristics and wealth that he
may possess.
• Social stratification is a common
phenomenon occurring
throughout the world and
especially class stratification is
everywhere, not in a particular
place. There are different classes.
The member of each class enjoy
common standards of living and
styles of life.
• A group of people sharing the
same social position in society.

• A Class may be based on

income, power, education,
occupation or a combination of
two or more but it depends
largely on economic differences
between groups.
• Ogburn and Nimkoff.
“A social class is the aggregate of
persons having essentially the same
social status in a given society”
• Henslin
“A social class is a large group of people
who rank closely to one another in
wealth, power, and prestige”
• Karl Marx:
"a group of people having more or less
equal economic resources and indicating
similar standards of living in a society "
• Karl Marx : A social condition in
which members of a social class, and
in particular the working class, are
actively aware of themselves as a
class.

• An example of class consciousness is

the thinking of a country club where
only people who have had wealth
for generations can join.
• A class is a universal
phenomenon. The class system is
found in almost all the modern
complex societies of the world.
Economic factor has been widely
accepted as the principal basis for the
formation of class. It does not mean
that other factors such as, political
clout, intellectual capability; education,
occupation etc. are not responsible for
class formation.
• It only indicates that in modern
societies economic factors play a
crucial role in the formation of
classes and sub-classes.
• Society is composed of
innumerable social classes. Hence
it is quite natural that we see a
whole spectrum of hierarchical
gradation of these social classes.
• A class is relatively a stable group.
It is not short-lived like a crowd or
a mob. However, the ‘stability
element’ of a class is vitally
affected under certain
extraordinary situations such as
crises in the social, economic and
political spheres, wars, revolutions
etc.
• A social class is an open group. It
believes in vertical mobility. In the
class system upward or downward
movement of individuals in the
social hierarchy is rendered possible.
This should not be construed to
mean that there is no resistance at
all in the class system. But the
resistance to social mobility is very
mild.
• Each class has its life-style. Life-style
includes the dress pattern, the type
of house and the social environment
where the members live, the means
of recreation one resorts to, the
circle of friendship, one’s mode of
conveyance and communication,
one’s way of spending money etc.
Differences in classes are expressed
in different life styles
• Class system is classified into two
types:
1. General classification
2. Sociological classification.
:
• Defined classes:
It is the segment of population that is
recognized by the society and is culturally
defined group. The status and right of the
people belonging to a particular class are
clear to everyone.

• Cultural classes:
The classes which develop the culture of
their own, having their own value system,
pattern of behavior etc. These traits will
vary from class to class. E.g. landlords have
different class from that of tenants.
• Economic class:
Societies are divided into classes on
the basis of economic activities as
well, an important criteria for
determining the class of a person is
economic status and family
background.(rich, middle and poor)

• Political classes:
The class is judged from the amount
of political power it holds.it includes
the ruled and the rules.
• Self-identified classes:
It is a subjective view of the person,
which is important in determining his
class, it is psychological i.e. to which
class a person identifies himself. He
becomes conscious of his class and
mostly develops feelings for the people
of his class.

• Participation class:
People develop social ties and contacts
with the people of their own class, social
participation is restricted to the people
of the same class.
• Warner has classified classes into six
types- upper-upper class, upper-
middle class, upper-lower class,
lower-upper class, the lower middle
class and lower class.
 Upper-upper class:
The people belonging to this class
enjoy high socio economic and
political status in the society. The
upper-upper class people have old
money, as they belong to rich
families e.g. Nawabs of Mardan,
Jadoon of Hazara.
 Lower-upper class:
The members belonging to this group are
also rich but they have become rich recently
and have not learned the sub-culture of
upper class yet. Their clothes and cars are
more likely to be flashy and their
vocabulary is not as plain as that of upper
class.

 The middle class:

The middle class are the “sandwich” class.
These white collar workers have more
money than those below them on the
“social ladder,” but less than those above
them. They divide into two levels according
to wealth, education, and prestige.
 Lower middle class:
Is often made up of less educated
people with lower incomes, such as
managers, small business owners,
teachers, and secretaries.
Shopkeepers, in clerical jobs and the
like.
 Upper middle class:
Is often made up of highly educated
business and professional people with
high incomes, such as doctors,
lawyers. This class is the backbone of
the society.
 Upper-lower class (working):
•The working class are those minimally
educated people who engage in
“manual labor” i.e. carpenters,
plumbers and electricians.
•They are often called blue collar
workers
•They have their own set of cultural
and behavior patterns.
Lower-lower class:
The lower class is typified by poverty,
homelessness, and unemployment.
People of this class suffer from lack of
medical care, adequate housing and
food, decent clothing, safety, and
vocational training. Unskilled workers in
the class—dishwashers, cashiers, maids,
and waitresses—usually are underpaid
and have no opportunity for career
advancement. They are often called
the working poor.
• Caste is a permanent group
having its status ascribed at birth.
It cannot be changed.
• A.W.Green:
Caste is a system of stratification,
in which mobility up and down
the status ladder, at last ideally
may not occur.
• Maciver:
“When status is wholly pre-
determined, so that men are born
to their lot without any change in
it, then the class takes the
extreme form of caste.”
• Caste is a closed social group.
• Caste system hierarchically divides
the society.
• A sense of highness and lowness or
superiority and inferiority is
associated with this gradation or
ranking.
• The status of an individual is
determined by his birth and not by
selection nor by accomplishments.
• Each caste has its own customs,
traditions practices and rituals. It
has its own informal rules,
regulations and procedures.
• The caste panchayats or the caste
councils regulate the conduct of
members.
• There is gradation of occupations
also. Some occupations are
considered superior and sacred
while certain others degrading
and inferior.
• Each caste had its own specific
occupations which were almost
hereditary. There was no scope for
individual talent, aptitude,
enterprise or abilities.
• The caste system imposes
restrictions on marriage also.
• Caste is an endogamous group.
Each caste is subdivided into
certain sub castes which are again
endogamous.
• Inter-caste marriages are still
looked down upon in the
traditional Indian society.
• Following are the important
characteristics of a caste system:
1. Segmental Division
2. Group Hierarchy
3. Restrictions on Mixing
4. Religious Disability
5. Limited choice of occupation
6. Restrictions on Marriage
• In segmental division of a caste
system, a society is divided into
different segments.
• In this segmental division the status
or position of an individual is
recognized by birth not by ability or
money.
• Caste confined the behavior of an
individual in segmental division and
described punishment for the
violators.
• It divides group into lower and
upper groups.
• Those who are on the top of such
groups or segments are
considered pure if they compare
to those who are at the bottom.
• Group hierarchy exists both in
social and religious class and
everyone is limited to remain in
their own group.
• In a society ridden with castes there
are certain fixed habits and mixing
with other castes/classes is
forbidden.
• The caste norms determine social
inter-actions and the people of
higher hierarchy do not mix with the
other people.
• The Inter-mixing and inter-action
between them is quite limited and
rigid.
• Those who belong to lower caste
system are religiously disabled.
• They are not allowed to participate
in any religious activities.
• The upper caste people are the only
one to participate in religious
activities.
• There are severe social and religious
disabilities in caste system.
• Any individual belonging to a
caste cannot choose the
profession of another caste.
• There are limits for everyone in
their caste system while choosing
occupation.
• The occupation is described and
predefined by birth for every caste
system.
• There are two types of people in
every caste which is upper and
lower.
• Those who belong to one caste are
restricted and are not allowed to
keep in touch with other caste in
form of marriages or any other
social interaction.
• There is violation in both caste
system for one another that is why
they cannot marry outside the same
caste.
HINDU SOCIETY
• They are the priestly class, who are
entitled to study the Vedas, perform
rites and rituals for themselves and for
others and obliged to observe the
sacraments.
• They are the middle men between Gods
and the men. They are expected to show
exemplary behavior and spend their life
in the pursuit of divine knowledge and
preservation of the traditions.
• The reading and teaching of Holy Books
is restricted to these alone.
• They are the warrior class, who are
commanded to protect the
people, bestow gifts to Brahmins,
offer sacrifices to Gods and
ancestors, study the Vedas,
Dispense justice.
• Their responsibility is to establish
peace and order in the country.
• They are the merchants and
peasants classes. They had the
right to perform and participate in
certain Vedic rituals but they are
not allowed to marry women of
higher castes.
• Traders, businessmen,
agriculturalists, industrial workers
come under this category.
• They are the labor class, whose
only duty is to serve other castes.
• They were not allowed to observe
any Vedic rituals except a few.
They were not allowed to study
the Vedas or even hear the sacred
chants. They were not allowed to
eat food in the company of higher
castes or marry their women.
• The lowest of the Shudras are called
chandalas. They are also known as
the impure ones. They were treated
as untouchables.
• In ancient times they were not
allowed to enter the village or city
during day time or walk in the same
street where men of other castes
walked.
• Even their shadow was considered
impure.
 ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES OF CASTE
SYSTEM
1. Continuity of traditions
2. Division Of Labor:
Caste System promoted division
of labor and specialization of
knowledge which helped each
family to improve their vocational
skills and continue them from
generation to generation.
3. Bonds Of Brotherhood:
The system united people under a common
purpose and provided some kind of social
insurance against unfair competitions and
unjust exploitation of labor. They ensured
fair wages to their members and loaned
money to them acting like banks. It
promoted unity, solidarity and fraternity
among them, strengthening the bonds of
their relationship through marriage,
friendship etc
4. Purity of lineages:
By prohibiting unions among castes and
marriages they were able to protect the
purity of their lineages.
• Exploitation of the weak
• Disunity and Division of loyalties
• Foreign Domination
• Preferential Treatment
• Political and Military Implications
• Instrument of oppression
• Low Self-esteem
• Mobility stands for shift, change and
movement. The change may be of a
place or from one position to
another.

• When we prefix ‘social’ along with

mobility it would imply that people
or individual occupying a social
position, move to another position
or status.
• According to Wallace and Wallace:
“Social mobility is the movement of a
person or persons from one social status to
another.”

• According to Horton and Hunt:

“Social mobility may be defined as the act
of moving from one social class to another.”
OR
“Social mobility is movement up or down in
social status and (usually) income and may
be experiences by individuals or by entire
group.”
• The study of social mobility is an
important aspect of social
stratification.

• In fact it is an inseparable aspect

of social stratification system
because the nature, form, range
and degree of social mobility
depends on the very nature of
stratification system.
• There are two types of societies
based on the degree of mobility.

1. Open class society

2. Closed class society
• Closed societies are those in which
movement from one class to
another is nearly impossible. E.g. a
caste system

• At the other extreme are the open

societies in which placement is
based on individual achievement
rather than ascription. E.g. a class
system
• Following are the seven types of
social mobility:
1. Horizontal Mobility
2. Vertical Mobility
3. Territorial Mobility
4. Occupational Mobility
5. Inter generational occupational
Mobility
6. Intra- generation Mobility
7. Educational Mobility
• It refers to change of occupational
position or role of an individual or a
group without involving any change
in its position in the social hierarchy.
Example
A nurse who leaves one hospital to
take a position as a nurse at another
hospital and a manager who accepts
a similar position at another
company are both experiencing
horizontal mobility.
• Vertical mobility refers to any change in the
occupational, economic or political status of
an individual or a group which leads to
change of their position.

• This change can be in both directions; a

person can either move up the status scale
or can come down.
Example
If an industrial worker becomes a
businessman or lawyer he has radically
changed his position in the stratification
system.
• Territorial social mobility is the
change in locality, territory or
residence when an individual
moves from one place to another.

• This trend is common in urban

areas than in rural areas.
• Occupational mobility means
change from one occupation to
another which is usually with a view
to improving prestige, position and
status.
Example
From a clerk to an officer is upward
vertical occupational mobility; from
a clerk to a peon or a smuggler is
downward vertical occupational
mobility.
• Inter-generational occupational
mobility refers to social mobility that
takes place between generations.
• Every generation leaves the
occupation of its ancestors to
practice some new occupation.
• It refers to a change in the status of
family members from one
generation to the next.
Example
A farmer’s son becoming an officer.
• When members of same generation change
over to new occupation, this is called intra
generation mobility.
• It refers to the advancement in one's social
level during the course of one's lifetime.
• It may also be understood as a change in
social status which occurs within a person's
adult career.

Example
A person working as a supervisor in a
factory becoming its assistant manager
after getting promotion.
• When the people improve their
educational qualifications with a
view to getting better social
prestige and position is called
educational mobility.
Example
From degree to post graduate
and from Master to M. Phil, Ph.D.
etc.
• Following are the five main factors:
1. Education/ Literacy
2. Social Change
3. Urbanization and Industrialization
4. Means of communication and
transportation
5. Dissatisfaction from previous
condition
• Education is the main source of
social mobility.
• Both formal and informal teaching
and education, brings rational
thinking and desire to go upward in
the social ladder.
• Education not only helps an
individual to acquire knowledge but
is also a passport for occupational
position for higher prestige.
• Both physical and mental change is
necessary for social mobility.
• Social change brings improvement
in every aspect of life i.e. social,
political, educational and economic.
• Change in these aspects may lead to
change in social status and position
of an individual which is social
mobility.
• Sociologists have found out that
preindustrial and agricultural
societies are most likely to have
closed stratification system.
• Typically individuals in rural societies
will occupy the same social status
throughout their lives.
• Status is based on ascription, family
background being the most
significant factor to be considered.
• As societies move towards
urbanization, chances of
employment and more and more
jobs are created which gives rise
to social mobility.
• Due to these factors all types of
mobility can be observed i.e.
horizontal, vertical, territorial,
occupational etc.
• The traditions, attitudes and
behaviors of people get change due
to transportation and
communication facilities.
• People become aware of their social
life and want change in social status.
• Due to these factors we can observe
social mobility in social life of
people.
• People don’t like to stick to one and
the same thing. They can get
change in their social life as the time
is passing.
• People become dissatisfied from
their previous condition and they
desire for improvement in their
social status.
• So they start trying for getting
better opportunities for growth of
social life.
• Following are the factors which
hinder social mobility:
1. Joint family system
2. Illiteracy
3. Poor economic condition
4. No desire for change
• When old bonds of affiliation and
dependence are present, social
mobility will be hindered.
• The members will be compelled to
live within the same system and it is
obligatory for them to follow all the
rules and regulations of the system.
• Joint family confines the activities of
the members within the boundary
wall of the same family.
• Illiteracy and ignorance also blocks
the way for social mobility.
• The uneducated people don’t have
knowledge about the happenings in
the outside world and have no
rational thinking for the
improvement of life.
• Their attitude may become confined
and they might not want to change
their social status.
• Poor economic condition leads to
technological backwardness.
• This technological backwardness
gives birth to idleness and
unemployment which hinders the
process of social mobility.
• If people are not willing to adopt
new and modern ways of life and
leave the old ones, it will hinder
the way of social mobility.