See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/349160321

A Review on the Production and Culture Techniques of Monosex Tilapia

Article in International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences · January 2021
DOI: 10.20546/ijcmas.2021.1001.069

CITATION
S READS

14 4,077

5 authors, including:

Avishek Bardhan
Surya-Kanta Sau
The Neotia University
Faculty of Fishery Sciences, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery
36 PUBLICATIONS 159 Sciences, …
CITATIONS
37 PUBLICATIONS 206 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sanjib Khatua
Madhabendu Bera
West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery
Sciences West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences

3 PUBLICATIONS 37 CITATIONS 4 PUBLICATIONS 19 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Surya-Kanta Sau on 24 February 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences

ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 10 Number 01 (2021)
Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2021.1001.069

A Review on the Production and Culture Techniques of Monosex Tilapia

Avishek Bardhan1, S. K. Sau2*, Sanjib Khatua2, Madhabendu Bera2 and B. N. Paul3

1
Department of Aquatic Animal Health, 2Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fishery
Sciences, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, 5, Budherhat Road,
Chakgaria, Panchasayar, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
3
ICAR - Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), Regional Research Centre,
Rahara, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
*Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

Keywords Tilapia ranks second among the most cultured fish globally. It is also the most
important farmed non-cyprinid fish accounting for over 20% of the global aquaculture
Tilapia,
Oreochromis production (6.6 million tonnes). To make up for anticipated deficits or losses in wild
niloticus, Monosex harvest, the tilapia industry is retorting, not only in its former strongholds throughout
tilapia, Monosex Southeast Asia, but also in the Americas and Africa. The candidate aquacultured
culture, Monosex species of the tilapiine family is the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), which is
known for its superior growth rates and attainment of large market sizes over a wide
Article Info range of environmental parameters. Its disease resistance and ability to efficiently flex
its feeding habits also make it an ideal species for culture. The increased production in
Accepted: tilapia has been recognized on extensive research efforts, with the most significant
08 December 2020
gains achieved by utilizing monosex production techniques. Monosex tilapia is a new
Available Online:
10 January 2021 technological product in this aquacultural era.

Introduction Tilapia is one of the most consumed farmed

fishes in the world and the most important
Capture fisheries production has reached a cultured non-cyprinid fish globally, with a
stagnant stage and is no longer considered total production of 6.6 million tonnes in 2019,
capable of sustaining the supply of fisheries most of which came from countries outside of
products for the growing global demand their natural habitat in Africa and the Levant
(Subasinghe et al., 2009). Tilapia has the (Prabu et al., 2019; El-Kassas et al., 2020). It
potential to play a crucial role in the fight is hardy, environment-friendly and has good
against food insecurity and malnutrition resistance to diseases; they are reasonably
(FAO, 2012; 2017; El-Kassas et al., 2020) priced and easy even for small fishers to grow
and has been the only cichlid (Order: (El-Sayed, 2019). In addition to this, the
Perciformes) maintaining stable market prices growing health awareness among people
across the globe (Wang and Lu, 2016). regarding protein-rich diet also enhanced the

565
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

demand for tilapia since it contains essential 1982; Fuentes-Silva et al., 2012). The initial
vitamins and omega-3 fatty acids (Karim et attempts to produce all-male fry in order to
al., 2017; El-Sayed, 2019). Moreover, the circumvent the foresaid problem began in the
developments in genetic technology, selective 1970s. Although it looked promising, no
breeding and increasing government suitable technology for reliably producing all-
initiatives to support aquaculture business are male tilapia at a commercially viable scale
also stimulating the growth of the tilapia emerged until the mid-1980s. Development of
market (Prabu et al., 2019). The bulk (80%) hapa-based culture allowed for the assortment
of the production comes from a single of tilapia eggs and yolk-sac larvae of a
species, the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis uniform age and proved to be the key in
niloticus) (Prabu et al., 2019; Mengistu et al., ensuring consistently high (~99%) levels of
2020; El-Kassas et al., 2020). There are about male fish following the application for 21
70 species of tilapia amongst which 10 days of feed augmented with 17-α
species find its use in aquaculture worldwide methyltestosterone (Gale et al., 1996; Popma
(El-Sayed, 2019). Tilapia are primarily and Lovshin, 1996). This breakthrough befell
herbivorous and detritivorous feeders. as a result of research instigated by the Asian
However, the presence of flexible and Institute for Technology (AIT) in 1984 as a
opportunistic feeding behaviour has made part of an EU funded project on septage-fed
them an ideal species for aquaculture (Karim aquaculture systems. After late 1990‟s, the
et al., 2017). The development of sex-reversal number of monosex hatcheries flourished as
techniques using hormones in the 1970s led to commercial demand for sex-reversed fry
the production of male monosex populations increased and knowledge of the necessary
to be raised to uniform, marketable sizes hatchery management techniques, once
(Thongprajukaew and Rodjaroen, 2020). In confined mostly to researchers associated
monosex culture, males are preferred because with the early development of the technology,
they have a faster growth rate than females became more accessible. The ability to
(Chávez-García et al., 2020). It serves as an produce monosex tilapia has revolutionised
important source of income throughout the the profile of the species‟ production and
world (Sosa et al., 2005). The monosex male consumption.
population of tilapia are well recognized for
increased production potential and low Monosex tilapia production techniques
management requirements (El-Sayed, 2019).
Over the ages, tilapia has become the shining The major drawback of tilapia pond culture is
star of aquaculture and popularly known by the high level of unrestrained reproduction
different names like „aquatic chicken‟, „fish that may occur in grow-out ponds (Little and
of the 1990s‟ and „food fish of the 21st Hulata, 2000; Felix et al., 2019). Monosex
century‟ (Costa-Pierce and Riedel, 2000; culture is one of the methods of restraining
Ramnarine and Singh, 2005). uncontrolled tilapia populations (Green et al.,
1997; Little and Hulata, 2000; Wang et al.,
History of monosex tilapia and its initial 2019). Monosex production techniques
production include the labour-intensive hand-to-hand
separation of sexes, environmental alterations,
The exhibition of sub-optimal growth and hybridization, hormonal augmentation (sex
variable sizes were the frequent constraints of reversal) and laboratory genetic manipulation
mixed-sex populations of tilapia commercial methods such as androgenesis, gynogenesis,
culture before 1970s (Noakes and Balon, polyploidy and transgenesis (Felix et al.,

566
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

2019). None of these methods is consistently Environmental temperature manipulation

100% effective, and thus an amalgamation of
methods is suggested. Males grow almost Tilapia is a thermo-sensitive species (Prabu et
twice as fast as females, which may be caused al., 2019). The male to female proportion
by a sex-specific physiological growth changes with temperature and/or ovarian
capacity, female mouth-brooding or the more differentiation (Mengistu et al., 2020).
aggressive feeding behaviour of males Temperature treatments must be made at
(Kembenya, 2020). Expected survival rate of critical periods of time. Molecular
monosex culture is proved to be above 90% mechanisms of thermo-sensitivity could be
(Abo-Al-Ela, 2018). The percentage of addressed in tilapia species (O. niloticus),
females mistakenly included in a population where aromatase gene expression is down-
of mostly male tilapia affects the maximum regulated by masculinising temperature
attainable size of the original stock in grow- treatments (Baroiller et al., 2009). Baroiller et
out phase. Male tilapia production has an al., (1995) demonstrated that tilapias were
economic importance. The increase in sensitive to temperature during the period of
employment in the sector in view of the world sex differentiation and there is a possibility to
population growth is a crucial source of masculinise XX progenies (100% females)
income and livelihood for hundreds of with elevated temperatures (above 32°C).
millions of people around the world (Soto- High temperatures could capably masculinise
Zarazúa et al., 2011). It could play a pivotal some offspring if started around 10 days post
role in providing food security for the general fertilization (Baroiller et al., 2009). However,
population as an excellent source of high- if a treatment was made for a 10-day period
quality protein (El-Sayed, 2019). beginning at 7 days post fertilization, it had
no consequences on sex ratios (Baroiller et
Manual sorting al., 1995). Unfortunately most of these studies
regarding temperature sensitivity are hindered
Some species of the genus tilapia can be because the sex determination mechanisms of
easily sorted into males and females based on most of these species are less-studied
their secondary sexual characteristics like (Baroiller et al., 2009).
colour or the structure of the urogenital
papilla (Felix et al., 2019). A second check Hybridization
has to be made when the fish have grown
larger and distinctive sex-coloration is more Hybridization aims at the qualitative
discernible. variances to improve genetics by crossing two
closely related but distinct subspecies of fish.
The manual sorting of small tilapias based on Hybrids from various Oreochromis species
their sex, although feasible, is tiresome and are listed in the Table 1. A super male Tilapia
not entirely trustworthy (Prabu et al., 2019). (YY) can be attained by feminizing genotypic
Additionally, it is stressful for the fish. males (XY) with estrogens and then breeding
Human accuracy varies between 80% and them with normal males (XY), which leads to
90% entailing for errors in the range of 3-10% three different possible progenies: females
(Felix et al., 2019). For this reason, this (XX), males (XY) and super males (YY).
method is rarely used (Penmann and This strategy has restrictions, mostly, not
McAndrew, 2000). This technique may be being 100% effective, which implies the
useful in small populations like backyard possibility of other sex determining factors
aquaculture but unfit for commercial (Pham and Little, 1998; Francis and Esa,
purposes.
567
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

2016). The major limitations in producing skilled labour with good hatchery facilities
hybrids are maintenance and purity of are required (Phelps and Popma, 2000). Sex
brooders, inadequate fecundity and difficulty reversal by oral administration of feed
in producing sufficient hybrid fry due to (incorporated with 17α-MT) is the most
spawning incompatibilities between the effective and practical method for the
parent species. production of all-male tilapia till date (Celik
et al., 2011; Snake et al., 2020). The dose
Sex reversal or hormonal augmentation by when administered orally differs between 30-
feeding 60 mg/kg of feed for total of 25-30 days
depending on the intended outcome (Little et
This method can be performed by oral al., 2003). It is suggested that the use of 30
administration of feed incorporated with mg/kg of 17α-ET for 18 days will
androgen and eggs or fry immersion in approximately result in production of 98% of
different concentrations of the male hormone male monosex fish. The use of 60 mg/kg of
and probably the most popularly feed will produce 100% male in O.
(commercially) used technique (Beardmore et mossambicus (Francis and Esa, 2016). The
al., 2001; Belton and Little, 2008; Celik et al., 17α-MT will give 98% and 85% at 30 and 60
2011; Mehrim et al., 2019; Snake et al., mg/kg feed. This is an indication that the
2020). The principle behind this method lies administration of more than the recommended
on the fact that at the stage when the tilapia dose will not add any value to the stock but
larvae are said to be sexually undifferentiated serve a waste of available resources (Phelps
(right after hatching up to about 2 weeks or up and Popma, 2000; Sayed et al., 2018).
to the swim-up stage), the extent of the However, the technique has minor limitations.
androgen and the estrogen present in a fish is Uniform age fish should be used at the first
equal (Karim et al., 2017). Thus, augmenting feeding stage to ensure high reversal rate.
one of the hormones that is originally present Moreover, widespread use of vast quantities
in the fish will direct the fish to either male or of androgens in hatcheries may pose a health
female depending upon the hormone risk to workers (Mlalila et al., 2015; Francis
introduced. Accordingly, if the tilapia larvae and Esa, 2016; Sayed et al., 2018; Suseno et
are fed with feed incorporated with male al., 2020). This technique has achieved
hormone viz., 17α-methyltestosterone (MT), successful results up to 100% and feed with
the fish will develop into phenotypic male the male hormone is commercially available
physically and function as male but possess or can be prepared (Mlalila et al., 2015).
the female genotype (XX) (Beardmore et al.,
2001). The list of hormones that have been Hormonal augmentation using immersion
researched and worked upon on various methods
tilapiine species are mentioned in Table 2.
Sex reversed “male” reaches similar average Another alternative of the oral feeding is the
weights as genetically male tilapia (Mair et use of live bait that has been brought up in a
al., 1995) and it does not require that a synthetic environment enriched with
portion of the production be discarded (Phelps androgens [17α-MT and 17α-ET] (Sayed et
and Popma, 2000). The presence of hormone al., 2018). This technique has been used with
residue in adult fish has not yet been studied, Nile Tilapia fry and has obtained levels of
thus its effect on consumers is not yet known masculinisation up to 99% (Phelps and
(Suseno et al., 2020). Hormones may be Popma, 2000; Syarifuddin et al., 2019).
challenging to obtain in some places and

568
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

Table.1 A list of different hybrids of Orechromis spp. and their probability of male progeny

Male Female Male (%)

O. niloticus O. aureus 75-95
O. aureus O. niloticus 50-100
O. mossambicus O. aureus 89
O. hornorum O. mossambicus 100
O. macrochir O. mossambicus 100
O. macrochir O. niloticus 100
(Source: Francis and Esa, 2016)

Table.2 A list of different reported hormones that have been utilized for production of monosex
tilapia

Species Hormone Duration Male (%)

O. niloticus Fadrozole 30 days 92.5 – 96
O. niloticus 17α-ET* 25-28 days 91 – 99.4
O. niloticus 17α-MT* 21 days 99
O. niloticus 17α-methyldihydrotestosterone 4 hours 100
O. mossambicus 17α-ET 18 days 100
O. mossambicus 17α-MT 18 days 98
O. aureus 17α-MT 42 days 100
O. aureus 17α-ET 25-28 days 83 – 97
(Source: Francis and Esa, 2016; Mukherjee et al., 2018)
* MT: methyltestosterone; ET: ethynyltestosterone

Table.3 Feeding chart of monosex tilapia in respect to their biomass

Average bodyweight of fish Daily feeding rate Times a day

(grams)
20-25 8-10 % 3-4
50-100 6-8 % 3-4
100-200 5-6 % 3
>200 1.5-4 % 3
(Source: Francis and Esa, 2016)
(Note: The feeding chart provided is based on the works of the authors mentioned above. The daily feeding rates
and doses can be altered in compliance with the changing temperature and other environmental conditions)

Sex reversal by the immersion technique is differentiation can be affected by the

achieved by immersing the eggs in different administration of steroid sex hormone
concentrations of 17α-MT exposed for (Francis and Esa, 2016; Syarifuddin et al.,
different period of time. The mechanism of 2019) in the holding water. About 91% of
action of the immersion technique is that the male population was attained when O.
hormone is absorbed by passive diffusion niloticus eggs were immersed in 17α-MT
across the egg membrane. During the (Cagauan et al., 2004) However, this
embryonic development, gonadal technique presents conflicting results possibly

569
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

due to the rapid early development that limits 2019). Monosex tilapia takes about six
the window of opportunity (Phelps and months to produce a good market size [500
Popma, 2000) and these results are lower than grams] (Fortes, 2005; Chakraborty et al.,
those obtained with the oral administration 2011). Like any other culture, monosex tilapia
(Francis and Esa, 2016) doesn‟t pose serious headaches to farmers.
Monosex tilapia is raised through two steps in
Monosex tilapia culture two ponds viz., nursing and stocking pond.
This type of farming system can maximize
Feed preparation plays a pivotal role in the production. Just like normal tilapia culture,
culture of monosex tilapia (Wangpen, 1996; the management of nursing pond and grow
Rahman et al., 2019). The feed is prepared by out ponds for monosex are quite the same.
an alcohol evaporation method (Wangpen, Feeding with highly protein enriched (about
1996; Francis and Esa, 2016). Ordinary fish 35%) feed at the rate of 10-15% of the body
ration (filler) is mixed at (40 to 60%) with a weight showed good results (Bhujel, 2000).
high protein fish meal substitute of roughly Feeding can be done 3-4 times a day. When
60% protein, which is used as base. The the monosex attains a weight of
hormone, 17α-MT is dissolved in a solvent approximately 20-30 grams (40-60 days of
(methanol or ethanol) at a rate of 60-70 mg of culture) they can be transferred to the
hormone/L solvent. The prepared mixture is stocking pond. Care must be taken to reduce
added to the feed at a rate of 60-70 mg/kg stress. Application of good quality organic
feed, hand-mixed thoroughly and allowed to manure can lead to exponential growth of
air dry. This is done 3 to 4 days prior usage. natural feed and hence the use of
This mixture should not be stored for more supplementary feed gets limited. After the
than 4 days (Chakraborty and Baneerjee, monosex attains a weight of 100 grams each,
2009; Chakraborty et al., 2011). Brood ponds feeding can be reduced to 5% of body weight.
should have a firm bottom and good drainage The feeding chart of monosex tilapia is shown
systems (Macintosh and Little, 1995; in Table 3.
Chakraborty et al., 2011). Brooders can be
fed at 1-3% body weight/day using The use of dugout pond is one of the primitive
supplementary feeds (26-35% crude protein). systems used in the production of monosex
Brood ponds and its stocks should be tilapia seeds (Trong et al., 2013). Culture in
maintained separately and care must be taken hapas is more popular when compared to
to prevent inbreeding. Re-stocking should be dugout ponds whereas culture in concrete
done every 2-3 months. Nursery ponds tanks has received extensive popularity from
encounter high mortality during culture days various monosex fishers recently (Bentsen et
solely due to extreme stocking densities al., 1998; Bhujel, 2000; Ghosal et al., 2015;
(Guerrero III, 1986; Tsadik and Bart, 2007; Sarker et al., 2017). Despite all this
Chakraborty et al., 2011). information available on the production
protocols of larval rearing, hatchability and
Nursery stocks should be handled with proper the absorption of yolk sac still remains unique
care to reduce stress and mortality. Nursery to different geographical locations (Bhujel,
ponds demand good cleaning practices using 2000). Production is a biological process that
fish toxicants (rotenone) and bleach. In the must remain unchanged. The major problem
grow-out phase when the growth rate of insufficient quality tilapia seeds must be
stagnates, it is advised that the stock has addressed.
reached its marketable size (El-Nahal et al.,

570
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

Tank culture augmented feed 4 times daily starting at 20%

body weight at the initial phase of the
Fry (21-28 days post hatching) are stocked for treatment cycle and reducing to 10% at
culture from brood ponds after being sorted completion. The fry in the cages show more
using a 2.5 mm mesh. Those passing through significant growth than those in `clear‟ water
the mesh are used for sex-reversal and range (Kembenya, 2020). The fry are then removed
from approximately 7-11 mm in length. They from the cages at the cycle end and stocked in
are stocked in tanks initially where they are nursery ponds where they are fed on a normal
chemically treated for diseases and parasites, diet. The possible disadvantage of this
which they may have assimilated (Shevgoor technique is the loss of thousands of “partially
et al., 1994; Faruk et al., 2019; Razzak et al., sex-reversed fry” during removal of nets or
2019). They are then moved to the culture cages (Kembenya, 2020).
tanks at high stocking densities (5000-6000
per cubic metre). The biologically filtered Harvesting
water is made to recirculate inside the culture
tanks at a temperature of 23-26°C. Feeding is Harvesting of monosex tilapia requires the
done at a rate of 20% body weight and 4 times use of a seine and implements two methods:
daily (Chakraborty et al., 2011). The sex- partial harvesting and drain-down (total)
reversal cycle takes approximately 28-30 days harvesting (Shevgoor et al., 1994; Meyer et
and the feeding rate is gradually reduced to al., 1997; Sarker et al., 2017). Partial
10% body weight at the near end of the cycle harvesting involves pulling a seine to remove
(Thongprajukaew and Rodjaroen, 2020). the larger marketable fish and leaving the
Weekly sampling of the fry is a necessity and smaller ones to attain marketable sizes
this facilitates the check on feeding rates. whereas a total harvest is achieved by
Ectoparasitic infestations should be carefully draining the whole pond and removing all the
monitored with the use of proper stocked fish. This is usually done with several
prophylactics. During the treatment period, seine hauls. Typically, the period between a
the growth rate is slow due to high stocking partial harvest and a total harvest is
densities and maintenance of low treatment approximately two weeks. Fish should be
temperatures (Faruk et al., 2019). On harvested in the early hours of the day or at
completion of the treatment, fry are stocked in evening to prevent undue stress. Care should
separate nursery ponds for rapid growth prior also be taken to keep them fresh and transfer
to their stocking in production ponds. them as quickly as possible with good
handling practices.
Cage culture
In conclusion the monosex tilapia farming has
Cage monosex culture has developed recent taken an important role in the fish farming
popularity in India (Chakraborty et al., 2007; business throughout the world (Sunny et al.,
Ghosal et al., 2015; Sarker et al., 2017; 2019). Monosex tilapia has great demand and
Balkhande, 2019). Fry (21-28 days post value in the local as well as the international
hatching) are passed through a 3.1 mm mesh market. A profitable culture of monosex
to remove fry larger than 14 mm tilapia depends on two important factors, viz.,
(Moniruzzaman et al., 2015). The smaller fry good farm management practices and proper
are stocked in cages of mesh size 1.5 mm at stocking (Lorenzen, 2000; Lovshin et al.,
densities of approximately 2000-3000 per 2000; Atul, 2019). On the other hand,
square metre. The fry are fed on the hormone monetary investment is quite low when

571
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

compared to other cyprinid and non-cyprinid production in India. Int. J. Zool.

fishes (Atul, 2019). As a result, monosex Invest. 5, 43-51.
tilapia farming rate is growing day by day and Balkhande, J. V., 2019. Cage culture of
have attracted small local fishers. Their ability Oreochromis mossambicus (Tilapia) in
to grow at extensive stocking densities, good back water of river Godavari, Nanded,
feed intake, extensive growth rates, Maharashtra India. MOJ Ecol.
survivability and high disease resistance make Environ. 4, 100-105.
them an excellent species for aquaculture Baroiller, J. F., Chourrout, D., Fostier, A.,
(Sunny et al., 2019). Their ability to grow Jalabert, B., 1995 Temperature and sex
along Indian major carps (IMCs) in different chromosomes govern sex ratios of the
culture systems also makes them flexible mouth-brooding cichlid fish
(Ghosal et al., 2015). Their opportunistic Oreochromis niloticus. J. Exp.
feeding behaviour also interests fishers. Zool. 273, 216-223.
However, the main hindrance to the https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.1402730306.
commercial market is the hormonal Baroiller, J. F., D'Cotta, H., Bezault, E.,
augmentation which may pose threats to the Wessels, S., Hoerstgen-Schwark, G.,
consumers as a residue after culture. 2009. Tilapia sex determination: where
Extensive studies are needed and maybe one temperature and genetics meet. Comp.
day, monosex tilapia may become a candidate Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr.
species in aquaculture. Physiol. 153, 30-38.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.11.0
Funding 18.
Beardmore, J. A., Mair, G. C., Lewis, R. I.,
The authors declare there is no source of 2001. Monosex male production in
funding. finfish as exemplified by tilapia:
applications, problems, and prospects.
Ethical statement In: Reproductive Biotechnology in
Finfish Aquaculture. Elsevier, pp. 283-
The authors declare there are no ethical 301.
conflicts in regard with this article. Belton, B., Little, D.C., 2007. The
Development of Aquaculture in Central
References Thailand: Domestic Demand versus
Export-Led Production. J. Agrar.
Abo-Al-Ela, H. G., 2018. Hormones and fish Chang. 8, 123-143.
monosex farming: A spotlight on https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-
immunity. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 72, 0366.2007.00165.x.
23-30. Bentsen, H. B., Eknath, A. E., Palada-de Vera,
Abucay, J.S., Mair, G.C., 1997. Hormonal sex M. S., Danting, J. C., Bolivar, H. L.,
reversal of tilapia: implications of Reyes, R. A., Dionisio, E. E.,
hormone treatment application in closed Longalong, F. M., Circa, A. V.,
water systems. Aquaculture Res. 28, Tayamen, M. M., Gjerde, B., 1998.
841 – 845. Genetic improvement of farmed
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365- tilapias: growth performance in a
2109.1997.00878.x. complete diallel experiment with eight
Atul, S. K., 2019. Emerging issues and strains of Oreochromis niloticus.
sustainability of booming tilapia Aquaculture. 160, 145–173.

572
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

Bhujel, R. C., 2000. A review of strategies for growth curve in Nile tilapia
the management of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) sexually
(Oreochromis niloticus) broodfish in reverted to masculinized and
seed production systems, especially feminized. Lat. Am. J. Aquat. Res. 48,
hapa-based systems. Aquaculture. 181, 1-6.
37-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0044- Costa-Pierce, B. A., Riedel, R., 2000.
8486(99)00217-3. Fisheries ecology of the tilapias in
Cagauan, A. G., Baleta, F. N., Abucay, J. S., subtropical lakes of the United
2004. Sex reversal of Nile tilapia, States. In: Costa-Pierce, B.A. and
Oreochromis niloticus L. by egg Rakocy, J., Eds., Tilapia Aquaculture in
immersion technique: The effect of the Americas, Vol. 2. The World
hormone concentration and immersion Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, p.
time. Manila, (Phillipines), 127-136. 1-20.
Celik, I., Guner, Y., Celik, P., 2011. Effect of El-Kassas, S., Abdo, S. E., Abosheashaa, W.,
orally-administered 17α- Mohamed, R., Moustafa, E. M., Helal,
Methyltestosterone at different doses on M. A., El-Naggar, K. 2020., Growth
the sex reversal of the Nile tilapia performance, serum lipid profile,
(Oreochromis niloticus, Linneaus intestinal morphometry, and growth and
1758). J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 10, 853-857. lipid indicator gene expression analysis
http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/javaa.2011.85 of mono-sex Nile tilapia fed Moringa
3.857. oleifera leaf powder. Aquaculture
Chakraborty, S. B., Mazumdar, D., Chatterji, Rep. 18, 100422.
U., and Banerjee, S., 2011. Growth of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100
mixed-sex and monosex Nile tilapia in 422.
different culture systems. Turk. J. Fish. El-Nahal, S. S., Amer, M. A., Osman, M. F.,
Aquat. Sci. 11, 131-138. Ali, T. A., 2019. An assessment study
http://dx.doi.org/10.4194/trjfas.2011.01 of growth performance and gonads
17. development of monosex nile tilapia in
Chakraborty, S.B., Banerjee, S., 2009. Culture different age stages during the
of monosex Nile tilapia under different production period. Arab Univ. J. Agri.
traditional and non-traditional methods Sci. 27, 395-404.
in India. World J. Fish Mar. Sci. 1, 212- El-Sayed, A. F. M., 2019. Tilapia culture.
217. Academic Press.
Chakraborty, S.B., Sarbajna, A., Mazumdar, FAO, 2012. The State of Food Insecurity in
D., Banerjee, S., 2007. Effects of the World, 2012. Economic growth is
differential dose and duration of 17- necessary but not sufficient to
methyltestosterone treatment on sex accelerate reduction of hunger and
reversal of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis malnutrition. The Food and Agricultural
niloticus at different age groups under Organisation, Rome.
Indian perspective. Asian J. Microbiol. FAO, 2017. Social and Economic
Biotechnol. Environ. Sci. 9, 705-710. Performance of tilapia farming in
Chávez-García, R., Contreras-Ramos, A., Africa, 2017. Food and Agriculture
Ortega-Camarillo, C., Figueroa-Lucero, Organization of the United Nations.
G., Prado-Flores, G., Mendoza- Rome.
Martínez, G., Vergara-Onofre, M., Faruk, M. A. R., Akter, S., Ferdous, Z., Rana,
2020. Morphometric comparison of the K. S., 2019. Individual and combined

573
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

effects of two selected chemicals on 1997. Fry and fingerling production. In:
bacterial load during transportation of Egna, H.S., Boyd, C.E. (Eds.),
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Dynamics of Pond Aquaculture. CRC
fry. Asian J. Med. Biol. Res. 5, 14-19. Press, Boca Raton, pp. 215 – 243.
Felix, E., Avwemoya, F.E., Abah, A., 2019. Guerrero III, R.D., 1986. Production of Nile
Some methods of monosex tilapia tilapia fry and fingerlings in earthen
production: A review. Int. J. Fish. ponds at Pila, Laguna, Philippines. In:
Aquat. Stud. 4, 42-49. Maclean, J.L., Dizon, L.B., Hosillos,
Fortes, R. D., 2005. Review of techniques and L.V. (Eds.), The First Asian Fisheries
practices in controlling tilapia Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila,
populations and identification of Philippines, pp. 49 – 52.
methods that may have practical Karim, M., Zafar, A., Ali, M., 2017. Growth
applications in Nauru including a and production of monosex tilapia
national tilapia plan. Aquaculture (Oreochromis niloticus) under different
Technical Paper/Secretariat of the feeding frequencies in pond conditions.
Pacific Community, pp. 55. J. Aquac. Mar. Biol. 6, 00167.
Francis, N. O., Esa, Y. B., 2016. A review of https://doi.org/10.15406/jamb.2017.06.0
production protocols used in producing 0167.
economically viable monosex tilapia. J. Kembenya, E. M., 2020. Growth Performance
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 11,1. of Mixed sex and Monosex male
https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/jfas.2016.1.1 Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Reared
1. in Cages, Lake Victoria, Kenya. In 13th
Fuentes-Silva, C., Soto-Zarazúa, G.M., International Conference.
Torres-Pacheco, I., Guevara-González, Kuebutornye, F. K., Abarike, E. D., 2020. The
R.G., García-Trejo, J.F., Flores-Rangel, contribution of medicinal plants to
A., Caballero-Pérez, J., Cruz- tilapia aquaculture: a review. Aquac.
Hernández, A., 2015. Influence of Int. 1-19.
extended photoperiod on all male Nile Little, D. C., Bhujel, R. C., Pham, T. A., 2003.
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Advanced nursing of mixed-sex and
production, differential gene expression mono-sex tilapia (Oreochromis
and growth rate. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 17. niloticus) fry, and its impact on
Gale, W. L., Fitzpatrick, M. S., Schreck, C. subsequent growth in fertilized
B., 1996. Masculinization of Nile tilapia ponds. Aquaculture. 221, 265-276.
(Oreochromis niloticus) through http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0044-
immersion in 17α-methyltestosterone or 8486(03)00008-5.
17α-methyldihydrotestosterone. PD/A Little, D.C., Hulata, G., 2000. Strategies for
CRSP Thirteenth Annual tilapia seed production. In: Beveridge,
Technical Report Oregon M.C.M., Mc Andrew, B.J. (Eds.),
Cooperative Fishery Tilapias: Biology and Exploitation. Fish
Research Unit, Department of Fisheries and Fisheries Series, vol. 25. Kluwer,
and Wildlife, Oregon State University. Dordrecht, pp. 267 – 326.
Ghosal, I., Mukherjee, D., Chakraborty, S.B., Little, D.C., Turner, W.A., Bhujel, R.C., 1997.
2015. Culture of Indian Major Carps Commercialization of a hatchery
with monosex tilapia for sustainable process to produce MT-treated Nile
utilization of aquatic resources. J. tilapia in Thailand. In: Alston, D.E.,
Environ. Sociobiol. 12. Green, B.W., Clifford, H.C. (Eds.), IV
Green, B.W., Verrica, K.L., Fitzpatrick, M.S.,
574
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

Symposium on aquaculture in Central https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/jbs.2019.407.

America: focussing on shrimp and 417.
tilapia, 22 – 24 April 1997, Mengistu, S. B., Mulder, H. A., Benzie, J. A.,
Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Asociacion Komen, H., 2020. A systematic
Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras literature review of the major factors
and the Latin American Chapter of the causing yield gap by affecting growth,
World Aquaculture Society, vol. 237, feed conversion ratio and survival in
pp. 108 – 118. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
Lorenzen, K., 2000. Population dynamics and niloticus). Rev. Aquaculture. 12. 524-
management. In: Beveridge, M.C.M., 541. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12331.
McAndrew, B.J. (Eds.), Tilapias: Meyer, D.E., Torres, D., Aceituno, C., 1997.
Biology and Exploitation. Fish and Comparscion del Cultivo de Tilapia con
Fisheries Series, vol. 25. Kluwer, dos Technologias diferentes. In: Alston,
Dordrecht, pp. 163 – 226. D.E., Green, B.W., Clifford, H.C.
Lovshin, L.L., Schwartz, N.B., Hatch, U., (Eds.), IV Symposium on aquaculture in
2000. Impacts of integrated fish culture Central America: focusing on shrimp
on resource limited farms in Guatemala and tilapias. National Association of
and Panama. International Center for Honduran Aquaculturists and the Latin
Aquaculture and Aquatic Environments, American Chapter of the World
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Aquaculture Society 22 – 24th April
Station, Auburn University, Auburn, 1997, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. National
Alabama, Research and Development Association of Honduran Aquaculturists
Series No. 46, October 2000. 29 pp. and the Latin American Chapter of the
Macintosh, D.J., Little, D.C., 1995. Nile World Aquaculture Society, pp. 228 –
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In: 229. Chap. 56.
Bromage, N.R., Roberts, R.J. (Eds.), Mlalila, N., Mahika, C., Kalombo, L., Swai,
Broodstock Management and Egg and H., Hilonga, A., 2015. Human food
Larval Quality. Institute of safety and environmental hazards
Aquaculture/Blackwell Science, UK, associated with the use of
pp. 277 – 320. methyltestosterone and other steroids in
Mair, G. C., Abucay, J. S., Beardmore, J. A., production of all-male tilapia. Environ.
Skibinski, D. O., 1995. Growth Sci. Pollut. R. 22, 4922-4931.
performance trials of genetically male Moniruzzaman, M., Uddin, K.B., Basak, S.,
tilapia (GMT) derived from YY-males Mahmud, Y., Zaher, M., Bai, S.C.,
in Oreochromis niloticus L.: On station 2015. Effects of stocking density on
comparisons with mixed sex and sex growth, body composition, yield and
reversed male economic returns of monosex tilapia
populations. Aquaculture. 137, 313-323. (Oreochromis niloticus L.) under cage
https://doi.org/10.1016/0044- culture system in Kaptai Lake of
8486(95)01110-2. Bangladesh. J. Aquac. Res. Dev. 6, 1.
Mehrim, A. I., Khalil, F. F., Farrag, F. H., Mukherjee, D., Ghosal, I., Hancz, C.,
Refaey, M. M., 2019. 17α- Chakraborty, S. B., 2018. Dietary
methyltestosterone and some medicine administration of plant extracts for
plants as reproductive controller agents production of monosex tilapia:
of Oreochromis niloticus. J. Biol. Sci. Searching a suitable alternative to
19, 407-417. synthetic steroids in tilapia

575
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

culture. Turk. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 18, water temperature on masculinization of

267-275. tilapia fry. Trop. Agric. 82. 74-77
Noakes, D.L.G., Balon, E.K., 1982. Life Razzak, M., Yousuf, M., Jahan, S., Nahar, N.,
histories of tilapias: an evolutionary 2019. Investigation of common diseases
perspective. In: Pullin, R.S.V., Lowe- on cage reared Nile tilapia
McConnell, R.H. (Eds.), The Biology (Oreochromis niloticus) in Bakergonj,
and Culture of Tilapias. ICLARM Barishal, Bangladesh. Bangladesh J.
Conference Proceedings, vol. 7. Fish. Res. 31, 261-270.
International Centre for Living Aquatic Sarker, S., Basak, S.C., Hasan, J., Hossain,
Resources Management, Manila, M.S., Rahman, M.M., Ahsanul Islam,
Philippines, pp. 61 – 82. M., 2017. Production in small scale
Penman, D. J., McAndrew, B. J., 2000. aquaculture farm: A success story from
Genetics for the management and Bangladesh. J. Agric. Res. Dev. 8, 515.
improvement of cultured tilapias. Sayed, A. E. D., Farrag, M., Abdelaty, B.,
In Tilapias: Biology and exploitation. Toutou, M., Muhammad, O., 2018.
Springer, Dordrecht. p. 227-266. Histological alterations in some organs
Pham, T.A., Little, D.C., Mair, G.C., 1998. of monosex tilapia (Oreochromis
Genetic effects on comparative growth niloticus, Linnaeus, 1758) produced
performance of all-male Oreochromis using methyltestosterone. Egypt J.
niloticus. Aquaculture. 159, 293 – 302. Aquat. Biol. Fish. 22, 141-151.
Phelps, R. P., Popma, T. J., 2000. Sex reversal https://dx.doi.org/10.21608/ejabf.2018.1
of tilapia. In: Tilapia aquaculture in the 3272.
Americas, Vol. 2, The World Shevgoor, L., Knud-Hansen, C.F., Edwards,
Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, p. P., 1994. An assessment of the role of
34-59. buffalo manure for pond culture of
Popma, T.J., Lovshin, L.L., 1996. Worldwide tilapia. III. Limiting factors.
prospects for commercial production of Aquaculture 126, 107 – 118.
tilapia. Research Development Series, https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-
vol. 41. Department of Fisheries and 8486(94)90252-6.
Allied Aquaculture Auburn University, Snake, M., Maluwa, A., Zidana, H.,
AL, USA. 23 pp. Chigwechokha, P., Simwaka, M., 2020.
Prabu, E., Rajagopalsamy, C. B. T., Ahilan, Production of a predominantly male
B., Jeevagan, I. J. M. A., Renuhadevi, tilapia progeny using two Malawian
M., 2019. Tilapia–an excellent tilapias, Oreochromis shiranus and
candidate species for world aquaculture: Oreochromis karongae. Aquacult.
a review. Annu. Res. Rev. Biol. 1-14. Rep. 16, 100274.
https://doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2019/v31i3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100
30052. 274.
Rahman, Z., Mamun, A., Ahmad, I., Rashid, Sosa, I.D.L.A.B., Adillo, M.D.L.J., Ibanez,
I., 2019. Influence of Probiotics on the A.L., Figueroa, J.L.I.A., 2005.
Growth Performance of Sex Reversed Variability of tilapia (Oreochromis spp.)
Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, introduced in Mexico: Morphometric,
Linnaeus, 1758) Fry. J. Aquac. Res. meristic and genetic characters. J. Appl.
Dev. 10, 1-7. Ichthyol. 20, 7-10.
Ramnarine, I. W., Singh, D., 2005. Interaction https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-
between hormone concentration and 0426.2004.00445.x.

576
 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2021) 10(01): 565-577

Soto-Zarazúa, G. M., Peniche-Vera, R., Rico- tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) by

Garcia, E., Toledano-Ayala, M., immersion method using methanol
Ocampo-Velázquez, R., Herrera-Ruiz, extract of pasak bumi roots (Eurycoma
G., 2011. An automated recirculation longifolia). Russ. J. Agric. Socio-Econ.
aquaculture system based on fuzzy logic Sci. 93.
control for aquaculture production of Thongprajukaew, K., Rodjaroen, S., 2020.
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquac. The optimal period for changing the
Int. 19, 797-808. feeding regime of mono-sex male Nile
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10499-010- tilapia (Oreochromis
9397-5. niloticus). Aquaculture Rep. 17,
Subasinghe, R., Soto, D., Jia, J. 2009. Global 100392.
aquaculture and its role in sustainable https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100
development. Rev. Aquac. 1, 2-9. 392.
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1753- Trọng, T. Q., van Arendonk, J. A., Komen,
5131.2008.01002.X. H., 2013. Genetic parameters for
Sunny, A. R., Islam, M. M., Rahman, M., reproductive traits in female Nile tilapia
Miah, M. Y., Mostafiz, M., Islam, N., (Oreochromis niloticus): I. Spawning
Hossain, M. Z., Chowdhury, M. A., success and time to
Islam, M. A., Keus, H. J., 2019. Cost spawn. Aquaculture. 416, 57-64.
effective aquaponics for food security Tsadik, G.G., Bart, A.N., 2007. Effects of
and income of farming households in feeding, stocking density and water-
coastal Bangladesh. Eqypt. J. Aquat. flow rate on fecundity, spawning
Res. 45, 89-97. frequency and egg quality of Nile
https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2019.0 tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.).
1.003. Aquaculture. 272, 380-388.
Suseno, D. N., Luqman, E. M., Lamid, M., Wang, H. P., Piferrer, F., Chen, S., Shen, Z.
Mukti, A. T., Suprayudi, M. A., 2020. G., 2019. Sex control in aquaculture.
Residual impact of 17α- John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
methyltestosterone and histo- Wang, M., Lu, M., 2016. Tilapia polyculture:
pathological changes in sex-reversed a global review. Aquac. Res., 47, 2363-
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis 2374. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.12708.
niloticus). Asian Pac. J. Reprod. 9, 37- Wangpen, P., 1996. Nursing strategies for MT
43. https://doi.org/10.4103/2305- monosex tilapia fry (Oreochromis
0500.275527. niloticus Linnaeus). MSc. Dissertation.
Syarifuddin, Y. N., Sri, A., Yenny, R., Asian Institute of Technology,
Rahem, F. A., 2019. Masculinization of Thailand. 121 pp.

How to cite this article:

Avishek Bardhan, S. K. Sau, Sanjib Khatua, Madhabendu Bera and Paul, B. N. 2021. A
Review on the Production and Culture Techniques of Monosex Tilapia.
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 10(01): 565-577. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2021.1001.069

577

View publication
stats