AP Psychology Study Guide

Chapter 1: Psychological perspectives (College Board Unit 1)

Psychology: a science that studies human behavior and mental processes.

1. Philosophical history

Ancient Greek Plato Aristotle

Enlightenment Descartes Locke: tabula rasa (blank slate)
Idea Body and mind are separate. Body and mind are united together.
Knowledge comes from reason Knowledge comes from experience
(mind). Idealism 观念论 (body). Empiricism 经验主义

2. Early scientific foundation

School Idea People

Structuralism Studies the structure and elements of human mind. Wundt, Titchener

↑ Introspection 内省法: Examines the individual’s

consciousness by self-reflection.
Functionalism How our mind and behavior help us adapt, survive, and W. James
flourish.
Gestalt 完型 Examines a person’s total experience, which is often more Wertheimer
Psychology than just the sum of the parts of the experiences.

3. Modern psychological paradigms

Perspectives Keywords People

Psychoanalytic Unconscious 无意识, Freud,
精神分析 drive 趋力, instinct, desire,
Psychodynamic past experience,
心理动力 [id, ego, superego]
conflict, repression 压抑,
Behavioral Conditioning 制约： Pavlov,
行为学派 reinforcement (reward), punishment, Watson, Skinner

Humanistic Client-centered 来访者中心, Rogers,

人本主义 growth, self-actualization, Maslow
unconditional positive regard 无条件正面关怀,
empathy 同理心，respect, love
free will 自由意志,
hierarchy of needs 需求阶层

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Cognitive 认知 Information-processing 信息处理 Piaget
thinking 思维, reasoning 推理, belief,
interpretation 诠释, appraisal 评价,
memory, language,
problem-solving, decision-making

Biological Nervous system, brain,

neurotransmitter, hormones,
genes, heredity

Evolutionary Natural selection, adaptation, survival, flourishing,

Social-cultural social and cultural influences

(peer groups, school, family, media, etc)

 Basic issue: Nature vs. Nurture (gene vs. environment)

 Professions related to Psychology: Basic research + Applied research

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Chapter 2: Research methods (College Board Unit 1)

1. Types of research method

Research Definition Causality

method
1. Case study 个案研究: Studies one person in depth.
No
I. 2. Naturalistic observation 自然观察: Observes people or animals
Descriptive in natural environment without interference.

3. Survey 调查:
Reveals attitudes and behaviors of large sample of people.
- Population vs. Sample

- Representative sample

- Random sampling

Examines the extent to which two or more variables 变量 are

II. related and can predict one another. No!!
Correlational  Positive correlation: X rises, Y also rises
 Negative correlation: X rises, Y falls down
 No correlation
 Scatterplot
 Correlation coefficient 相关系数

The researcher manipulates one or more factors (independent

III. variables) to observe the effect on some behavior and mental Yes
Experimental process (dependent variables).

 Random assignment:
 Experimental vs. Control group:

 Independent variable:
 Dependent variable:
 Confounding variable:

 Operational definition:
 Hypothesis:

 Placebo effect vs. Double-blind procedure

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2. Different ways to deal with time
 Longitudinal study 贯时性研究法:
 Cross-sectional study 横断性研究法:

3. Reliability and validity

 Reliability:
 Validity:

4. Statistics

a. Descriptive statistics
- Measures of central tendency: Mode, Median, Mean
- Measures of variability: Range, Standard deviation
- Normal distribution vs. Skewed distribution:

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b. Inferential statistics
- Generalizability:
- Statistical significance:

5. Research ethic

 Informed consent
 No harm
 Privacy
 Right to withdraw
 Confidentiality
 Fully debriefing

 APA
 IRB

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Chapter 3: Biological Basis (College Board Unit 2)

1. Neuron

Part Function
Dendrite 树突 _____________ information from other cells
Axon 轴突 _____________ information to other cells
Myelin sheath 髓鞘
Synapse 突触 Connection between two neurons

2. Neurotransmitter 神经传导素/神经递质

Name Function Malfunction

ACh Muscle action, learning, memory _____________ disease
Dopamine Learning, emotion Not enough → Parkinson’s disease,
Too much → ______________
Serotonin Mood, hunger, sleep Depression
Norepinephrine
GABA
Glutamate
Endorphin

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3. Nervous system

4. Function of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system
Pupil
Breath
Heart rate
Digestion and salivation

5. Function of Endocrine system

Pituitary gland 脑下腺
Thyroid gland 甲状腺
Parathyroid 副甲状腺
Adrenal glands 肾上腺
Pancreas 胰腺
Testis, Ovary 性腺

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6. Technologies used to study brain
Technology Function
EEG Brain wave
CT scan, MRI Structure of brain
PET, fMRI Activity and functioning of brain areas

7. Structure and function of brain **

Section Function
Medulla 延脑
Hindbrain Reticular formation
后脑 Pons 桥脑
Thalamus 丘脑
Cerebellum 小脑
Limbic Amygdala 杏仁体
system Hypothalamus 下丘脑

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边缘系统 Hippocampus 海马回
Frontal lobe 额叶 Thinking, reasoning, problem-solving,
Cerebral Motor movement
cortex Parietal lobe 顶叶 Receives sensory information
大脑皮质 Temporal lobe 颞叶 A_________ information, language
comprehension
Occipital lobe 枕叶 V_________ information

8. Division of right and left brain

Hemisphere Control Function
Right brain Left body Nonverbal, visual, spatial task
Left brain Right body Language, symbolic thinking

9. Genetics
 Identical twin vs. Fraternal twin
 Twin study vs. Adoption study
 Heritability:
 Epigenetics:

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Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception (College Board Unit 3)

1. Basic definitions
 Sensation: Receiving data from the external environment.
 Perception: How our brains make sense of that data.
 Transduction: The process through which physical energy is transformed into neural impulses.

2. Attention and threshold

 Absolute threshold 绝对阈限:
The minimum level of stimulus that can be detected by an observer 50% of the time.
 Difference threshold 差异阈限:
The minimum difference that can be detected when two stimuli are compared.
- Just noticeable difference (JND):

 Signal detection theory: Hit, Miss, False alarm, Correct rejection.

 Selective attention:

3. Adaptation vs. Habituation

4.
 Bottom-up processing vs. Top-down processing
 Perceptual set: Expectations based on previous experiences influence how we perceive the
world, e.g., seeing faces in clouds.

5. Stimuli and receptors of different senses

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6. Functions of different structures in the eyes (cornea, lens, iris, pupil, retina, cones, rods).

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7. Two theories that explain color vision
 Trichromatic (three color) theory
 Opponent process theory

8. Gestalt principles: Figure vs. Ground

Grouping → Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure

9. Depth and distance perception

 Binocular cues: convergence, retinal disparity
 Monocular cues:

10. Auditory sense

11. Two theories that explains the way human perceives pitch
 Place theory: Sound waves of different frequency stimulate hair cells at different places along
the basilar membrane.
 Frequency theory: The rate of neural impulse matches the frequency of the sound wave.

12. Auditory localization: Sound waves received by left and right ears are not the same, in terms of
loudness and timing. The brain calculates the sound’s location by the differences.

13. Chemical senses

- Taste (gustation)
- Smell (olfaction)

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** Be familiar with visual and auditory sense: describe the pathways of physical stimulus passing
through the sense organs, transformed into neural impulse, and then transmitted to specific area of
the brain. **

Chapter 5: States of Consciousness (CB Unit 2)

1. What stages of sleep do human beings have?

2. What are the brain waves when people are

(1) awake, (2) in meditation, (3) in stage 4 sleep,
(4) in REM sleep?

3. How does brain wave change when one moves

from stage 1 sleep to stage 4 sleep?

4. Define these terms of sleep problems

- Narcolepsy:
- Insomnia:
- Night terror:
- Sleep apnea:
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- Sleeping walking:

5. Write down the definition and examples of these types of drug.

Type of Drug Definition Example
Depressants

Stimulants

Hallucinogens

6. Write down the meaning of these terms related to drug use.

- Tolerance:
- Addiction:
- Withdrawal:

AP Psychology Chapter 6: Learning (CB Unit 4)

Mechanism Key words Scholar

Unconditional stimuli
I. Pavlov
Classical Unconditional response (experiment on a
conditioning dog)
Neutral stimuli

Conditional stimuli

Conditional response

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 Generalization 泛化 Watson
(experiment on Little
Discrimination 分化 Albert)

Acquisition 习得

Extinction 消退

Spontaneous recovery

Law of effect Thorndike

II.
Operant Types of stimulus: Skinner
conditioning - Positive reinforcement (experiments on rats)

- Negative reinforcement

- Positive punishment

- Negative punishment

Partial reinforcement schedule:

- Fixed ratio

- Variable ratio

- Fixed interval

- Variable interval

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 Social (observational) learning Bandura
III. Social Vicarious learning 替代学习 (Bobo doll
learning Modeling experiment)

IV. Taste aversion (Garcia effect) Garcia

Biological
and cognitive Latent learning 潜在学习 Tolman
processes in Cognitive map (mice in the maze)
learning

Chapter 7: Cognition (CB Unit 5)

I. Memory

 Process of memory

 Categories of memory

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Sensory memory Iconic memory (visual) + Echoic memory (auditory)

Short-term memory 7 + 2 digits, 15-20 secs

(Working memory)

 Declarative (explicit) memory -

Long-term memory - Episodic memory: events
- Semantic memory: knowledge, facts

 Non-declarative (implicit) memory -

- Procedural memory: skill, habit, priming, classical conditioning.

 Flashbulb memory

Memory processing Automatic processing vs. Effortful processing

Shallow processing vs. Deep processing

Maintenance rehearsal vs. Semantic rehearsal

Chunking, Mnemonic, Hierarchy, Self-reference

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Retrieval Recall, Recognition, Retention

Context-dependent memory
State-dependent memory

Serial position effect

(primacy and recency effect)

Forgetting Anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia

1. Encoding failure

2. Storage decay: Ebbinghaus curve

3. Retrieval failure:
Retroactive vs. Proactive interference

4. Motivated forgetting:

Memory construction Misinformation effect (Loftus)

errors
Source amnesia

Déjà vu

II. Language

Components of Phonemes 音素, morphemes 词素,

language Grammar: Syntax (rules of arrangement)
Semantics (word meaning)

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 Holophrases,
Language learning Overextension, underextension
Telegraphic speech,
Overgeneralization

Chomsky (nature)
Nature vs. nurture Transformative grammar:
Surface structure vs. Deep structure
Language acquisition device (LAD)
vs.
Skinner (nurture)
Language acquisition support system (LASS): language-rich or poor
environment

Whorf: Linguistic determinism, cultural relativity

III. Others

Concepts Concept
Prototype

Creativity Divergent thinking 发散性思维

Convergent thinking 聚合式思维

1. Algorithms

Problem solving, 2. Heuristics:

Decision making Availability heuristic
Representativeness heuristic

3. Insight 顿悟
4. Intuition 直觉
5. Mental set 定势, Functional fixedness
6. Confirmation bias, Belief perseverance,
7. Framing

Reasoning Induction vs. Deduction

归纳 vs. 演绎

Chapter 8: Motivation and Emotion (CB Unit 7)

1. Instinct theory

Theories of
motivation 2. Drive-reduction theory: Homeostasis, set point

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 3. Optimum arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law

4. Humanistic theory: Hierarchy of needs (Maslow)

5. Cognitive theories
Intrinsic factor: Self determination
Extrinsic factor: Overjustification effect

- Ventromedial/ Lateral hypothalamus

Hunger - Blood glucose, insulin
- Fat, leptin

Conflict of Avoidance-avoidance conflict

motivation Approach-approach conflict
(Lewin) Approach-avoidance conflict
Multiple approach -avoidance conflict

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Theories of
emotion

Other theories:
- Emotion is felt before cognition - Zajonc & Le Doux
- Cognitive appraisal defines emotion - Lazarus

Facial expression is universal Ekman

(Opposite: Display rules)
Facial feedback effect

Stress, stressor,
Stress Fight-or-flight response Cannon
General adaptation syndrome (GAS): Selye
Alarm,
Resistance,
Exhaustion

Cognitive theory about stress Lazarus

Primary appraisal, Secondary appraisal

Chapter 9: Developmental Psychology (CB Unit 6)

Concepts Contents Scholars

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Basic issue Research method:
Cross-sectional method
Longitudinal method

Nature vs. Nurture debate

Continuity vs. Discontinuity/stages

Critical/sensitive period

Zygote, embryo, fetus

Physical Teratogens, FAS
development
Pruning 用进废退

Schema, Piaget
Assimilation vs. Accommodation
Cognitive
development Stages of cognitive development:

1. Sensorimotor stage
Object permanence

2. Preoperational stage
Symbolic thinking, egocentrism

3. Concrete operational stage

Reversibility, conservation

4. Formal operational stage

Metacognition 元认知, abstract logic,
Hypothetical/idealistic thinking

Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky

Actual developmental level,
Potential developmental level

Stages of psychosocial development: Erikson

Social

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development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Integrity vs. Despair

 Attachment Harlow
(experiments on
chimpanzees)

 Secure attachment Ainsworth

(experiments of
 Insecure attachment: strange
- Avoidant attachment situation)
- Ambivalent attachment
- Disorganized attachment

Parenting style: Baumrind

1. Authoritarian 专制
2. Permissive 放任
3. Authoritative 威权
4. Rejecting-neglecting

Self-concept

Stages of moral development: Kohlberg

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Moral Level I: Preconventional stage
development Level II: Conventional stage
Level III: Postconventional stage

Gender identity vs. physical sex

Gender Gender role,
development gender typing,
gender constancy

Stags of psychosexual development: Freud

Psychosexual
development 1. Oral stage
2. Anal stage
3. Phallic stage
4. Latency stage
5. Genital stage

Chapter 10: Personality (CB Unit 7)

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 Id, superego, ego Freud
Psychoanalytic &
Psychodynamic Defense mechanism:
theories 1. Repression

2. Regression
3. Reaction formation
4. Projection
5. Rationalization
6. Displacement
7. Sublimation
8. Denial

Psychodynamic theories

- Overcoming feelings of inferiority Adler

- Desire for love and security Horney

- Collective unconscious, Archetypes Jung

Assessment

Projective tests:
- Thematic Apperception Test
- Rorschach Inkblot Test

Humanistic Person-centered perspective Rogers

approach Genuineness,
Acceptance,
Unconditional positive regard,
Empathy

Factor analysis
Trait theory
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 Big-five personality traits: McCrae &
Introversion – Extroversion, Costa
Neuroticism – Stability,
Agreeableness – Antagonism,
Conscientiousness – Undirectedness
Openness – Nonopenness.

Assessment

Personality inventories:
Minnesota Multiple Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Reciprocal determinism
Social-cognitive
theories Attributional styles

Locus of control theory: 控制源 Rotter

Internal locus of control
External locus of control

Spotlight effect
Self-concept Self-esteem
Self-efficacy Bandura

Self and culture Collectivism vs. Individualism

Chapter 11: Intelligence and Intelligence Test (CB Unit 5)

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Intelligence: Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and
use knowledge to adapt to new situation.

Classification of intelligence
Spearman g factor: A general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities
and is measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Sternberg 3 types of intelligence: Analytical/ Practical/ Creative intelligence

Gardner 8 types of intelligence:
Verbal, Mathematical, Musical, Spatial,
Kinesthetic, Environmental, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal,

- Crystallized intelligence: our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills;

tend to increase with age.
- Fluid intelligence: our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to
decrease during the late adulthood.

Different types of test

Standford-Binet Test First widely administered intelligence test.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence The most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and
Scale (WAIS) performance subtests.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) IQ = (mental age / chronological age ) x 100

Characteristics of test
Reliability The extent to which a test yields consistent result.
Validity The success with which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
- Content validity
- Predictive validity
Standardization Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison
with the performance of a pretested group.
Flynn effect The worldwide intelligence test performance improves through time.

Chapter 12: Abnormal Psychology (CB Unit 8 Clinical Psychology)

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1. Theories about causes and treatments of psychopathology

Theories Causes of psychopathology Treatments

Psychoanalytic Conflicts in the unconscious (ex. past trauma). Discover the conflicts in
the unconscious.
Humanistic Conflict between a person’s self-image and the Client-centered therapy
reality of the situation.

Behavioral Reinforcement, observation and imitation. Counterconditioning

Cognitive Negative ways of thinking, regarding self- Change the ways people
worth, view about the world and future. think

Sociocultural 1. The society and culture help define what Respect,

acceptable and abnormal behaviors are. Do not label
2. Social groups treat the individual in a
negative way.

Biological Biological factors: genetics, brain, nervous Medicine, surgery

system, neurotransmitter, etc.

2. Types of psychological disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder (泛焦虑症): Cause

Anxiety Long-term, persistent anxiety without a clear cause.
disorders - Learning perspective:
焦虑症 Panic (恐慌): Sudden, unexpected attacks of fear. conditioning
(Possible sensations: difficulty breathing, chest pain, (bad events happen
sweating, trembling, etc.) unpredictably and
uncontrollably),
Phobia (恐惧症): Intense fear of a specific situation observational learning
(observing other’s
or an object, e.g., snake.
fears),
cognition
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (强迫性神经官能
(interpretations and
症): Obsessive thoughts linked to compulsive irrational beliefs).
behaviors (E.g. There are bacteria everywhere 
every time that I touch something, I need to clean my - Biological perspective:
hands). natural selection,
genes,
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): brain.
a disorder characterized by haunting memories,
nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety,
numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for
four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

Depressive disorders (抑郁症): depressed Cause

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Mood mood, general lack of interests in things, - Biological:
disorders low sense of self-worth, low energy. genetic influence,
情绪障碍 neurotransmitter (serotonin).
Bipolar disorder (双极症): The person - Social-cognitive:
alternates between the hopelessness and self-defeating beliefs (learned-
lethargy of “depression” and the helplessness, rumination),
overexcited state of “mania.” explanatory style (stable, global,
internal)

Dissociative Multiple personality disorder (多重人格症):

disorders The person would have more than one well-defined personality.

Somatoform Conversion disorder (转化症): a disorder in which a person experiences

disorders specific genuine physical symptoms without physiological basis.
躯体障碍
Illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriasis, 疑病症): a disorder in which a
person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease.

Group of disorders that includes disturbed Cause

Schizophrenic thoughts, emotions, and pronounced distortion
disorders or detachment from reality. - Biological:
精神分裂症  Delusions (妄想): irrational believes dopamine overactivity,
 Hallucinations (幻觉): perceptual genetic influence.
illusions
 Inappropriate emotional expressions - Psychological:
 Incoherent speech.

Eating disorders Anorexia nervosa 厌食症

饮食障碍 Bulimia nervosa 暴食症

Personality Antisocial personality disorder,

disorders Narcissistic personality disorder,
人格障碍 Dependent personality disorder,
Paranoid personality disorder,
Borderline personality disorder, etc.

Neurodevelopmental Intellectual disability: delayed development in general mental abilities.

disorders
神经发展障碍 Autism spectrum disorder (自闭症): social communication deficits, both
verbal and nonverbal, in which the individuals have difficulty noticing social
cues and has difficulty engaging others.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, 多动症): patterned

inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.

Chapter 13: Treatments of Psychopathology (CB Unit 8)

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  Insight
Psychoanalytic/  Free association (自由联想): Saying whatever comes to mind.
Psychodynamic  Resistance (抗拒): an unwillingness to discuss a topic that may be
therapies connectable to the causes of the problem.
 Transference (移情): the patient shifts thoughts and feelings about
certain people or events onto the therapists. It helps reveal the nature
of the patient’s conflicts.

 Insight
Humanistic
approach  Client-centered therapy: it uses active listening, with empathy and
genuineness, to facilitate the client’s growth.
 Nondirective: it does not offer direct instruction and judgment.
 Unconditional positive regard: it helps clients to rebuild self-worth.

* Classical conditioning
Behavioral - Systematic desensitization therapy (循序减敏疗法): Applied in
therapies patients with phobias. There is a progressive exposure to what the
patients fear, pairing it with relaxation.
- Flooding therapy (洪水疗法): it exposes a client to the stimulus that
causes the undesirable response.
- Aversive: associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an
unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

* Operant conditioning
Token Economy: people earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior
and can later exchange the tokens for privileges or treats.

Cognitive therapies It tries to change the ways people think about situations, to reduce
psychological disorders.
- Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
- Cognitive restructuring
- Cognitive behavior Therapy (CBT)
-

Psychopharmacology: use medicine to treat psychological disorders

Biomedical
therapies Electroconvulsive therapy (电痉挛治疗法): It produces high voltage of
electricity on the patient’s head. It may reduce severe depression.

Psychosurgery: Surgical removal of brain tissue.

Others group therapy, family therapy, community therapy…

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Chapter 14: Social Psychology (CB Unit 9)

Internal (dispositional) attribution vs.

Attribution External (situational) attribution

Self-serving bias: it attributes our success to internal causes and failure to

external causes.

Fundamental attribution error: people are more likely to overestimate the

role of internal attributes and underestimate the role of external attributes.

Self-fulfilling prophecy (自我实现预言): The behavioral expectations of

others can increase the probability that the expected behaviors will occurs.
(Example: A thinks that B is treating him in an unfair way.)

Attitude: combination of emotional and cognitive (perceptual) reactions to

Attitude and its different stimuli.
change
Persuasion: the process by which a person or group can influence the attitude
of others.

** Cognitive dissonance:
It occurs when attitudes and behaviors contradict each other.

Conformity: the modification of behavior to make it agree with that of a

Conformity, group.
compliance, (Example: All people on the street wear white shirts, and then you also start to
obedience wear white shirts.)

** Factors that influence conformity: Group size, cohesiveness of the group

opinion, gender, social status, culture, the appearance of unanimity.

Compliance: the propensity to accede to the requests of others, even at the

expense of your own interests.
(Example: The salesperson asked you to buy a product, and you did it.)

Obedience: one responds to a direct command given by someone with

authority over him.

 Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking

Interpersonal of them.
attraction  Proximity: Physical or perceived nearness. People with similar
characteristics often are attracted to each other.
 Reciprocity of liking: Tendency of people to like other people who like
them.

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 Social facilitation: improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in
Group the presence of others.
dynamics vs. Social impairment:
Diffusion of responsibility: When a member of the group takes less
responsibility than he would assume if acting alone.

 Bystander effect: any particular bystander was less likely to give aid
with other bystanders present.

 Social loafing: group members reduce their efforts put into a task, as a
result of the size of the group.

Deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in

group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

- Groupthink: the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for
harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of
alternatives.
- Minority influence: the power of one or two individuals to sway
majorities.

Group polarization: the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations

through discussion within the group.

Stereotypes: an often over-generalized belief about a group of people.

Antisocial (Example: All people in Shanghai are rich.)
behavior
- In-group bias: the tendency to favor our own group.
- Out-group homogeneity effect: to perceive out-group members as being
more similar to one another than in-group members.
Prejudice: a negative attitude toward members of a particular group without
evidence. (Example: Men work better than women.)

Discrimination: actions that treat members of that group differently from

members of other groups.

Altruism Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Notice → Interpretation of emergency → Assume responsibility → Help
Social trap: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally
Conflict and pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught
peacemaking in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-image perception:
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as
ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Peacemaking:
Contact, Cooperation (superordinate goals), Communication, Conciliation

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