1

Chapter 1:Fundamental Concepts

and Units of Measurement
Brady & Senese 5th Ed
2
Index
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature
1.3 Matter is composed of elements, compounds, and
mixtures
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty
1.7. Units can be converted using the factor-label method
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences 3
Chemistry and the Sciences
Chemistry- the study of the composition of matter
and its transformations
Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass
Chemical reaction- change that results from the
interaction of matter.
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 4
Scientific Method : Getting Started
Observe a Phenomenon-accurately
describe something we see, taste, feel,
smell or hear
Pose A Question
To Explain The Phenomenon
Form a Hypothesis-a
tentative explanation of the
phenomenon
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 5
Scientific Method: Testing the Hypothesis
Experiment to Prove or Disprove
Hypothesis
If experiment proves
hypothesis,
form theory (theoretical model)
If experiment disproves
hypothesis,
Pose new question or
hypothesis
Continue experimentation.
If results form pattern,
considered a law
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 6
Scientific Method Case Study:
The Process of Growth
A child sees that a seed, when planted in soil,
watered, and exposed to sunlight, grows to form a
flower. He concludes that all living things require
sunlight, water, and burial in soil to grow.
Build a case for rebuttal using the scientific
method.
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 7
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a hypothesis
for the observed plant growth?
A. soil is necessary to all growth
B. light is essential to growth of the seed
C. water is required to allow growth
D. plants grow to a greater height if they
receive fertilizer
E. none of the above
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 8
Your Turn!
A chicken egg is buried, left in the sun, and watered.
A second egg is left above the soil, watered and
left in the sun. Would this prove that soil is
necessary to growth?
A. Yes
B. No
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 9
The Scientific Method- Evaluating The Data
A theory is an explanation (based on well-tested,
internally consistent experimental results)
about why the phenomenon may occur
it should explain currently available data
It should be as simple as possible
It should clearly show underlying connections
It should accurately predict future behaviors
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 10
The Scientific Method is Cyclical
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 11
Atomic Theory Helps Us Visualize Matter
Air inflates a balloon
air must be composed of matter
the matter is colliding with the walls
of the container.
A leaf floats on waters surface
water is composed of particles that
occupy space
A leaf falls through air, but rests
on waters surface
particles are closer in liquid than in
gases
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature 12
Models Helps Us Visualize Matter
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 13
Changes in Matter
Chemical change- a process that results in the
formation of a new substance
Evidence? Formation of a new solid, new liquid,
new gas, temperature change, or an unexpected
color change
Physical change- a process that results in no new
substance, but that may change the state of those
present, or the proportions
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 14
Learning Check: Chemical Or Physical Change?
Chemical Physical
Magnesium burns when heated
in a flame
Magnesium metal tarnishes in
air
Magnesium metal melts at
922K
Grape Kool-aid lightens when
water is added
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 15
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a chemical change?
A. a match burns in air
B. ice melts in air
C. an aluminum door whitens in air
D. all of these
E. none of these
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 16
Matter is either a pure substance or a mixture
Mixtures may be separated using physical methods
such as chromatography, filtration, sieving
Matter Can Be Classified By Its Properties:
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 17
What Is An Element?
Elements - substances that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances
shown on the periodic table as symbols: K for
potassium and Na for sodium
made of identical atoms, either singly or in
groups

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 18
Weird Science
Eleven symbols bear no resemblance to their English
names - their names are derived from other languages
Some of these are used in naming, and these are
highlighted

Sb antimony stibium K potassium kalium
Cu copper cuprum Sn tin stannum
Au Gold aurum Na sodium natrium
Ag silver argentum W tungsten wolfram
Fe iron ferrum Hg mercury hydragyrum
Pb lead plumbum
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 19
What Is A Compound?
Compounds - formed from two or more atoms of
different elements combined in a fixed
proportion
Have different characteristics than the elements
that compose them
Can be broken down into elements by some
chemical changes

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 20
Mixtures
mixtures consist of varying
amounts of two or more
elements or compounds
Homogeneous mixtures or
solutions- have the same
properties throughout the
sample
Brass, tap water
Heterogeneous mixtures-
consist of two or more phases
Salad dressing, Coca-Cola

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 21
Learning Check: Classification
Sand Ice
(H
2
O)
Flour Table Salt
(NaCl)
Pure
Element
Compound
Molecule
Heterogeneous Mix
Homogeneous Mix
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 22
Your Turn!
brass is pure

natural peanut butter made only by
crushing peanuts is pure

because blood cells can be distinguished
from plasma under a microscope, blood
is a heterogeneous mixture:
True
False

True
False

True
False
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 23
Classification Of Matter By State
Classification by state is based on packing, motion,
and shape
Solids have fixed shape and volume
Liquids have fixed volume, but take the container shape
Gases have to expand to fill the shape and volume of
the container

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 24
Properties Of Matter
Chemical properties describe the behavior of the
matter that leads to the formation of a new
substance: the "reactivity" of the substance
Physical properties can be observed about the
matter alone, without changing the composition
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 25
Learning Check: Chemical or Physical
Property?
Chemical Physical
Magnesium metal is grey
Magnesium metal tarnishes in air
Magnesium metal melts at 922K
Magnesium reacts violently with
hydrochloric acid
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 26
Your Turn!
Which of the following is a chemical property?
A. water is colorless
B. water reacts violently with solid Na metal
C. water dissolves table salt
D. all of these
E. none of these
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways 27
Intensive And Extensive Properties
I ntensive properties are independent of sample
size
Examples: color, texture and temperature
Extensive properties depend on sample size
Examples: volume and mass
Properties used to identify substances are always
intensive
Density, color, and texture are often helpful in
identification, but temperature is not
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 28
Measurements are Observations
Qualitative observations are non-numerical-- ask
what or how or why
Quantitative observations are numerical--ask
how much and are also called measurements
This course is general chemistry with quantitative
analysis
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 29
Your turn!
Which of the following is a quantitative
observation?
A. the height of the plant
B. the mass of water added
C. the temperature of the day
D. all of the above
E. none of the above
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 30
Always involve a comparison
Require units
Involve numbers that are inexact (estimated). This
uncertainty is due to the limitations of the observer
and the instruments used
In science, all digits in a measurement up to and
including the first estimated digit are recorded
Measurements:
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 31
Measurements and units
In the U.S., we use the I mperial (USCS) System
The scientific community (and most of the world)
uses the metric system
Variations in the metric system exist, thus a
standard system is used: I nternational System of
Units (SI )
SI units we will use now:
Length (m) Mass (kg) Time (s) Temperature (K)
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 32
Measurement Formula SI Units
Area length width m
2

Volume length width height m
3

Velocity distance/time m/s
Acceleration velocity/time m/s
2

Density mass/volume kg/m
3

Derived units
involve a combination of base units, including:
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 33
Decimal multipliers
Prefix (Symbol) = Numerical Equivalent
Giga ( G ) = 10
9

Mega- ( M ) = 10
6
kilo- ( k ) = 10
3
centi- ( c ) = 10
-2

milli- ( m ) = 10
-3

micro- ( ) = 10
-6

nano- ( n ) = 10
-9
pico ( p ) = 10
-12

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 34
Learning Check: Complete The Missing
Information
kg
10
-12
g
nm
10
6
g
cL
10
9
Hz
10
-9
m
10
-2
L
pg
Mg
GHz
10
3
g
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 35
Your Turn!
Identify the correct conversion:
A. Gm=10
9
m
B. 10
9
Gm = m
C. Gm = 10
-9
m
D. none are correct
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 36
You May Encounter Non-SI Metric Units:
measurement name symbol Value
length angstrom 10
-10
m
mass amu
metric ton
u
t
1.6605410
-27
kg
10
3
kg
time minute
hour
min
h
60 s
3600 s
volume liter L 1000 cm
3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 37
Mass- Matter Content
USCS: oz (avdp.), lb, T
Metric: g
SI: kg
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 38
Length
USCS: in, ft, yd, mi
Metric: L, cm
3

SI: m
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 39
Volume-bulk

measured directly, using
equipment for
volumetric measure
calculated using
dimensional (length)
information and
appropriate formulas.
1 cm
3
= 1mL
USCS: fl. oz., pt., qt.,
gal
Metric: L, cm
3
SI: m
3

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 40
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a USCS unit?
A. ft.
B. m
C. gal.
D. T.
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 41
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a volume unit?
A. mL
B. qt
C. in
3
D. cm
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 42
Temperature
USCS: F
Metric: C
SI: K
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 43
Temperature Conversions
( )
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
C 1
K 1
C 15 . 273
C
K

t T
F 32
C 5
F 9
C F

+
|
.
|

\
|
= t t
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 44
Complete The Following:
13.5C=? F

27.50 F =? C

-34.5 F =?K

F
F C
C
F
F
t

3 . 56 32 3 . 24
32 5 . 13
5
9
= + =
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
C
C
t
F
C F
C
t
F
C F
F
t
C
t
C
F
F
F
t
F
C
t
C
F
F
t

50 . 2
9
5
1
32 50 . 27
9
5
1
32
5
9
32
32
5
9
= =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
K
C
t
K
T
C
C
t
F
C F
C
t
F
C F
F
t
2 . 236 15 . 273
44
9 . 36
9
5
1
32 5 . 34
9
5
1
32
= + =
= =
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties 45
Your Turn!
Which of the following is the lowest temperature?
A. 300. K
B. 16 C
C. 55 F
D. they are the same
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 46
Because each measurement involves an estimate,
measurements always have error.
Record all measured numbers, including the first
estimated digit
These digits are called significant digits or
significant figures
Exact numbers have infinite significant digits

Measurement Error
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 47

Significant Digits In A Measurement Are
Limited By Instrument Precision
Using the first thermometer, the
temperature is 21.3 C (3
significant digits)

Using the more precise (second)
thermometer, the temperature is
21.32 C (4 significant digits)

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 48
Errors-inherent error due to the equipment or
procedure
Changing volume due to thermal expansion or contraction
(temperature changes)
Improperly calibrated equipment
procedural design allows variable measurements
Mistakes-blunders that you know that you have made.
Do not use these data
Spillage
Incomplete procedures
Reading scales incorrectly
Using the measuring device incorrectly
Errors Arise From A Number Of Sources
Including:
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 49
Reducing Error:
Errors can often be detected by making repeated
measurements
Error can be reduced by calibrating equipment
The average or mean reduces data variations: it
helps find a central value
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 50
An accurate measurement is close to the true or
correct value, a hole-in-one
A precise measurement is close to the average of a
series of repeated measurements
When calibrated instruments are used properly, the
greater the number of significant figures, the greater
is the degree of precision for a given measurement


Accuracy vs. Precision
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 51
Non-zero digits are significant
Zeros between significant digits are significant
Zeros to the right of non-zero digits in a number
that contains a decimal point are significant
(Trailing with a decimal point)
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are never
counted as significant (Leading)
Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal
point are assumed not to be significant (Trailing
without a decimal place)
Rules For Significant Figures (Sig Figs)
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 52
Learning Check: How Many Significant
Figures Are There In The Following?
2.33
3
500.0 4
1000
1
.0500
3
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 53
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. are there in the number 010.010?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 54
Rules for combining measurements depend on the
type of operation performed:
Multiplication and division
The number of sig. figs in the answer should not be
greater than the number of sig. figs in the factor with
the fewest sig. figs
figs.) sig. (2
13
figs.) sig. (2
figs.) sig. (4 figs.) sig. (3
0.64
2.751 3.14
=
=

Measurements Limit The Precision Of

Calculated Results
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 55
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following:
12.33 x 0.00002?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these


Only 1!
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 56
The answer should have the same number of decimal places as
the quantity with the fewest number of decimal places (least
precise)
3.247 3 decimal places
41.36 2 decimal places
+125.2 1 decimal place
169.8 answer rounded to 1 decimal place
Addition and Subtraction
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 57
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following:
10.33-0.0344?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 58
Exact Numbers
Numbers that come from definitions are exact and have
no uncertainty
They can be assumed to contain an infinite number of
significant figures


1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty 59
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these

2.2
12.2 - 10.88) x (10.0
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 60
Unit Conversions
Suppose we wish to convert 25 miles to km.
Further, we know that there are .6215 miles in a
km.
We can assemble a ratio and solve this problem.


easy enough because we have a direct conversion
between the units
Often, we must piece together multiple steps and this
approach is impractical

1km
miles 0.6215
km ?
miles 25
=
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 61
Definitions of One
Remember that 3 teaspoons (tsp) = 1 tablespoon
(Tbsp)
Using the logic that a number divided by its
equivalent = 1, then it follows that:
Clearly 3/1 is not 1, but the units make the
statement true.
Thus we could multiply any number by either of
these fractions (1) and the number has the same
value.
1
3tsp
1Tbsp
and 1
1Tbsp
3tsp
= =
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 62
Learning Check
Write two fractions from the following conversion factors

4 qt = 1 gal


8 fl oz=1 c


16 oz. = 1 lb
4 qt/ 1gal 1 gal/4 qt
8 fl oz / 1c and 1c/ 8 fl oz
16 oz./1 lb and 1 lb/16 oz.
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 63
Using Conversion Fractions
Since we can multiply by 1 and the value remains
unchanged, we can multiply by these conversion
fractions to change the units of a measurement.
For example, 12 in = 1 ft so the conversion of 3.5 ft
to in. can be done using one of these two conversion
fractions
1
5 . 3 f t
1
12in
1ft
and 1
1ft
12in
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
in
ft
in
42
1
12
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 64
Your Turn!
Given that 2.205 lb=1 kg, which of the following is an
appropriate conversion factor?

kg 1
lb 1
kg 2.205
lb 2.205
kg 1
lb 2.205
kg 2.205
lb 1
None of
these
E. D. C. B. A.
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 65
USCS Unit Conversions
Mass Volume Distance
16 oz. (avdp.) = 1 lb.
2000 lb. = 1 T.
3 tsp. = 1 Tbsp.
16 Tbsp. = 1 c.
2 c. = 1 pt.
2 pt. = 1 qt.
4 qt. = 1 gal.
8 fl. oz. = 1 c.
12 in. = 1 ft.
3 ft. = 1 yd.
1760 yd. = 1 mi.
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 66
USCS to Metric Metric to USCS
Length 1 in. = 2.54 cm 1 m = 39.37 in
1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 km = 0.6215 mi
1 mi = 1.609 km
Mass 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 oz = 28.35 g
Volume 1 gal = 3.785 L 1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 qt = 946.4 mL
1 oz (fluid) = 29.6 mL
It is also useful to know that 1 mL = 1 cm
3
=1 cc
USCS And Metric Units Are Related Using Critical
Links
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 67
Building Conversion Factors in Unit
Conversions
1. Write the number to be converted as a fraction
(with units)
2. Identify the target units
3. Are the starting units in the same system as the
target?
If not, you will need a critical link.
USCSUSCS Conversions: Write down the
conversion factors from smallest to largest .
metric metric conversions: Write down the
definitions of all prefixed units.
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 68
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert
the following:
33 in to yd

450 c to gal

56 y to s

25 mph to ft/s
12 in.=1 ft
3 ft =1 yd
2 c.=1 pt.
2 pt.=1 qt.
4 qt.=1 gal.
60 s=1 min
60 min=1 h
24 h=1 da
365.25 da=1 y
Distance: 3 ft=1 yd; 1760 yd=1 mi
Time: 60 s=1 min; 60 min=1 h

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 69
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert
the following:
33 mm to km

450 cg to ng

56 s to Ms

25 mL to nL
mm=10
-3
m
km=10
3
m
cg=10
-2
g
ng =10
-9
g
s=10
-6
s
Ms=10
9
s
mL=10
-3
m
nL=10
-9
L

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 70
Learning Check:
Write Down All Conversion Factors Needed To Convert
The Following:
3.03 g to T

0.545 ft to km

25 mph to km/s
Crit. Link: 453.6 g=1 lb
USUS: 2000 lb = 1 T
CL: 2.54 cm=1 in
USUS: 12 in=1 ft
mm: cm=10
-2
m; km=10
3
m
Distance: CL: 2.54 cm =1 in
USUS 12 in = 1 ft; 3 ft= 1 yd; 1760 yd = 1 mi;
m m: cm = 10
-2
m; km= 10
3
m
Time:
60 s=1 min
60 min= 1 h
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 71
Building Conversion factors (cont).
4. Use the form of the conversion factor that allows
the units to cancel--they must be on opposite
levels of the fraction to cancel.
5. Continue adding conversion factors until the
units match the target units.
2nd Check- are all units written on the page two
times? If so, you have enough info to start the
problem.
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 72
Learning Check:
Convert the following:
3.03 g to tons
0.545 ft. to km
5.22 y to s
25 mph to km/s
3.34(10
-6
) T
1.66(10
-4
) km
1.65(10
8
) s
1.1(10
-2
) km/s
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 73
Your Turn!
Given that 2.205 lb = 1 kg, what is the mass of 23.3
lb expressed in kg?
A. 51.4 kg
B. 0.0946 kg
C. 10.6 kg
D. none of these

1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method 74
Your Turn!
Given that 2.54 cm = 1 in, how many km are there in
25 ft?
A. 7.6 km
B. 0.10 km
C. 762 km
D. none of these
7.6(10
-3
) km!
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 75
Density (d)
intensive property defined as the ratio of an
objects mass (m) to volume (v), d = m/v
characteristic of pure substances at a specified
temperature
Since most substances expand when heated,
densities decrease when heated.
units : g/L for gases and g/mL for solids and
liquids.

1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 76
Density relates a sample mass and volume
Blood has a density of 1.05 g/cm
3

We can say that 1.05 g of blood is equivalent to
1.00cm
3

Conversion factors can be constructed from this
equivalence, which could be used in the factor-label
method
blood g 1.05
blood cm 1.00
or
blood cm 1.00
blood g 1.05
3

3
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property 77
Learning Check:
A crash sounds from the lab- a large vial of mercury
has fallen from a broken shelf. We call the
hazardous materials team to report the spill, about
2.0 quarts of mercury. They ask for the mass- what
is it? (hint: d=13.69g/mL)
g
mL
g
L
mL
qt
L qt
) 10 ( 6 . 2
69 . 13
10 0567 . 1
1
1
0 . 2
4
3
=

78
Your Turn!
A glass bead with a mass of 5.96 g is dropped into a
beaker of water containing 10.2 mL. If the
resulting volume is 12.3 mL, what is the density
of the bead?
A. 2.1 mL
B. 5.96 g
C. 2.8 g/mL
D. 0.35 g/mL