Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes

Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02352-0
REVIEW ARTICLE
Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes: management practices,

feedstocks for renewable energy production, and recovery of value
added products
Velusamy Mozhiarasi1 · Thillai Sivakumar Natarajan2
Received: 28 October 2021 / Revised: 4 January 2022 / Accepted: 14 January 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
The slaughterhouse and poultry industry is possibly one of the fastest-growing sectors driven by the increasing demand in
food availability. Subsequently, the wastes produced from the slaughterhouse and poultry industry are in huge quantities,
which could be a promising resource for the recovery of value added products, and bioenergy production to minimize the
dependence on fossil fuels. Furthermore, the wastes from slaughterhouses and poultry are a hub of pathogens that is capable
of infecting humans and animals. This demands the emerging need for an effective and safe disposal method to reduce the
spread of diseases following animal slaughtering. In light of that, the state of the production of slaughterhouse and poultry
wastes was presented at first. Following this, the impact of solid waste exposure in terms of air, water, and soil pollution and
the associated health challenges due to improper solid waste management practices were presented to highlight the impor-
tance of the topic. Secondly, the potency of these solid wastes and the various waste-to-energy technologies that have been
employed for effective management and resource utilization of wastes generated from slaughterhouses and poultry were
reviewed in detail. Finally, this review also highlights the opportunities and challenges associated with effective solid waste
management, future requirements for the development of effective technologies for the recovery of value added products
(like keratin, fibreboards), and biofuel production.
Keywords Solid waste · Municipal solid waste · Waste management · Slaughterhouse waste · Poultry waste · Energy/
product recovery
Abbreviations FAME Fatty acid methyl esters

AD Anaerobic digestion KOH Potassium hydroxide
MSW Municipal solid waste NaOH Sodium hydroxide
GHG Greenhouse gas CFME Chicken fat methyl ester
C/N ratio Carbon /nitrogen ratio SBY Specific biogas yield
VS Volatile solids SMY Specific methane yield
GI Germination index OLR Organic loading rates
CMB Chicken manure bio-char LCFA Long-chain fatty acids
FFA Free fatty acid HRT Hydraulic retention time
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
gDNA Genomic DNA
* Velusamy Mozhiarasi PCI method Phenol, chloroform, and isoamyl alcohol
[email protected]; [email protected] method
* Thillai Sivakumar Natarajan RBB + C Repeated beat beating column method
[email protected]; [email protected] PCR Polymerase chain reaction
1 SDGs Sustainable development goal
CLRI Regional Centre, CSIR-Central Leather Research
Institute (CSIR-CLRI), Punjab, Jalandhar 144021, India
2
Environmental Science Laboratory, CSIR-Central Leather
Research Institute (CSIR-CLRI), Chennai 600020,
Tamil Nadu, India
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
1 Introduction industry, huge quantities of wastes are being generated in

terms of solid wastes (bedding material, feathers, hatchery
Solid waste generation is an alarming issue worldwide due wastes, blood, offal, shells, poultry manure/litter, etc.) and
to the significant rise in population growth along with indus- wastewater [12]. Though the poultry industries alleviate
trialization and urbanization, which retains terrific pressure poverty, still abattoir wastes create a huge amount of envi-
on the environment and public health [1, 2]. Similarly, the ronmental pollution by means of improper waste disposal
management of these solid wastes is another worldwide or underutilization of wastes’ potency. However, similar to
problem because of the complexity associated with waste large animal slaughterhouses, poultry wastes also have great
segregation, collection, transportation, treatment, and dis- potential for value added applications.
posal, which greatly affect environmental sustainability. Fur- In many of the developing countries, like India, almost
thermore, the improper disposal of solid wastes also creates 3/4th fund allocated to urban solid waste management is
several environmental (water, air, and soil pollution) and utilized for waste collection and transportation [13]. This
health issues like waterborne diseases and respiratory illness becomes a major constraint for the effective treatment of
resulting from the open burning of wastes. solid wastes. The main problem is the mixing of the segre-
Global solid waste generation is estimated to be about gated wastes like organic wastes from slaughterhouses or
11.2 billion tons per year, which is projected to increase abattoir shops or from wholesale-centralized markets with
by 19 billion tons per year by 2025 [3, 4]. Out of the solid other inorganic waste fractions. Hence, the segregation of
wastes, global municipal solid waste (MSW) generation was organic wastes from centralized wholesale complexes like
found to be about 2.01 billion tons per year resultant from slaughterhouses or horticultural markets is highly essen-
the global population of 7.8 billion [5, 6]. It is estimated tial to designing a sustainable and effective waste manage-
that the global population is projected to increase to 9.9 bil- ment system. The wastes from slaughterhouses and abattoir
lion by 2050 which is approximately 26.9% increase than shops have huge potential for energy recovery or product
the present population during which the MSW generation is recoveries like protein hydrolysate synthesis, enzymes, and
estimated to increase approximately by 70%, i.e., 3.4 billion lipids,however, they should be properly collected and treated
tons per year. Out of the 2.01 billion tons of MSW gener- in order to utilize their maximum potency. Hence, segrega-
ated annually, it was reported that about 33% is not treated tion of these bulk generators of organic wastes from Indian
properly, and thus, improper management of solid waste is urban centers could prevent the inefficient use of the potency
quite common in many developing countries. Along with of this huge quantum of wastes [14, 15]. The suitable treat-
waste-handling issues, solid wastes also contribute 3% of ment options need to be explored to find their appropriate-
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [7]. Among these ness based on each context. Thus, effective management of
solid wastes, animal byproducts are well-recognized drivers slaughterhouse and poultry wastes and their proper treatment
of GHG. It was also investigated from the life cycle assess- and disposal and the value addition of slaughterhouse and
ment study that meatless meals showed a 40% reduction in poultry wastes has become one of the most significant thrust
environmental impacts while compared to the meat-contain- areas for the research community.
ing meals in the assessed indicators like carbon footprint, Recently, extensive researches have been focused on the
resource consumption, water use, and health impacts [8]. development of techniques for the management of municipal
Generally, slaughterhouse wastes are animal byproducts solid wastes and their utilization in value-added industrial
that remain unutilized after slaughtering. The wastes from applications. So, plenty of literature and reviews exist on
slaughterhouses are one of the major solid wastes that need municipal solid waste management; however, this review
to be accounted for. Because rising population ultimately article specifically intended to focus on slaughterhouse and
increases the rate of meat consumption, thus abattoir waste poultry wastes, which often pose huge threats to the health
management becomes a huge challenge, especially in urban and environment. Accordingly, this article reviewed several
centers. Furthermore, the amount of solid waste generation treatment alternatives suitable for the efficient utilization
depends on the scale of the slaughtering process. Improper of slaughterhouse and poultry wastes and the process effi-
disposal of abattoir waste not only affects the air and water ciencies. In addition, this review article presented in detail
quality but also increases the threats to human health due to the quantum of waste generation and its composition, its
the presence of pathogenic microbes [9]. It is reported that impact on the environment, utilization potentials, and dis-
about one-third to one-half of the total weight of slaughtered posal options for effective utilization of the potency of these
animal remains as unutilized or partly utilized byproducts of huge growing urban solid wastes. The results of this review
livestock and poultry industry [10, 11]. Similarly, the poultry could provide directions for the effective utilization of these
industry is growing worldwide and provides huge employ- bulk wastes to the stakeholders/municipal corporations to
ment opportunities, and alleviates poverty. In the poultry meet the urban waste management targets.
13
2 Global solid waste generation have been focused on the management and proper disposal
of MSW and also effective utilization of resource-rich MSW
Growing population along with urbanization and industri- for various applications.
alization increases solid waste generation. Furthermore, the
standards of living, disposable incomes, and consumption 2.2 Wastes of slaughterhouses and poultries
of goods and services increase the amount of solid waste
generation. The World Bank indicated the global waste Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes are the commercial waste
generation trend along with the projection from the year of MSW. The population growth increases the demand for
2016–2050, which is shown in Fig. 1, which demonstrated meat products, livestock, and poultry products. It is esti-
that most of the world’s waste is generated from East Asia mated that the total world meat production is 220 million
and the Pacific region. tons and is mainly contributed by buffaloes (31%), cattle
(31%), sheep (5%), goats (10%), pigs (10%), and poultry
2.1 Municipal solid wastes generation and its (11%) [19]. Generally, slaughterhouse/abattoir operations
composition produce a considerable amount of organic waste with rela-
tively high levels of suspended solid, liquid, and fat [20]
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a major and critical compo- (Table 1). It is estimated that about 50–54% of each cow,
nent among the solid wastes which includes different types 52% of each sheep or goat, 60–62% of each pig, 68–72% of
of waste such as household waste, commercial, construction, each chicken, and 78% of each turkey is utilized for meat and
and demolition, institutional, retailers and shops, garden, the remaining is disposed of as waste [21, 22]. Furthermore,
and park waste [17]. Population increase and the associated the bovine slaughterhouse generates solid waste of 27.5% of
industrialization encourage the migration of people from vil- the animal weight, i.e., 275 kg/ton of total live weight killed.
lages to cities for improvement in their lifestyle that gener- In the case of goat and sheep slaughterhouse, the waste gen-
ates thousands of tons of MSW daily. Globally, the composi- eration is 2.5 kg/head that is equivalent to 17% of animal
tion of MSW includes 44% food and green waste, 17% paper weight. Similarly, during pig slaughtering, an average waste
and cardboard, 12% plastics, 5% glass, 4% metal, 2% wood, generation is 2.3 kg/head that is equivalent to 4% of ani-
2% rubber and leather, and 14% others. Similarly, in India, mal weight. In abattoir shops, on an average, 32.5–37.0% of
the composition of MSW include food and garden waste poultry waste is being generated while a chicken is slaugh-
(40%), paper (27%), textile (6%), glass and ceramics (5%), tered, with the waste composition consisting of 57.37% of
plastic and rubber (4%), metals (3%), and inert (15%) [16]. feathers and skin; 20.35% of intestines; 14.8% of legs and
However, the composition of MSW varies with time, and others (< 1%) [10, 23–25].
hence, the management of increasing trend of MSW genera- The slaughterhouse processes and the corresponding
tion creates significant problems in different countries, par- waste generation are schematically depicted in Fig. 2. The
ticularly in developing countries due to lack of knowledge, solid wastes from the slaughterhouses are categorized into
technical, financial, regulatory, and public participation [18]. two types namely vegetable matter (type I consisting of
Therefore, there is no denying that significant researches ruminal, stomach, and intestinal contents, dung) and ani-
mal matter (type II consisting of offals like inedible offals,
Fig. 1 Trend of the global

waste generation and projection
(Obtained from [16])
13
Table 1 Characteristics of slaughterhouse wastes

Substrate Moisture (%) TS (%) VS (%TS) Protein (%) Lipid (%) Carbo- C/N References
hydrates
(%)
Poultry trimmings and bones 77.6 22.4 68.0 11.4 4.9 - - [26]
Poultry feathers 6.1 93.9 - 85.3 2.0 - 3.5 [27, 28]
Cattle meat and fatty waste fractions 47.3 52.7 98.9 6.5 43.2 - - [29]
Cattle rumen content 88.3 11.7 93.0 0.8 1.8 - - [29]
Goat rumen content 82.9 17.1 87.7 3.0 2.6 7.6 12.6 [23]
Bovine slaughterhouse waste 46.8 53.2 98.8 3.5 46.1 - - [30]
Cattle manure 77.0 23.0 78.6 4.8 0.3 13.0 - [31]
Solid cattle slaughterhouse waste 74.0 26.0 95.0 13.0 17.5 0.1 - [32]
Poultry manure 39.7 60.3 - - - - 3.8 [33]
Poultry feathers 8.8–12.3 87.7–91.2 85.5–93.5 80.0 3.0 - 3.1 [34]
− Not available
tissues, and meat trimmings) [35]. Sheep, goats, buffaloes, manure (12 wt.%), blood (5 wt.%), and others (3 wt.%). In
cattle, pigs, and poultry are the major livestock used for addition, more than half the animal by-products are not suit-
slaughtering. It is understood from the literature that slaugh- able for consumption; however, these are potential resources
tering of cattle, pigs, and lambs generates byproducts of for energy production and also offer benefits to the animal
about 66.0, 52.0, and 68.0% of the live weight respectively. by-product processors.
The byproducts are organs, fat or lard, skin, feet, abdominal Similarly, the poultry industry is growing rapidly which
and intestinal contents, bone, and blood. So, the slaughter- generates large amounts of solid and liquid wastes. The pro-
house waste is majorly comprised of rumen (80 wt.%), dung/ cess of poultry slaughtering and the corresponding waste
Fig. 2 Flow chart diagram of

slaughtering process and the
waste generation. (The cattle
and pig images were obtained
from [36, 37]
13
generation is shown in Fig. 3. It is estimated that globally, an quanta of slaughterhouse and poultry wastes would not only
excess of 90% of poultry waste is spread on land close to the pave a way for sustainable waste management but also would
poultry farms. These poultry solid wastes majorly comprise increase industrial development and employment opportuni-
feathers, bedding material, excreta, feed, hatchery waste ties. Hence, there is an alarming need to focus on sustain-
(empty shells, infertile eggs, dead embryos, and late hatch- able waste management technologies for the treatment and
lings), dead birds, and mortality waste. Liquid waste gen- effective utilization of slaughterhouse and poultry wastes.
eration includes faeces, urine, saw dust, remnants of drugs,
pesticides, disinfection of chicken houses, and abattoirs. It
is further estimated that approximately a chicken produces 3 Impact of solid waste exposure
1 kg of fresh manure with variable water content for each
kilogram of feed consumed, whereas a commercial layer Inefficient and improper management of solid wastes cre-
produces about 20 kg waste per year. These wastes comprise ates potential risks to health and the environment. Although
potential nutrients, which can be used for crop production; there is prominent development in various key sectors like
however, it requires crop nutrient requirement and soil test- socio-economic and environmental sectors, still the handling
ing. Moreover, poultry waste management and its potential issues with effective disposal of solid wastes becomes ques-
application are mostly driven by the economic viability and tionable especially in most populated countries like India
environmental safety regulation of a country as well as the [45, 46]. The methane and carbon dioxide emissions from
awareness of the public. solid waste disposal dumpsites by anaerobic decomposition
Animal by-products can be categorized as edible and of wastes alleviate the global warming potential. The health
inedible. For instance, organs like kidneys, heart, and liver impacts resulting from waste disposal may vary depending
are examples of edible by-products whereas horns, hooves, on several factors like the nature of wastes, population expo-
and hair are inedible by-products. The inedible parts of sure, concentration of the pollutant, and time of exposure.
slaughtered animals vary for different categories, i.e., 49%, The improper disposal of solid wastes greatly imparts
47%, 44%, and 37% for cattle, sheep and lambs, pigs, and air quality through the burning of wastes and releases sev-
broilers respectively [25, 38]. However, parts of these wastes eral noxious air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, oxides of
are being processed by the rendering industry for conversion nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter [47].
into animal feed, pet food, poultry meal, and animal fats. These air pollutants could greatly affect human health with
Recently, slaughterhouse byproducts are being utilized in a wide range of diseases like cold, allergy, cardiovascular
several applications such as anaerobic digestion, synthesis and respiratory diseases, and even cancer [48]. Similarly,
of a protein hydrolysate, lipids, enzymes, bioactive pep- improper means of solid waste disposal greatly affect sur-
tides, and synthesis of protein-based adhesive formulations face and ground water quality by leachate, and especially
[10, 39–43]. The blood from the slaughterhouses is one of the people residing nearby the dump yards who are relying
the major animal byproducts that are rich in protein (about on the ground water as a source of drinking and domestic
18%) [44]. The dry protein could be used for the produc- applications are greatly affected. Furthermore, the illegal
tion of yogurt, cakes, and cheese due to its excellent gelling discharge of blood and animal faeces into streams causes
and emulsifying properties. The potential use of these huge oxygen depletion as well as nutrient enrichment which could
Fig. 3 Poultry waste genera-

tion during broiler farming and
slaughtering process
13
increase the rate of toxin compounds accumulation leading of broiler chicken meat production exceeds 22.85 billion
to water borne and respiratory diseases [49]. The contami- chickens worldwide and the approximate waste from poul-
nation of public water supplies or leaks from surrounding try is estimated as 32.5 to 37% [10, 23, 25, 59]. Although
dumpsites could increase the potential health risk of liveli- a huge quantum of organic solid wastes is being generated,
hood by means of infection due to the presence of pathogens still the recovery of value added products from these wastes
and water pollutants [50, 51]. For instance, contaminated would benefit society in an eco-benign way. Hassan et al.
food or water could cause gastro-intestinal diseases like [60] experimented with the utilization of food wastes for
typhoid fever, cholera, and hepatitis E infections [52]. The bio-hydrogen and bio-methane recovery whereas Isarankura
residents living close to dump yards are facing the nuisance et al. [61] evaluated the extraction of keratin protein from
of scavenging birds and animals that could affect their psy- waste chicken feathers. The chicken feather waste is reported
chological health. Furthermore, diseases are being spread to contain approximately 91% keratin proteins[62, 63]. Like-
by different vectors such as mosquitos, birds, insects, and wise, the waste produced from citrus processing industries
rodents. Similarly, mental disorders result from heavy metal exceeds 40 million tons worldwide [64]. However, these
poisoning [53, 54]. Furthermore, soil contamination also wastes are rich in carotenoids and flavonoids that provide a
occurred through direct waste contact or leachate, which good source of provitamin A and antioxidants [65]. These
decreases the quality of soil and reduces the soil nutrients. existing studies evident the potency of organic solid wastes
Thus, these pieces of literature strongly evidenced the link- as a valuable resource that needs to be valorized through
age between improper solid waste management practices and suitable and efficient treatment options.
their adverse environmental and health impacts. In addition
to the environmental pollution by means of affecting air,
water, and soil quality, the health challenges due to poor 5 Solid waste disposal management
solid waste management demand a sustainable approach for practices and their efficiencies
effective treatment and disposal of these solid wastes in an
eco-benign way. The management of solid waste is the most essential pro-
cess while considering the increasing trend of solid waste
generation. Solid waste management majorly comprises
4 Solid wastes as renewable resources functional elements such as generation of waste, on-site
and their potential usage handling, storage, and processing, collection, sorting, pro-
cessing and transformation, transfer and transport, process-
Municipal solid wastes are rich in organic contents that vary ing and recovery, reuse and recycle, and disposal. However,
from 40.2 to 51.0%, which could be a potential resource these processes create significant challenges and are haz-
for recovery of energy and value added products [55–57]. ardous to the environment and public health. Therefore, the
In developing countries, out of the collected wastes, less treatment of organic solid wastes is one among the urging
than 12% are being treated and the rest is disposed of in research areas that have gained attention to create an alter-
dumpsites [58]. This increases the organic load to the dump- native for the waste dump yards/landfills. There are several
sites/landfills and also under-exploits the potential of these technologies that exist for the treatment and disposal of
organic wastes as a resource [14, 15]. The consumption organic solid wastes (Fig. 4); furthermore, solid wastes are
Fig. 4 Solid waste treatment

and disposal techniques
13
potential resources for valuable products. Thus, the descrip- a stable nutrient-rich end product. The rate of composting
tion of solid waste treatment techniques and details of the varies on the process conditions maintained and the compo-
recovery of valuable products, especially for slaughterhouse sition of the wastes [66, 79]. The process also depends on
and poultry waste are given below (Table 2). various environmental factors like moisture, pH, aeration,
temperature, particle size, C/N ratio, and nutrient availability
5.1 Open dumping and landfilling [80].
Although composting is a simple and cost-effective
Open dumping is defined as the disposal of solid waste in an method, still, pretreatment of wastes prior to this process
open environment or wherever the empty land is available is found to enhance the rate of hydrolysis. Pretreatment
in which the disposal does not follow the disposal guide- aids in the conversion of complex compounds like protein,
lines, which are susceptible to burning and harmful to the lipid, and carbohydrates into simple compounds upon the
environment, wildlife, and public health. Landfilling is the act of microbes that releases extracellular hydrolases. Thus,
disposal of the solid wastes at a specific place permitted by pretreatment favours the rate of biodegradation that in turn
the competent authority; however, it is susceptible to creat- reduces the process/digestion time. Furthermore, bulking
ing serious problems to the surrounding environment if the agents are also added during composting for the optimal
proper-engineered design is not adopted. In most developing distribution of air/aeration, to adjust the porosity and also to
countries, municipal solid wastes (MSW) including slaugh- absorb excess moisture and balance the nutrients as well [82,
terhouse and poultry wastes are either dumped directly in 83].
open dumpsites or in landfill sites, which underutilizes the Poultry wastes are rich in nutrients that are useful for
potency of the organic wastes for energy/product generation. improving the structural stability of the soil that in turn ben-
Both these practices cause significant environmental pol- efits the crop yield [84]. In addition to nutrients, poultry
lution by means of leachate contamination, fire, explosion manure contains several active enzymes produced by the
and greenhouse gas emissions, etc. Furthermore, both these digestive tract microorganisms. In addition to nutrients and
practices cause breeding of mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, energy for soil microbial activities, the use of the compost
flies, and other pests, which directly influence the surround- resulting from the poultry manure could also enhance the
ing residential areas that affect their wellbeing by transmit- enzymatic activity of soil which in turn improves the absorp-
ting disease. In addition, the open dumping of these wastes tion capacity, buffering capacity, and stress resistance of the
significantly affects the surrounding water bodies’ quality soil. For a better composting of poultry and slaughterhouse
by means of heavy metal leaching from the dumpsite that in wastes, the addition of carbon-rich materials like sawdust
turn could lead to serious public health issues [78]. Also, the is widely suggested to provide better conditions during
methane gas emission from the open dumpsites/uncontrolled composting process [85]. Qasim et al. [86] carried out com-
landfill leads to air pollution and global warming as well. posting of chicken manure with an addition of carbon-rich
Thus, the proper solid waste management by use of poultry materials and bulking agents, i.e., sawdust and wood shav-
and slaughterhouse wastes for energy production/material ings under forced aeration in a closed cylindrical compost-
recovery could reduce the global carbon footprint, which ing reactor system. The results revealed the lowest ammo-
supports the economic development of the country and nia and carbon dioxide emissions and high volatile solids
improve the quality of life and environment. Several tech- (VS) reductions (from 81 to 61%) with GI of 84.5% during
nologies are available for poultry and slaughterhouse waste aeration of 0.25 L/min/kg VS. The rate of VS degradation
valorization for sustainable utilization; however, their suit- is an overall indicator of the rate of composting [87]. Co-
ability based on the waste composition needs to be explored. composting of cow dung with leather fleshing waste revealed
complete mineralization of the compost after 49 days of
composting and, the relative seed germination study showed
5.2 Composting germination index (GI) of 84%, 86%, and 94% in cucumber,
bottle guard, and tomato respectively [66]. The GI of > 80%
Composting involves the biodegradation of organic matter represents that the compost has attained maturity and is also
present in the wastes upon the act of a mixed population of free of phytotoxicity [88]. Onyuka et al. [89] carried out
microorganisms in a moist and aerobic environment. The composting of bovine hair in thermophilic conditions at a
end product, humus/compost, is rich in nutrients that could temperature range of 40–50 °C with a pH of 7, moisture con-
be used as an organic fertilizer for plant growth (Fig. 5). tent of 55% and C/N ratio of 35, which offered reasonably
It is the cost-effective method of waste treatment that aids stable compost with humification degree of 73% and C/N
in mass reduction. During composting, the carbonaceous ratio of 29. Composting of poultry/slaughterhouse wastes
and nitrogenous matters present in the wastes are utilized demands the need for the addition of carbon-rich materials/
by various successive microbes and converted the same into bulking agents for improving the nutrient balance; however,
13
Table 2 Product yield from poultry and slaughterhouse wastes under different treatment technologies
Substrate Operating conditions Product yield References
13
Mixed cow dung, waste fleshings, and leaf litter Co-composting; hydrolysis of fleshing using Selenom- Germination index of 84% (cucumber), 86% (bottle [66]
onas ruminantium; square-shaped compost bioreac- guard) and 94% (tomato)
tor (Size: 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m); composting time:
49 days
Poultry wastes Batch AD tests; 1 L glass reactor bottles; substrate to 262 mL CH4/g VS added [30]
inoculum ratio—0.25; temperature: 35 °C
Bovine slaughterhouse wastes Batch AD tests; 1 L glass reactor bottles; substrate to 572 mL CH4/g VS added [30]
inoculum ratio—0.25; temperature: 35 °C
Mixed cattle manure and food wastes Batch AD tests; 1 L glass reactor bottles; temperature: 388 mL CH4/g VS added [67]
35 °C; mixed food wastes (1 proportion) with cattle
manure (2 proportion)
Mixed slaughterhouse and food wastes Semi-continuous AD tests; 5 L lab scale reactor; tem- 630 mL CH4/g VS added [68]
perature: 35 °C; helix type mechanical stirrer: 70 rpm;
Retention time: 30 days
Commercial feather meal Biodiesel production; transesterification process; tem- 7–11% biodiesel (on dry matter basis) [69]
perature: 70 °C; process time: 1 h
Poultry waste feathers Keratin extraction; feather with reducing agent (1:20); Keratin yield of 88% (with sodium sulphide) and 66% [70]
reaction time: 6 h; temperature: 40 °C (with L-cysteine)
Chestnut Burrs (CB), Cow Manure (CM), Co-composting; waste shredding using mechanical Best compost yield with 15% BM; 55% CM to CB, [71]
Bovine Bone (BM) shredder; 50 L compost bins; composting period: Rich in macro and micronutrients; Relative seed
38 days germination (98.36%); Germination Index (104.21%);
pH-6.02; C/N-18.32
Cattle manure with sewage sludge Incineration; pilot-scale rotary kiln incinerator; Tem- N2O Emission factor = 1.9–6.0% g-N2O-N/g-N; CH4 [72]
perature: 750–850 °C and air ratio (0.9–1.4) Emission factor = 0.0046–0.26 g-CH4/g of burning
object
Poultry litter Fast pyrolysis; temperature: 530 °C; lab scale bubbling Bio-oil yield: 27%; Heating value: 32 MJ/kg [73]
fluidized bed reactor; bedding material: Aluminium
oxide
Meat and bone meal Protein meal; plasticizer added: glycerol; bioplastic Bioplastic sheets; Tensile strength of sheet: [74]
sheets synthesis; composition of meal: 4–7% mois- 0.8 ± 0.1 MPa
ture, 50% protein, 8–12% fat, and 35% ash
Poultry waste feathers Protein extraction; plasticizer added: glycerol; bioplas- Bioplastic sheets; SEM revealed good morphologies [75]
tic sheets synthesis; 60 ml of keratin solution with without cavity, holes and edge; Keratin with 2% of
varying glycerol concentration of (2, 5, 10 wt %) glycerol showed best thermal and mechanical proper-
ties
Slaughterhouse wastes Protein extraction; operation conditions: pH: 9; reaction Protein yield of 75% (pork lungs); 64% (beef lungs); [76]
time: 1 h; temperature: 20–40 °C 83% (chicken meat)
Poultry waste feathers Keratin extraction; dissolving of feathers (50 g Keratin yield of 53% (sodium sulphide as reducing [77]
feather + 2 L of sodium sulphide solution (0.5 M)); agent)
protein precipitation (feather filtrate solution and
ammonium sulfate solution (1:1)) and protein extrac-
tion
Fig. 5 The composting process

(Obtained from [81])
it is a simple and effective option for the treatment and dis- of 600 to 900 °C in a residence time of 20 to 25 min [27].
posal of solid wastes. The resulting compost would be an The moisture content of the wastes was found to be 4.2%,
alternative source of organic fertilizer to enhance the soil 54.6%, and 13.4% for meat and bone meal, feathers, and
properties and plant growth. poultry litter respectively. The nutrient profile analysis at
varying process conditions revealed the nutrient richness of
5.3 Incineration the resultant incinerated ash, i.e., calcium (17–30%), phos-
phorus (4–17%), and potassium (0.6–3.6%). Oshita et al. [72]
Incineration is one of the potential thermal treatment carried out incineration of cattle manure and sewage sludge
technologies for waste volume reduction [90]. It involves in a pilot-scale rotary kiln with a screw feeder at varying
thermal waste decomposition in the temperature range of process temperature (750–850 °C) and air ratio (0.9–1.4).
850–1200 °C in an oxidizing environment to ensure com- Prior to the incineration process, the wastes were sun-dried
plete combustion [91]. The heat produced from the process to 34 °C. The N 2O emissions were reported to increase
could be used for energy recovery and the resulting ash from with the increasing temperature whereas they decreased
the process could be used for material recovery or could with low air ratios while CH4 emissions were found to be
be solidified as a binder in construction applications based higher above a process temperature of 800 °C at a low air
on the ash composition [92]. Poultry and slaughterhouse ratio. The emission factors of N2O and C H4 were obtained
wastes contain pathogens like Escherichia coli and Salmo- as 1.9–6.0% g-N2O-N/g-N and 0.0046–0.26 g-CH4/g of the
nella sp., E.coli normally exists in the lower intestinal part burning object respectively. Incineration of solid wastes is
of animals, some of which are harmful that are prone to reported to show a higher volume reduction of greater than
cause food poisoning and health illness [93]. Similarly, Sal- 90% [23, 98, 99]. Furthermore, a twofold benefit could be
monella is widely found in an animal slurry that is prone observed as a result of incineration of mixed slaughterhouse
to cause typhoid, food poisoning, and paratyphoid fever wastes i.e. pasteurization of pathogenic wastes and value
[94]. However, heat treatment of 70 °C is sufficient for the added byproduct formation as an additive to organic ferti-
inactivation of both i.e. Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. lizer. The existing incineration studies, although found to be
[95, 96]. Therefore, incineration of wastes could be poten- effective in waste valorization, still necessitate pre-drying
tially effective in destroying the infectious agents thereby of wastes prior to incineration to remove the high moisture
can eliminate the spreading of diseases that ensure safe dis- content in order to reduce the energy demand of the process
posal of pathogenic wastes. Furthermore, the resulting ash and to achieve high waste volume reduction. The pre-drying
from the meat incineration is also found to contain a lot of wastes could also increase the nutrient content of ash
of macronutrients and micronutrients like calcium, copper, since it is primarily influenced by the mass fraction of the
iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, and input components.
zinc. Thus, it could be a potential additive for a high value
added fertilizer. However, the air emissions should be prop- 5.4 Renewable energy production
erly controlled by adopting effective air pollution control
treatment technologies [97]. A large part of the research is focused on eco-friendly and
Incineration of mixed slaughterhouse wastes (waste sustainable energy from waste biomass to replace conven-
feather, poultry litter, meat, and bone meal) was carried out tional fossil fuels [100]. The slaughterhouse and poultry
in a high scale rotary kiln incinerator in a temperature range wastes are growing renewable energy resources and the
13
resultant enhanced share in total energy supply would reduce In hydrolysis, the breakdown of complex compounds into
carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, both these wastes simple compounds will take place and the hydrolysis of cel-
are rich in protein content and hence could be an ideal sub- lulose could be found in Eq. 1 as follows.
strate for biofuel production. Biofuels are applied in all three
states of matter, i.e., solid, liquid, and gas. In solid form,
(C6 H10 O5 )n + nH2 O → nC6 H12 O6 + nH2 (1)
they normally exist as charcoal, wood and chips, pellets, etc., This process eases the microbial accessibility to the bio-
whereas in liquid form, biodiesel and bioethanol stand out. mass that is fed into the AD system. For example, protein
In gaseous form, biofuel exists as biogas, produced predomi- is hydrolyzed to amino acids, lipids into fatty acids, and
nantly by anaerobic fermentation, or by gasification during carbohydrates into simple sugars. In acidogenesis, the hydro-
partial oxidation of wastes at high temperatures [101]. Due lyzed products from the hydrolysis are acted upon by the
to the energetic and biological characteristics of poultry and acidogenic bacteria and converted into volatile fatty acids
slaughterhouse wastes, their sustainable use as bioenergy like acetate, butyrate, propionate, alcohols, carbon dioxide,
can be produced through biochemical or thermochemical and hydrogen (Eqs. 2 and 3). Subsequently, these products
routes, i.e., anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis and transesteri- are utilized by acetogenic bacteria in acetogenesis and forms
fication of poultry tallow. Most of the existing research on acetate and hydrogen (Eqs. 4 and 5).
slaughterhouse and poultry wastes focused on biodiesel,
biogas, and bio-oil production as renewable biofuels and the C6 H12 O6 + 2H2 → 2CH3 CH2 COOH + 2H2 O (2)
potential of each technology in producing electricity, bio-oil,
bio-diesel, etc. are comprehensively reviewed in this section. C6 H12 O6 → 2CH3 CH2 OH + 2CO2 (3)
5.4.1 Anaerobic digestion
CH 3 CH2 OH + 2H2 O → CH3 COO− + H + + 3H2 (4)
Anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic wastes involves the
biological decomposition of organics in an anaerobic envi- CH 3 CH2 COO− + 3H2 O → CH3 COO− + H + + HCO− + 3H2
ronment by the anaerobic bacteria through a sequence of (5)
reactions such as hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, The last step in AD process is methanogenesis where the
and methanogenesis. The process provides dual output as methanogens convert acetic acid and hydrogen into methane
bio-fuel (biogas) and nutrient-rich digestate that could be and carbon dioxide as shown in Eqs. 6 and 7.
converted as organic fertilizer (Fig. 6).
2CH 3 CH2 OH + CO2 → CH4 + 2CH3 COOH (6)
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of

anaerobic digestion of solid
waste
13
organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.5 g VS/L/day in a hydrau-

CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2 O (7)
lic retention time (HRT) of 50 days showed methane yield
Biogas can be produced from any feedstock that contains of 720 mL/g VS. However, in thermophilic conditions, at
substrates like proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and cellulose. an OLR of 1.5 g VS/L/day, the reactor showed instability
In this aspect, organic fractions of municipal solid wastes with excessive ammonia and LCFA concentrations during
are a potential resource for energy recovery through the AD AD of slaughterhouse wastes [30]. Zhang et al. [67] found
process due to its richness in moisture content and organic a 41.1% increase (with methane yield of 388 mL/g VS) in
matter. However, there are several factors that influence the the methane yield during AD of mixed food wastes (1 pro-
process namely composition of wastes, loading rates, car- portion) with cattle manure (2 proportion). Furthermore,
bon–nitrogen balance, ammonia, volatile fatty acids, and in the same study, the results of semi-continuous AD tests
sulphide concentrations. An excess/lower concentration of showed enhancement in the methane yield by 55.2% during
all these factors could cause AD process inhibitions that co-digestion and also found improvement in the buffering
need to be balanced by incorporating the easiest and least capacity of the reactor. Similarly, Borowski et al. [68] found
expensive method of feedstock optimization. a maximum methane yield of 630 mL/g VS during AD of
mixed food and slaughterhouse wastes in a 3 L (working
Anaerobic co‑digestion of poultry and slaughterhouse volume) lab-scale semi-continuous reactor in a solid reten-
wastes Specifically, while reviewing the AD of poultry tion time of 30 days. AD of slaughterhouse/poultry wastes
and slaughterhouse wastes, it could be observed that both with a carbon-rich substrate is a promising option to utilize
of these wastes have poor carbon/nitrogen balance due to the potency of these wastes for enhanced energy recovery
the higher nitrogen contents in the wastes. The high nitro- through improved substrate management alternatives thereby
gen compounds during the AD process successively result providing an alternative source of clean green energy pro-
in the formation of excess ammonia levels that can alter the duction from organic wastes.
intracellular pH and cause inactivation of the key enzymes
by penetration into the microbial cell walls thereby affecting Pre‑treatment and Anaerobic digestion/co‑digestion of
bio-chemical reactions during AD of protein-rich substrates pre‑treated poultry and slaughterhouse wastes Due to the
[102]. Also, the high lipid content of slaughterhouse wastes major shares of fat and protein in poultry and slaughterhouse
is vulnerable to the accumulation of long-chain fatty acids wastes, pre-treatment of wastes is necessary to reduce these
(LCFA) during the AD process. The high LCFA levels are insoluble contents in order to increase their solubility. In
inhibitory to acetotrophic and hydrogenotrophic methano- order to aid physical mass transfer, Ware and Power [107]
gens thereby resulting in operational issues within the anaer- carried out pre-blending of cattle soft offal consisting of
obic digester and leading to reactor instability based on their intestinal residues, fat, meat trimmings to a particle size of
concentrations [103]. The C/N ratio of slaughterhouse and less than 8 mm to aid biodegradation. The results of AD
poultry wastes is found to vary between 7 and 10, which is tests in a 900 mL batch AD reactor showed methane yield
inhibitory for a stable AD process for which the optimal C/N of 650.9 L/kg VS. Porselvam et al. [108] carried out pre-
ratio is 25–30 [68, 104, 105]. Although the high organic and treatment (using KOH and NaOH) of intestinal waste prior
nutrient content of the slaughterhouse and poultry wastes to the AD process and carried out anaerobic co-digestion
makes it an ideal substrate for bioenergy recovery, however, with food wastes that resulted in the increase in the methane
anaerobic mono-digestion of these wastes often fails due yield from 119.7–238.1 to 331.5 L/kg VS. In our previous
to improper nutrient balance leading to excessive long- study, extrusion pre-treatment of cattle ruminal contents and
chain fatty acid levels, ammonia inhibitions, etc. Hence, it blood followed by anaerobic co-digestion with vegetable
demands the need for co-substrate addition during the AD market wastes, showed an increase in methane production
process for an effective and stable means of the utilization from 273 to 304 L/kg VS. Furthermore, AD of ozone pre-
of these wastes. treated animal dung followed by anaerobic co-digestion with
The co-digestion with a carbon-rich substrate that is low agro-wastes showed enhancement in the methane yield from
in protein/fat content could add a proper nutrition balance 205.3 to 300 L/kg VS [109].
to overcome these inhibitory problems. For instance, Pagés- Furthermore, several authors experimented with pas-
Díaz et al. [106] found a 31% enhancement in the methane teurization as a pre-treatment of slaughterhouse wastes for
yield during AD of equal proportions of mixed cattle abat- the inactivation of pathogens in slaughterhouse wastes. For
toir wastes, manure, various crops, and MSW in batch AD instance, AD of pasteurized slaughterhouse wastes (70 °C
reactors at a thermophilic temperature of 55 °C for 70 days. for 1 h) in a batch 900 mL AD reactor at 36–39 °C in a
Anaerobic co-digestion of rendering plant and slaughter- retention time of 30 days showed enhancement in the meth-
house wastes were carried out in a semi-continuous reactor ane yield from 515.5 to 569.15 L/kg VS [110]. Similarly,
for 178 days at a mesophilic temperature of 35 °C at an Luste and Luostarinen [111] carried out semi-continuous
13
AD of pasteurized animal by-products (70 °C for 1 h) in co- resultant biodiesel could be blended with diesel based on
digestion with sewage sludge in a 4 L anaerobic reactor at the product properties. In addition to the potential extrac-
300 rpm with a HRT of 14–25 days at an OLR of 1.8–4.0 g tion of valuable products (lipid) from the wastes during this
VS/L/d and found enhancement in the methane yield from process; furthermore, the use of biodiesel could reduce the
400 to 430 L/kg VS. Also, AD of pasteurized slaughterhouse hydrocarbon, suspended particulate matter, oxides of sul-
wastes at a temperature of 70 °C for 1 h showed a four- phur and carbon monoxide emissions [117, 118]. Glycerol
fold increase in the biogas yield of 1.14 L/kg VS of wastes is a by-product of the trans-esterification process,however, it
Edström et al. [112]. Thus, pasteurization as a pretreatment will be in crude form since it is contaminated by the forma-
prior to AD of slaughterhouse wastes has improved the effi- tion of soap, unreacted fats, water, potassium hydroxide, etc.
ciency of the AD process. Further benefits of thermal pre- Nevertheless, it could be used as a potential raw material for
treatment include a high level of sludge solubilization and the synthesis of various chemicals, biodegradable polymers,
pathogen reduction [113]. energy production, etc. [119].
Animal wastes are potential sources of biodiesel produc-
Factors affecting AD of poultry and slaughterhouse tion due to their lipid richness and also a low-cost alterna-
wastes There are several factors that impart AD of poul- tive feedstock compared to vegetable oil. The major pro-
try and slaughterhouse wastes. Especially, due to the delay cesses involved in biodiesel production from animal waste
in the hydrolysis of poultry and slaughterhouse wastes, the are shown in Fig. 8. The process yield varies with several
retention time greatly affects the rate of biogas production. parameters such as process time, temperature, catalyst used,
The increase in the retention time further increases the reac- alcohol molar ratio, and free fatty acid contents [120]. The
tor volume, which would increase the cost of the reactor. main problem with the use of extracted animal fat from
This can be resolved by increasing the mass transfer within wastes for biodiesel production is the high free fatty acid
the AD system through pre-treatment of wastes prior to the concentration (FFA) that will end up in low conversion
AD process to aid the structural breakdown of complex rates [121]. However, in such cases, the product yield can
compounds [114]. Another major parameter that affects the be improved by employing a two-stage biodiesel conversion
AD of these wastes is the poor C/N ratio resulting from the process, increasing alcohol molar ratio and catalyst addition,
high nitrogen content of poultry and slaughterhouse wastes. and the use of recyclable nano-catalysts [122]. The use of
However, as stated above, a carbon-rich substrate needs to catalysts enhances the reaction rate and temperature that in
be co-digested to balance the nutrient distribution within turn increases the miscibility of fat with alcohol [123].
the AD system to resolve the process inhibitions [115, 116]. Alptekin and Canakci [125] evaluated biodiesel produc-
tion from chicken fat under varying process temperatures,
5.4.2 Biodiesel production reaction time, and alkaline catalysts. Initially, it was sub-
jected to heating (110 °C for 1 h) for the removal of mois-
Biodiesel is the mono-alkyl esters (ethyl or methyl) of long- ture followed by filtration to remove insoluble materials like
chain fatty acids produced by trans-esterification of triglycer- meat and bone components. Subsequently, pretreatment of
ides in reaction with alcohols (methanol or ethanol) in pres- chicken fat (by esterification process) was carried out to
ence of acid/alkali catalyst (usually NaOH/KOH) (Fig. 7). reduce the FFA level to 0.67% that is sufficient for the trans-
The oil/tallow produced from renewable energy feedstocks esterification process. After trans-esterification, the chicken
would be trans-esterified for the production of biodiesel. The fat methyl ester was characterized and the results revealed
Fig. 7 Transesterification reac-

tion of animal fats or vegetable
oil to biodiesel
13
Fig. 8 Flow chart of steps involved in the biodiesel production from animal fat waste (obtained from [124])
that the produced biodiesel met both ASTM D6751 and EN or HCl) at varying concentrations (2%, 4%, and 8%, v/v)
14,214 standards while using KOH and NaOH at 60 °C for in different time periods (4, 8, 16, and 24 h). The highest
4 h. Kondamudi et al. [69] performed biodiesel production accumulated FAME yield of 2.51 ± 0.08% and 2.27 ± 0.09%
from commercial feather meal that is the waste product of was obtained at 8% of H 2SO4 or HCl in a reaction time of
the poultry industry. Initially, the fat from the feather meal 4 h. It is mentioned that the methyl esters of palmitic acid,
was extracted and subsequently, trans-esterification of the palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid were the major
extracted fat into biodiesel was carried out by reaction with components of FAME produced from the slaughterhouse
KOH and methanol as catalyst (70 °C for 1 h). The product sludge cake through acid methanolysis. Mahyari et al. [118]
yield was found to be 7–11% (on a dry matter basis) and the performed the biodiesel production ability of chicken fat
purified biodiesel was subjected to fatty acid methyl esters waste generated from broiler chicken slaughterhouse and
(FAME) characterization. The results confirmed that the bio- performed the survey with respect to waste generated in Iran.
diesel produced is of good quality (with good cetane number It is estimated that 736 kilotons of poultry slaughter waste
and high oxidation stability) in comparison with other bio- is generated annually, which could be utilized to produce
diesel produced from common feedstocks. Similarly, Mata 112 million liters of biodiesel by trans-esterification process
et al. [126] carried out the quality evaluation of biodiesel (with methanol as alcohol and KOH as catalyst) with the
production from tallow, lard, and poultry fat. The product production cost of around 14,277 rial/liter. Thus, 30% of
yield was found to be 90.8%, 91.4%, and 76.8% for tallow diesel in the transportation field could be replaced with B2,
methyl esters, lard methyl esters, and poultry fat methyl i.e., 98% diesel with 2% biodiesel or even B20. The cost of
esters respectively. The results of FAME characterization production can still be lessened if the socio-economic ben-
revealed that B100 blends are not possible in any of the efits of pollution reduction and employment generation are
above-produced biodiesel since all the evaluated parameters taken into account.
do not comply with EN 14,214 standards. However, B20 Overall, the fat extracted from poultry and slaughterhouse
blends (20% biodiesel + 80% conventional diesel) fulfill the wastes can evident to be a potential feedstock for producing
requirements of EN 14,214 standards thereby revealing as a a high-quality biodiesel subject to the availability of huge
good alternative or blend for the conventional diesel to meet quantity and cost-effectiveness. Mostly sulphuric acid, KOH,
the rising energy demands in a sustainable way. Similarly, and NaOH are used as catalysts during the trans-esterifi-
Barik and Vijayaraghavan [127] evaluated the FAME prop- cation process. Due to the presence of high free fatty acid
erties of chicken fat methyl ester (CFME) produced from content, a two-step trans-esterification process is usually
chicken fat while blending with conventional diesel in dif- applied. The FAME properties reveal that the biodiesel pro-
ferent blends. The results revealed optimal blend as 30% of duced from poultry and slaughterhouse wastes does not fully
CFME with 70% of diesel, which in turn lowers the carbon comply with international standards however blending with
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and smoke emissions by 24.4%, commercial diesel is possible that in turn exhibit acceptable
22.9%, and 14.4% respectively. Su and Chou [128] carried fuel characteristics which would enhance environmental sus-
out biodiesel production from slaughterhouse sludge cake tainability and economy.
through acid methanolysis. The sludge cake was transes-
terified with methanol, n-hexane, and acids (using H 2SO4
13
5.4.3 Pyrolysis degradation, lighter and moisture resistant,thereby, it is easy

to transport and also could be stored for a longer time that in
Pyrolysis, a thermal waste valorization technology, involves turn lessens the environmental pollution resulting from the
the thermo chemical decomposition of organic material in direct dumping of raw wastes [135]. In addition, depending
the absence of oxygen in a controlled environment. The end upon the temperature of the pyrolysis process, various value
product would be solid (bio-char), liquid (bio-oil), and gase- added products were identified in the pyrolysis oil, like alco-
ous products (Fig. 9). The yield of products varies with oper- hols, phenols, aromatics, aldehydes, furfural, toluene, and
ating conditions like heating and gas flow rate, temperature, 1-methoyx-2-propyl acetate [131, 136–138].
particle size, and residence time [23, 129]. Recently Zhao Cuixia et al. [139] carried out the pyrolysis of chicken
et al., [130] utilized the pyrolysis (slow and fast) technology manure at varying process temperatures from 200 to 800 °C
for valorization of poultry waste into sustainable bioenergy and evaluated the use of chicken manure bio-char (CMB) for
which could be applied in various demandable places. Slow the removal of lead. The adsorption capacity of lead ions
pyrolysis possesses low heating rates and long residence is positively correlated with process temperature and the
time and takes place at low temperatures (300–450 °C). maximum adsorption capacity of 242.57 mg/g was obtained
Fast pyrolysis possesses high heating rates and occurs at using CMB prepared during pyrolysis of chicken manure
high temperatures (450–600 °C). Slow pyrolysis yields bio- at 800 °C. Kantarli et al. [140] performed the catalytic fast
char, bio-oil, and syngas as the major products whereas fast pyrolysis of poultry meal and poultry litter, and the calo-
pyrolysis yields bio-oil as the major product with biochar as rific value of the obtained organic bio-oil was calculated as
a byproduct. The syngas combustion offers energy for the 41.9 and 41.8 MJ/kg respectively. The use of catalysts was
pyrolysis technology. Similarly, the bio-oil can be upgraded found to reduce the oxygen content of the organic phase of
into liquid fuels (gasoline and diesel) through hydroprocess- the bio-oil as well as undesirable compounds. Upgrading
ing upgrading technology, which could be used for transpor- the bio-oils through hydrothermal treatment could further
tation and heating application. For instance, Kluska et al. reduce the oxygen and nitrogen contents that in turn could
[131] observed enrichment in the heating value of the gase- be used as a potential biofuel or for the synthesis of renew-
ous products (2.0 to 9.5 MJ/Nm3) during pyrolysis of leather able chemicals. Hassen-Trabelsi et al. [141] carried out the
wastes while increasing the process temperature from 300 to pyrolysis of animal fatty wastes (swine, poultry, lamb) at a
500 °C. The yield of bio-char is positively correlated with temperature of 500 °C with a heating rate of 5 °C/min, which
the fixed carbon contents of samples to be pyrolyzed [132]. showed higher bio-oil yields in the range of 58–77.9%. The
The loss of volatile solids during the process mainly relies analysis of produced bio-oil showed the presence of several
on the quantitative share of carbohydrates, protein, and lipid organic compounds like hydrocarbons, carboxylic acids,
content of the wastes and its thermal stability differences aldehydes, and ketones. The fuel properties of the bio-oil
[133]. The bio-oil product could be further processed for further showed its suitability for use as an engine fuel or
alternative energy production whereas the bio-char could be could be used for the synthesis of chemicals. Pyrolysis of
used for activated carbon synthesis or soil amendment appli- slaughterhouse wastes could also help to recover phosphorus
cations [134]. Also, the bio-char is resistant to microbial (P) especially from bone char. Because fertilizer production
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of pyrolysis process of cattle and poultry slaughterhouse waste
13
consumes more than 80% of rock phosphate, which is being material structure makes them potential solid fuels similar
mined annually and excessive use of the same could also to that of lignite coal. In addition, the hydrochar materials
leads to environmental pollution. So, the production of could be utilized for environmental remediation and solid
P-rich fertilizer from organic wastes could lead to a sus- amendment applications [144]. Oh and Yoon [145] calcu-
tainable phosphorus cycle. The concentration of formic- lated the total energy recovery from biochar and hydrolysate
P in pyrolyzed bone char was reported to be 147 g/kg by that is obtained from hydrothermal carbonization of poultry
Zwetsloot et al. [142] which were found to be five times slaughterhouse sludge cake. The hydrothermal carboniza-
higher than the Idaho rock phosphate and it was only 24% tion of sludge cake was carried out at different temperatures
less than formic-P in Triple superphosphate (TSP, 194 g/ (170, 180, 190, 200, and 220 °C). It is demonstrated that the
kg). Also, Pandey et al. [73] performed the fast pyrolysis yield of biochar decreased with an increase in the carboni-
of poultry litter at 530 °C in a lab-scale bubbling fluidized zation temperature whereas the calorific values and energy
bed reactor with aluminium oxide as bedding material and densification were increased from 29.6 to 31.3 MJ/kg and
nitrogen as fluidizing medium (34 L/min flow rate). The 1.07 to 1.13 respectively. The energy potential of raw feed-
yield of bio-oil was found to be 27% with a higher heating stock was 4.541 MJ/kg and the total gross energy recovery of
value of about 32 MJ/kg. The phosphorus and potassium the biochar was decreased (81.2 to 75.6%) with an increase
recovery was above 75% thereby indicating its potency as in the temperature whereas the total gross energy recovery of
an effective organic soil amendment. Baniasadi et al. [143] 4.318 MJ/kg was obtained at 180 °C which maximized gross
performed the slow hydrolysis of poultry litter waste in the energy recovery efficiency by 95.1%. Lee et al. [146] per-
laboratory-scale fixed bed reactor in the temperature range formed the HTC of cattle and pig slaughterhouse waste in a
of 400–800 °C yielded gaseous, two liquid condensates and batch scale type laboratory reactor at different temperatures
char as main products. The results demonstrated that 550 °C (150, 200, 250, and 300 °C). It is known that the carbon con-
is the optimum for higher product yields. The gaseous prod- tent is closely associated with the energy capacity of com-
ucts are mainly comprised of CO2, CO, and CH4. The higher bustible material and it is observed that the carbon content of
heating value (HHV) of carbon monoxide and methane is hydrochar is increased with an increase in the hydrothermal
12.63 MJ/Nm3 and 39.82 MJ/Nm3, respectively. The liquid carbonization temperature. Similarly, the fuel ratio of cat-
condensates are comprised of 33 compounds which mainly tle and pig slaughterhouse-derived hydrochar is increased
comprise phenols, fatty acids, sterols, and N-containing with an increase in the carbonization temperature. Higher
compounds and they could be upgraded and used as biofuel. the fuel ratios better the produced solid fuel. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the N-containing compounds could be pos- the hydrochars having enhanced HHVs, the HHVs of pig
sible feedstocks for the synthesis of value added products in slaughterhouse-derived hydrochar are increased from 4674
the pharmaceutical, chemical, and food industries. The char to 8804 kcal/kg, whereas the HHVs of the cattle slaughter-
products have high energy content; nevertheless, it contains house-derived hydrochar are increased only by ~ 1600 kcal/
sulphur in major concentration which could be processed kg. It is further demonstrated that both the waste-derived
for further application. Although pyrolysis of poultry and hydrochar possess higher energy-related properties. How-
slaughterhouse wastes have greater potential, still the wastes ever, the cattle slaughterhouse-derived hydrochar showed lit-
need to be dried before introducing into the pyrolysis cham- tle lower energy retention due to the lipid-rich characteristics
ber. Since the moisture content of these wastes is usually of raw cattle slaughterhouse waste. Therefore, the slaugh-
greater than 70%, it would otherwise consume more energy terhouse and poultry waste could be a potential resource for
for pre-heating the wastes itself for eliminating the moisture the hydrothermal carbonization technology to create value
content up to a reasonable level. added solid fuel.
5.4.4 Hydrothermal carbonization
6 Recovery of value added products
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a thermochemical
treatment process where waste biomass is heated under In addition to management practices and renewable energy
low-temperature with high moisture content and autogenous production, the slaughterhouse and poultry byproducts and
pressure to produce a value added carbon-rich hydrochar the wastes are potential resources for the generation of value
material. The usage of low temperature and energy input for added products (e.g., protein, protein hydrolysate) which
treatment of high moisture content has potential advantages could be valuable alternatives to commercial counterparts.
than the other thermal treatment technologies (pyrolysis and The utilization of slaughterhouse and poultry by-products
combustion). The carbon-rich hydrochar solid materials have and wastes for recovery and fabrication of value added prod-
high heating value, thermal stability, and the hydrophobic ucts are described in the following section [147].
13
6.1 Extraction of keratin/protein Robatjazi et al. [149] extracted protein from poultry slaugh-
terhouse waste powder. An enzymatic hydrolysis method
Keratin, an abundant polymer, is a fibrous protein found was applied for the protein extraction by the use of alcal-
mainly in hair, nails, feathers, wool, and horns of mam- ase enzyme and the maximum protein yield of 295.92 mg/g
mals, birds, and reptiles. It has several applications in phar- powder was obtained with an incubation period of 24 h
maceutical, biomedical, food, and cosmetic industries. The with sodium hydroxide (0.1 M) at a reaction temperature
major constituent of feathers (> 90%) is keratin, and hence, of 70 °C.
poultry feather wastes have great potency to be utilized in
various applications [148] (Fig. 10). Pourjavaheri et al. [70] 6.2 Production of fibreboard
extracted the keratin from waste chicken feathers with the
mass ratio of feathers to the reducing agent (sodium sul- Recently research is being carried out for the fabrication of
phide and L-cysteine) as 1:20 with a reaction time of 6 h at natural insulation composite fibreboard samples from mixed
a temperature of 40 °C. The result revealed keratin yield of waste poultry feathers and wood residues [150]. Fibreboard
88% and 66% while using sodium sulphide and L-cysteine samples were prepared by mixing feathers with wood shav-
respectively. Similarly, Gupta et al. [77] carried out kera- ings (coarse structure) or mixed wood residues (finer and
tin extraction from chicken feathers and found high product denser structure) in different proportions. The proportions
yield (53%) while using sodium sulphide as a reducing agent are blend structure F (mixed wood residue 70%/ feather
as compared to thioglycolic acid and potassium cyanide. 20%/adhesive 10%); fine sandwich structure SF (feather
Though the use of sodium sulphide provides a higher yield 70%/ mixed wood residue 20%/ adhesive 10%); fine sand-
in both the studies, still the use of L-cysteine is an eco- wich structure SF (feather 20%/ mixed wood residue 70% /
friendly alternative. adhesive 10%); coarse sandwich structures SC (feather 70%/
Like poultry feathers, the inedible tissues/parts of ani- wood shaving 20%/ adhesive 10%); and coarse sandwich
mals slaughtered from slaughterhouses are also becoming a structures SC (feather 20%/ wood shaving 70%/ adhesive
waste, which contains a high amount of protein that could be 10%), respectively (Fig. 12). The properties of the produced
extracted for potential applications. The processes involved fibreboard showed the highest bending strength with the
in handling and recovery of protein from inedible parts of mixed combinations (with 20% feather; 70% waste wood;
slaughterhouse waste are shown in Fig. 11. Selmane et al. 10% adhesives) (Fig. 13). Also, the thermal insulation prop-
[76] carried out protein extraction from slaughterhouse erties and biodegradation were improved while increasing
wastes. At an operating condition of pH of 9, temperature of the share of feathers in the fibreboards. Furthermore, this
20–40 °C with a reaction time of 60 min, the product yields research shows the possibility of utilization of two organic
were found to be 75%, 64%, and 83% for pork lungs, beef waste materials, i.e., poultry feathers and wood residues.
lungs, and chicken meat respectively. Furthermore, the study Similarly, Bessa et al. [151] studied the use of chicken
showed the possible use of these extracted proteins in meat feather fibres in the strengthening of polymeric matrices and
products instead of ingredients from milk or soy. Similarly, the experimental results revealed the suitability in terms of
Fig. 10 Applications of feathers

(obtained from [148]
13
Fig. 11 Process flow diagram of protein/hydrolyzed protein extraction from inedible parts/tissues of slaughterhouse waste (Obtained from [10]
Fig. 12 Horizontal close look

and cross-sections of fibre-
board samples with different
proportions. a blend structure F
(70/20); b fine sandwich struc-
ture SF(70/20); c fine sandwich
structure SF(20/70), d coarse
sandwich structures SC(70/20);
and e coarse sandwich struc-
tures SC(20/70) (obtained from
[150]
13
good acoustic and thermal insulation. The thermal resist-

ance showed a value of 0.175 m 2 K W−1 while using 80:20
proportion of chicken feather fibre and epoxy resin. Fur-
thermore, the resistance is higher than coir fibre reinforcing
polypropylene with a thermal resistance of 0.114 m2 K W−1.
This concept of natural/waste material utilization would pay
a way to attain sustainability in the building materials by
means of fabricating thermal and acoustic insulating materi-
als using waste materials.
6.3 Extraction of deoxyribonucleic acid
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the complex molecule

that is essential for life’s inception, which contains all the
necessary information for the building up and maintenance Fig. 13 Stress–deflection graphs as the results of the three-point
of an organism within the living cells. Although commer- bending testing of fibreboard samples (obtained from [150]
cial kits, depending on the sample type, are available for
molecular biology studies, few novel studies have evidenced
the isolation of genomic DNA from bovine blood samples.
Genomic DNA (gDNA) is an essential component for per- thermoplastic processing of meat and protein meal for sheet
forming molecular studies and blood clots [152]. Goud fabrication is found to depend primarily on the particle size,
et al. [153] carried out genomic DNA isolation from bovine plasticizer addition, and environmental humidity. Bier et al.
blood using conventional phenol, chloroform, and isoamyl [155] produced a thermoplastic from bloodmeal which is a
alcohol (PCI) and detergent method. The product yield was denatured protein by-product of the meat processing indus-
found to be 329.1 and 406.6 μg/5 mL of blood while using try and plasticized with triethylene glycol that improved
PCI and detergent methods respectively. Yu and Morrison the thermal and mechanical properties of the waste-derived
[154] carried out an extraction of PCR quality community bio-plastics. In addition, the effect of varying triethylene
DNA from rumen digesta sample. The repeated beat beat- glycol amount and addition of other additives with constant
ing column (RBB + C) method yielded the product recovery triethylene glycol amount (20 pphBM) on the mechanical
of 82.5 μg of community DNA per gram of sample. It was and thermal properties of bio-plastics were studied. Rie-
found that 85% of the DNA recovered is found to be greater del et al. [156] produced biodegradable and biocompatible
than 1.5 kb (length of the gene from densitometry measure- polyhydroxyalkanoates polyesters using waste animal fats
ments), thereby making it suitable for the use of PCR-based as carbon feedstocks with Ralstonia eutropha as biocatalyst.
analyses of microbiomes. The polyhydroxyalkanoates polyesters are considered suit-
able alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Furthermore,
6.4 Fabrication of bioplastic sheets Verbeek et al. [157] decolored the bovine bloodmeal waste
using peracetic acid subjected to extrusion treatment and
Nowadays, synthetic plastics are gradually being replaced then followed by injection moulding for bioplastics prepara-
by bioplastic materials to tackle sustainability and envi- tion with high mechanical stability. In addition, the additives
ronmental challenges. Slaughterhouse/poultry wastes are such as triethylene glycol and sodium dodecyl sulfate are
one of the renewable sources of protein for the fabrication reported to have a significant influence on the processability
of bioplastic films. Lukubira and Ogale [74] evaluated the and mechanical stability of the bioplastics. Similarly, Ram-
effect of chemical modification (using calcium hydroxide) akrishnan et al. [75] performed the protein extraction from
of plasticized meat and bone meal (with a composition of poultry waste feathers for the fabrication of bioplastic sheets.
4–7% moisture, 50% protein, 8–12% fat, and 35% ash) on Glycerol was added as a plasticizer for sheet formation. The
bioplastic sheets fabrication for potential geo-structural uses. bioplastics made with 2% glycerol addition showed good
In this meal, glycerol was added as a plasticizer in different thermal and mechanical properties. Further, the biodegrada-
ratios along with this meal. The sheets fabricated with 30% bility tests (by incubating in protease enzyme solution pre-
glycerol and meat and bone meal showed a tensile strength pared using phosphate buffer solution) revealed that all the
of 0.8 ± 0.1 MPa; however, it is comparatively lower than bioplastics are completely biodegradable (Fig. 14), which
the tensile strength of synthetic polymers (linear low-den- shows the potential use of this film to replace plastics, which
sity polyethylene with a tensile strength of 30 MPa). The are harmful to the environment.
13
Fig. 14 Biodegradability study

of 2% glycerol bioplastic film
in 0.5% (a–f) and 1% (g–l) of
stock solution (stock solution:
protease enzyme solution)
(obtained from [75]
7 Barriers, opportunities, and challenges be managed by the use of integrated treatment systems. The
associated with solid waste management existing research on value added products recovery from
slaughterhouse and poultry wastes reveals that the wastes
The large volume of solid waste generation could not be could be initially treated for product recovery followed by
avoided with the rising population and the associated indus- energy recovery and fertilizer recovery from the leftover
trialization and urbanization. So, sustainable solid waste treatment residue to carry out an integrated treatment system
management is emerging as one of the significant alarms in for effective and sustainable waste management. The selec-
front of us because it depends upon the quantity and com- tion of treatment systems for slaughterhouses also relies on
position of waste generated. Furthermore, solid waste com- waste availability, which determines the nature of the treat-
prises numerous valuable products which could be used as ment to be adopted that adds economic value. For smaller
an alternative for commercially available products. There- waste quantities, composting with or without prior product
fore, solid waste management requires effective waste man- recovery would be a good option whereas for large waste
agement practices/technologies and policies related to the quantities, extraction, energy recovery, and composting
environment and public health. would be possible. Extraction of value added products like
As discussed above, several technologies exist for the keratin and protein hydrolysate could yield a high economic
management of solid wastes and for effective product/energy value. Following this, the leftover fractions could be used
recovery; nevertheless, in majority of the developing coun- for biofuel recovery like biogas/biodiesel through thermo-
tries, the wastes are disposed of in landfills/dumpsites. This chemical and biological conversion methods. The leftover
not only increases the load to the dumpsites and decreases residue after these treatments could be composted to produce
the empty land and also underutilizes the potency of these an organic fertilizer that in turn adds value further to bring
renewable resources. Furthermore, the managemental obsta- out a circular economy approach. This type of integrated
cles prevail such as space limitations, burning, and illegal treatment approach will overcome the process inefficiencies
dumping, lack of waste collecting points, irregularity of associated with mono-treatments therein reducing the car-
waste collection, and improper waste segregation at source. bon footprint of slaughterhouses and improving the return of
However, in order to attain a sustainable solid waste treat- investment from the wastes in a sustainable way.
ment, making sufficient facilities for waste collection and
segregation at source should be made mandatory and regu-
lated by the government by applying necessary guidelines, 8 Conclusion and future prospective
which would reduce the treatment cost, load to the dumpsites
and also increase the process efficiencies. With the rising population along with an increase in
Apart from proper waste collection and segregation urbanization and industrialization, huge volume of
facility, insufficient funding is another barrier for setting up wastes is being generated creating threats to the environ-
effective treatment technologies for treating large volumes ment and human health. Furthermore, the rising popula-
of waste. However, nowadays, government incentives could tion increases the consumption rate that in turn enhances
be used for tackling this issue. Furthermore, the lack of the slaughterhouses and poultry production which sub-
communication and participation, and poor communication sequently intensify the solid waste generation. Improper
between the municipality and residents in waste manage- waste management would also greatly affect the balance
ment practices are the other major barriers. The technologi- of ecosystems by means of water, air, and soil pollution.
cal barriers associated with various treatment methods could However, solid wastes are potential resources for recovery
13
of various value added products and renewable energy. generation points for effective solid waste management. In
To tackle these rising environmental issues and best use addition, efforts are needed to cut down the expenditures
of the potency of these solid wastes (slaughterhouses and by employing the use of low-cost new sustainable process-
poultry), conventional and several alternative treatment ing methods for slaughterhouse and poultry waste treat-
technologies are available which have been detailed in ment, where waste effluents would be successfully treated
this review article. In addition, the efficacy of technol- and the value added products from waste could be recov-
ogy as well as the need for improving their treatment effi- ered and upgraded for various commercial applications.
ciency is also reviewed in this article. However, in order
to improve the environmental quality, to protect public
health and to provide support to India’s goal (Swachh Credit author statement VM: Conceptualization, methodol-
ogy, writing-original draft preparation, review and editing, project
Bharat and Smart Cities Mission) and international mis- administration.
sions (sustainable development goals of united nations, TSN: Conceptualization, methodology, writing-original draft prepa-
SDGs), it is highly essential to identify the effective inte- ration, review and editing, project administration.
grated sustainable waste treatment system for these wastes
that must be completely applied in collaboration with the Funding CSIR-CLRI Communication No: 1545. The authors acknowl-
edge CSIR-CLRI for financial support through MLP projects (MLP-19
public, local authorities, and private sectors. This would and MLP-27). The authors thank Director, CSIR-CLRI for the kind
help to guarantee a healthy environment while promoting support.
sustainable economic growth. However, the integration of
technologies to add revenue to meet the treatment cost Declarations
and to increase the process efficiencies still needs further
research for attaining zero solid waste discharge to bring Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
out a circular economy approach. Furthermore, the recov-
ery of value added products from slaughterhouses and
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Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery

Slaughterhouse and poultry wastes: management practices,

Received: 28 October 2021 / Revised: 4 January 2022 / Accepted: 14 January 2022

Abbreviations FAME Fatty acid methyl esters

1 Introduction industry, huge quantities of wastes are being generated in

Fig. 1 Trend of the global

Table 1 Characteristics of slaughterhouse wastes

Fig. 2 Flow chart diagram of

Fig. 3 Poultry waste genera-

Fig. 4 Solid waste treatment

Fig. 5 The composting process

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of

organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.5 g VS/L/day in a hydrau-

Fig. 7 Transesterification reac-

5.4.3 Pyrolysis degradation, lighter and moisture resistant,thereby, it is easy

Fig. 10 Applications of feathers

Fig. 12 Horizontal close look

good acoustic and thermal insulation. The thermal resist-

6.3 Extraction of deoxyribonucleic acid

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the complex molecule

Fig. 14 Biodegradability study

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Abbreviations FAME Fatty acid methyl esters

5.4.3 Pyrolysis degradation, lighter and moisture resistant,thereby, it is easy

6.3 Extraction of deoxyribonucleic acid