Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

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Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Evaluating the environmental impacts of land use change in the

conservation area of Indonesian National Park using life cycle assessment
Anisah Anisah a, Yoyon Wahyono a,* , Novy Ariyanto a , Nugroho Adi Sasongko a,b,
Isnaeni Kumalasari a , Virny Zasyana Eka Putri a , Martin Anda c , Mutia Citrawati Lestari a ,
Lambas Parlaungan Panggabean a , Rohmadi Ridlo a , Sundari Sundari a,
Anissa Dewi Suryaningtyas a , Endah Dwi Novianti a , Muhammad Raihan Farras Hakim a ,
M. Arief Rahman Halim d, Hashfi Hawali Abdul Matin e , Dita Ariyanti f
a
Research Center for Sustainable Production System and Life Cycle Assessment, National Research and Innovation Agency - BRIN, Prof. BJ. Habibie Complex Area,
Tangerang Selatan, Banten 15314, Indonesia
b
Energy Security Graduate Program, Republic of Indonesia Defense University, IPSC Sentul Area, West Java 16810, Indonesia
c
Environmental Engineering, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
d
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Semarang, Semarang, Central Java 50196, Indonesia
e
Study Program of Environmental Science, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Central Java 57126, Indonesia
f
Research Center for Chemistry, National Research and Innovation Agency, Building 452 KST BJ Habibie, Serpong Tangerang Selatan, Banten, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Karimunjawa National Park (KNP) conservation area is facing the challenge of evolving land use change,
Environmental impacts which can potentially cause substantial environmental impact. This study examines the potential environmental
Indonesian National Parks impact of emissions from land use change on three major Island using methods released by the European
Land use change
Commission in 2010, as well as the potential environmental impact in nine stations using OpenLCA 2.0 software
Life Cycle Assessment
with the Ecoinvent 3.8 database. Impact assessment method utilized CML-IA baseline and EPS 2015d. The results
Mangroves
of this study indicate significant emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) linked to land-use changes. Karimunjawa
and Kemujan Island exhibit the highest emissions, at 32,424.07 tCO2 . Offsetting these emissions would neces­
sitate mangrove planting encompassing 4.01 ha. Nyamuk and Parang Islands follow with emissions of
19,269.98 tCO2 and 18,473.92 tCO2 , requiring 2.38 ha and 2.28 ha of mangrove restoration for net zero emis­
sions, respectively. The study also reveals environmental impacts and their main contributors, namely Eutro­
phication is 3.98E-6 kg PO4 — eq and the main kontributor is Phosphorus (P); Marine ecotoxicity is 2.14E+01 kg
1.4-DB eq and the main cause is Cobalt (Co) at Menjangan Besar Island (C1 Station). The highest environmental
impact is on Kemujan Island (B1 Station) and Menjangan Besar Island (C1 Station). Then, species extinction is
1.19E-21 NEX and the primary kontributor is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) at Kemujan Island (B1 Station).
It is imperative to halt the conversion of mangrove land into fishponds in KNP to mitigate the effects of envi­
ronmental damage.

1. Introduction term but a commitment to balancing the ecological, social, and eco­
nomic dimensions of these landscapes (Ives et al., 2018). As we embark
National parks, the crown jewels of a country’s natural heritage, on our inquiry into the sustainability of national parks, it becomes
provide sanctuaries for biodiversity, offer recreational opportunities for evident that maintaining a delicate balance between conservation and
outdoor enthusiasts, and serve as living classrooms for environmental human enjoyment is crucial. This equilibrium must be meticulously
education. Nevertheless, they face escalating environmental threats. The preserved to ensure these natural wonders endure for future genera­
concept of sustainability has become crucial in managing and preserving tions. Both wildlife and tourists are essential for sustaining
these protected areas. National park sustainability is not merely a trendy park-dependent businesses (Miller et al., 2014).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Wahyono).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2024.103889
Received 5 August 2024; Received in revised form 16 October 2024; Accepted 23 October 2024
Available online 28 October 2024
2352-4855/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

Indonesia has 55 national parks, including Karimunjawa National the quality standards set by the Ministry of Environment Decree No. 115
Park (KNP). Karimunjawa National Park comprises 27 islands, spanning Year 2003. Furthermore, these activities result in environmental con­
a total area of 111,625 ha. This region also encompasses four villages: sequences, such as increased CO2 emissions, biodiversity loss, and
Parang, Nyamuk, Karimunjawa, and Kemujan. For management pur­ nutrient enrichment. However, these adverse effects can be mitigated
poses, the area is divided into three primary zones: the core zone, the through carbon fixation in vegetated coastal ecosystems, commonly
protection zone, and the utilization zone (Supriatna et al., 2023). Ac­ referred to as mangrove blue carbon, as shown by Yuguda et al., (2022)
cording to the Ministry of Forestry, Directorate General of Forest Pro­ and Taillardat et al., (2018). Prihantono et al. (2021) found that out of
tection and Nature Conservation (2012), there are nine specific zones the 14 samples examined, certain soil samples exhibited ammonia
included in the zoning plan. These zones are the core zone, marine contamination, while nearly all of them were polluted with salt.
protection zone, jungle zone, marine tourism use zone, land use zone, Consequently, the groundwater in KNP is unfit for consumption. Eval­
rehabilitation zone, marine cultivation zone, traditional fisheries zone, uating the environmental impacts of land use changes has been exten­
and historical cultural religious zone. Islands with mangrove ecosys­ sively conducted using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) (Teixeira et al.,
tems, such as Karimunjawa, Kemujan, Parang, and Nyamuk Island, fall 2016; Kulak et. al., 2018). Taelman et al. (2016) employed LCA and
within these zones. quantified net primary production losses to evaluate the impact of land
Several studies have been conducted to examine environmental is­ changes on ecosystem health. Trigaux et al. (2017) expanded the scope
sues associated with mangrove ecosystems. Xin et al. in 2014 utilized of this subject to include the built environment, emphasizing the ne­
remote sensing, geographic information systems, and soil samples to cessity of evaluating the environmental impact of primary land use in
analyze mangrove areas in China (Xin et al., 2014). Similarly, neighborhoods. Farago et al. (2019) developed a national inventory of
Celis-Hernandez et al. in 2022 employed satellite imagery to evaluate land use fluxes to establish normalization references and assess the
alterations in phenological patterns within mangrove forests specific impacts on LCA.
(Celis-Hernandez et al., 2022). Samara et al. in 2020 led environmental While there has been significant study on land use change and LCA,
research on mangroves in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to assess there has been a noticeable gap in the discussion regarding the impact of
ecological vulnerability based on the elemental composition of air and alterations in conservation areas, particularly the changes of mangrove
sediment samples (Samara et al., 2020). Liang et al. in 2023 and Conrad forests to other land uses. No prior study has been conducted on the
et al. in 2024 investigated the presence of mangroves to evaluate the carbon emissions resulting from land conversion activities and their
effects of rising sea levels and changes in mangrove land use (Liang potential environmental consequences within the KNP conservation
et al., 2023; Conrad et al., 2024). Saoum and Sarkar in 2024 used sat­ area. In contrast, Indonesia’s coastal waters are potentially endangered
ellite image data to study mangrove forest alteration and its environ­ by various heavy metal and chemical pollutants, posing significant
mental impact in Bangladesh; however, they found it was less accurate environmental risks (Siregar et al., 2020). This research aims to evaluate
compared to direct field observations (Saoum and Sarkar, 2024). Sob­ the carbon footprint of land conversion activities and their potential
hani and Danehkar in 2023 assessed alterations in Iranian mangrove environmental impacts, including eutrophication, terrestrial ecotox­
forests by analyzing land use changes derived from satellite image icity, marine ecotoxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, human toxicity, and as
datasets, but the environmental impact assessment was not compre­ well as the potential impact on species extinction in conservation areas
hensive (Sobhani and Danehkar, 2023). Ouyang et al. in 2024 examined of KNP.
China’s efforts to restore mangrove forests, highlighting that the focus
on planting mangroves in nonforested ecosystems, such as tidal flats and 2. Methodology
channels, mirrors inappropriate restoration practices seen in Africa.
These efforts threaten the biodiversity of ecosystems reliant on tidal 2.1. System boundary
habitats (Ouyang et al., 2024).
Globally, the mangrove acreage diminishes annually (Malik et al., This study assesses the potential ecological consequences of altering
2017). The most significant decline has occurred in South and Southeast land usage in KNP. The assessment of the environmental consequences
Asia, with a fall of 3870 km2 between 1990 and 2022, equating to an on water quality was determined by the utilization of the life cycle
annual reduction rate of 0.33 %. Human activities leading to alterations assessment (LCA) methodology, in accordance with the ISO 14040
in land use and land cover, such as resource exploitation and sediment (2006) standard titled "Environmental Management – Life Cycle
loss due to upstream damming, result in land subsidence. These phe­ Assessment – Principles and Framework." The ALCA (Attributional Life
nomena, together with natural processes are the principal contributors Cycle Assessment) method is favored over CLCA (Consequential Life
to mangrove degradation throughout South and Southeast Asia Cycle Assessment) because to its utilization of normative allocation
(Rahman et al., 2023). Rahman et al. (2024) investigated changes in principles and its ability to generate an initial inventory of inputs and
mangrove forests in Southeast Asia to assess the potential for blue car­ outputs that often reflect global or national averages. ALCA is measured
bon and carbon emissions, without considering the environmental in a linear manner according to the functional unit. An evaluation is
impact. Hidayah et al. (2024) employed satellite imagery to evaluate the conducted to quantify the potential impact of land use on the environ­
sustainability of mangroves in Indonesia. Their findings indicate that ment by analyzing air and water emissions. The intended addressees of
although mangrove areas are expanding, they are becoming less envi­ this communication are the Indonesian government, managers
ronmentally sustainable. The primary drivers of this reduction in sus­ accountable for the preservation of national park regions, and com­
tainability in Indonesia include human activities such as aquaculture panies engaged in aquaculture.
and agriculture, along with environmental factors like climate change, The system boundary for this LCA analysis is defined as gate-to-gate.
which encompasses variations in temperature, precipitation, and Land use change activities contribute to emissions that are used as in­
sea-level elevation (Bhowmik et al., 2022). ventory data to accurately measure potential environmental impacts.
Meanwhile, over the past 25 years, from 1992 to 2017, the area of The potential influence of changes in land use and the environment on
mangrove land in KNP has decreased by 84.5 ha. This decline can be KNP is assessed by considering the input of materials and energy, as well
attributed to various factors, including natural causes, illegal logging, as the emissions of air and water. The focal point of this study is the
and land conversion for hotel and fishpond development. Anthropo­ process of transforming land in KNP. The selection of the KNP for this
genic activities in KNP may have a substantial impact on coastal water study was based on its status as one of Indonesia’s national parks facing
quality and can potentially lead to marine air pollution, as indicated by challenges including marine pollution, infrastructural development, and
Halim et al. (2022). The research revealed that five out of the nine climate change. This study covers nine sampling sites in the marine
research stations had low pollution status, while the remaining four met ecosystems of three islands located inside the KNP conservation area:

2
A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

Karimunjawa Island, Kemujan Island, and Menjangan Besar Island. The

selection of these islands was based on their significant levels of human
activity. Therefore, the study specifically examines national parks that
have mangrove areas undergoing significant rates of land change (Halim
et al., 2022). A map of the locations of sampling stations in KNP is
depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 2 depics the system boundary that delineates the life cycle of
land use changes in KNP. Land use changes can be classified into three
distinct categories: the transformation of mangrove regions into man­
groves (constant), the transformation of scrubland regions into man­
groves (increase), and the transformation of mangrove regions into
fishponds (decrease). The term "constant" denotes a condition in which
the area of mangroves remains unchanged, with no modifications in
land usage. The term "increase" refers to the process of converting
scrubland into mangrove regions, resulting in the expansion of man­
groves. Conversely, the term "Decrease" signifies a decline in the quan­
tity of mangroves as a result of their conversion into a fishpond area.

2.2. Inventory data

Fig. 2. The system boundary encompasses the life cycle of land use change
The analysis tools employed consist of the open-source software in KNP.
OpenLCA, which was released in 2023 (version 2.0), and utilizes the
Ecoinvent 3.8 database (Le Féon et al., 2023). The water quality data 2.3. Life cycle impact assessment
utilized in the research consists of primary data obtained from labora­
tory testing and secondary data derived from prior research conducted 2.3.1. Land use impact
by Halim et al. (2022). The functional unit employed consists of a vol­ The conversion of mangrove ecosystems into fishponds is a signifi­
ume of marine water at each of the nine designated stations in KNP. cant aspect of land use change that occurs at the junction of environ­
Table 1 presents inventory data regarding water quality test results at mental conservation and economic development. The decrease in
KNP. mangroves as carbon reservoirs leads to a rise in greenhouse gas emis­
sions (GHGs). The calculation of land use change in KNP from 2015 to
2022 is calculated based on Wahyono et al. (2022) as follows:

Fig. 1. The research location is in Karimunjawa National Park (Halim et al., 2022) with modified.

3
A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

Table 1
KNP water quality inventory data, Central Java, Indonesia.
Category Parameter Unit A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b Stationa,b

Marine Total Suspended mg/ 65 75 74 71 72 75 59 60 66

Water Solida L
Quality Biological Oxygen mg/ 15 15 14 18 14 17 12 12 14
Demanda L
Phosphatea mg/ 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
L
Nitratea mg/ 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.03
L
b
Aluminium mg/ 0.93 0.88 0.90 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.01 0.01 0.01
L
Calciumb mg/ 273.87 260.18 264.74 278.44 273.87 264.74 242.28 238.55 242.28
L
Cobaltb mg/ 0.78 0.74 0.75 0.79 0.78 0.75 2.22 2.19 2.22
L
b
Potassium mg/ 3237.79 3075.90 3129.86 3291.75 3237.79 3129.86 3225.73 3176.10 3225.73
L
b
Lithium mg/ 2.07 1.97 2.00 2.11 2.07 2.00 1.96 1.93 1.96
L
Magnesiumb mg/ 10,438.36 9916.44 10,090.41 10,612.33 10,438.36 10,090.41 10,380.51 10,220.81 10,380.51
L
Molybdenumb mg/ 1.43 1.36 1.38 1.46 1.43 1.38 1.34 1.32 1.34
L
b
Sodium mg/ 59,000.15 56,050.14 57,033.48 59,983.48 59,000.15 57,033.48 2759.68 2717.22 2759.68
L
Posporb mg/ 1.27 1.21 1.23 1.29 1.27 1.23 1.11 1.09 1.11
L
Rubidiumb mg/ 2.96 2.81 2.86 3.01 2.96 2.86 2.61 2.57 2.61
L
b
Strontium mg/ 5.75 5.46 5.56 5.84 5.75 5.56 5.66 5.57 5.66
L
a
Halim et al. (2022),
b
This Study

Table 2
Land use change (LUC) of mangrove.
Karimun Jawa and Kemujan Island Parang Island Nyamuk

Reference Actual Unit Reference Actual Unit Reference Actual Unit

(2015) (2022) (2015) (2022) (2015) (2022)

Constant ​ Constant ​ Constant ​

Mangrove Mangrove ​ Mangrove Mangrove ​ Mangrove Mangrove ​
375.53 375.53 Hectares (ha) 30.84 30.84 Hectares (ha) 15.77 15.77 Hectares (ha)
Decrease ​ Decrease ​ Decrease ​
Mangrove Fishpond ​ Mangrove Fishpond ​ Mangrove Fishpond ​
95.24 95.24 Hectares (ha) 23.17 23.17 Hectares (ha) 18.53 18.53 Hectares (ha)
Increase ​ Increase ​ Increase ​
Scrubland Mangrove ​ Scrubland Mangrove ​ Scrubland Mangrove ​
102 102 Hectares (ha) 15.9 15.9 Hectares (ha) 8.93 8.93 Hectares (ha)

( ) ( )
CSR − CSA Efire,Non− CO2 soil organic carbon and soil organic carbon resulting from principal
ELUC = × 3.664 + (1)
T T management practice. Finally, FI is an input factor that quantifies the
difference between the standard soil organic carbon and soil organic
CSi = (SOC + CVEG ) ×A (2) carbon linked to various levels of carbon input to the soil. Since there is
no burning taking place during the land preparation for the fishpond, the
SOC = (SOCST × FLU × FMG × FI ) (3) emission from burning agricultural areas at this stage (Efire,Non− CO2 ) is
The variable CSR represents the carbon stock in reference land use zero. Furthermore, FAO (2013) has established that the duration of the
(tC/ha); CSA reflects the carbon stock in the actual land use (tC/ha); mangrove plantation (T) is 25 years.
CSi is the carbon stock per unit area associated incurred by land use i Table 3 displays the default values presented in the IPCC report that
(tC/ha), SOC refers to the soil organic carbon stock (tC/ha); CVEG sym­ were utilized to calculate carbon stocks per ha (CSR and CSA ) (Paustian
bolizes the carbon stock in both above and below ground vegetation (tC/ et al., 2006; European Commission, 2010; Ding et al., 2011).
ha); A indicates the land use area for mangrove plantations (ha); SOCST The Table 3 shows that mangroves thrive in tropical and wet climate
represents standard amount of soil organic carbon in the topsoil layer regions, where the land use (FLU ) is categorized as "perennial crops",
ranging from 0 to 30 centimeters (tC/ha); FLU signifies a land use factor referring to multi-annual crops. Management (FMG ) refers to "no-till",
that takes into account the difference of the standard soil organic carbon which means planting seeds directly into the soil without initial tillage
and soil organic carbon due to different land use types; and FMG is a and with only minimal disturbance of the soil in the seeding zone. The
management factor that illustrates the distinction between the standard term "medium input" (FI ) refers to the practice of annual cropping with
cereals, where all crop leftovers are returned to the farmed area. The

4
A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

Table 3
Default values for carbon stock in vegetation above and below-ground, as well as the calculation of soil carbon stock.
Continent Reference Actual Default Values

SOCST Land Use (FLU ) Management (FMG ) Input (FI ) CVEG Unit

Asia (insular) Mangrove - 60 1 1,22 1 174 tC/ha

Climate Region: Tropical Wet, Soil Type: low activity clay soils Scrubland - 60 1 1 1 46 tC/ha
- Fishpond 0 0 0 0 0 tC/ha

scrublands are found in climate regions: tropical, wet with land use (FLU ) prioritize cost efficiency, so market values or expected market values are
is classified as "savannah". Management (FMG ) refers to "nominally considered relevant indicators for assessing the cost of damage (Steen,
managed", which entails grassland maintained in a non-degraded state 2016). Within this perspective, the research also examines the key ele­
and managed in a sustainable manner, without making significant im­ ments that lead to each distinct environmental impact of water
provements in management practices. On the other hand, medium input emissions.
(FI ) pertains to a situation where no additional management inputs have
been used. The categorization of soil types includes low-activity clay 3. Results and discussion
soils, specifically Acrisols, Anthrosols, Fluvisols, Ferralsols, Greyzems,
Lixisols, Nitisols, Podzoluvisols, Planosols, Plinhosols, and Solonchaks. 3.1. The impact of land use change
In the tropical moist forest ecological zone in Asia, the vegetation values
for mangroves are 174 tC/ha, whereas for scrubland in the tropical Land use conversion on three islands inside the Karimun Jawa Na­
domain in Asia, it is 46 tC/ha (European Commission, 2010). tional Park from 2015 to 2022 has led to the emission of greenhouse
gases. Based on the data shown in Table 4, it can be observed that
2.3.2. Environmental impact Karimunjawa and Kemujan Islands exhibit the highest emissions due to
The alteration of land use in the Indonesian KNP results in an their massive land conversion, resulting in a total of 32,424.07 tCO2 .
increased likelihood of water quality depletion. This study assesses the Positive value of ELUC signifies a reduction in the capacity to absorb CO2
potential influence of water quality on the environment in KNP, and vice versa. Nyamuk Island has the second highest emissions, at
Indonesia. The CML-IA baseline is utilized for evaluating potential 19,269.98 tCO2 , due to more land conversion to fishponds than man­
environmental consequences by taking into account aspects such as groves, despite being smaller than Parang Island. The last one is Parang
terrestrial ecotoxicity, marine ecotoxicity, human toxicity, freshwater Island, with 18,473.92 tCO2 GHG emissions. According to Rahman et al.
ecotoxicity, and eutrophication (Nunes et al., 2018). In addition, EPS (2024), Indonesia accounted for the highest CO2 emissions in Southeast
2015d is employed to assess the potential impact of species extinction Asia, totaling 16.3817 MtCO2 -e yr− 1. In this study, KNP accounted for
(Pak et al., 2023). EPS stands for "Environmental Priority Strategies in 70,167.97 tCO2 emissions, constituting approximately 0.43 % of Indo­
product development". The EPS system was developed utilizing a hier­ nesia’s total emissions. Moreover, the 55 conservation areas in
archical methodology with the objective of furnishing the product Indonesia identified by Supriatna et al. (2023) collectively contribute
developer with data regarding the financial implications of environ­ slightly more than 23 % to the nation’s overall emissions.
mental harm that would result from a particular product development. To attain a state of net zero emissions in Karimunjawa National Park
Evaluating sustainability is predominantly an ethical concern, as it does throughout all three islands, further endeavors are necessary to reha­
not have a clear value, but instead encompasses a spectrum of values bilitate the area back to its initial mangrove ecosystem. Table 4 shows
that differ in importance. For a product developer or decision maker, it is that around 4.01 ha of scrubland in Karimunjawa and Kemujan Island
essential to comprehend the monetary worth that persons similar to should be transformed into mangroves. Next in line is Nyamuk Island,
them would be willing to pay. This information enables individuals to which has a land area need of 2.38 ha, followed by Parang Island with a
make informed decisions that can prevent environmental damage, land area requirement of 2.28 ha. Restoring land to its native habitat or
especially when they would directly experience the negative effects of mangrove environment is a difficult task, because of several challenges,
such destruction. The product developer and stakeholders should particularly those related to the sustenance of local residents dependent

Table 4
GHG emissions of LUC of mangrove.
Island Reference Actual CS ELUC Total ELUC Unit

CSR CSA

Karimun Jawa and Kemujan Constant ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Mangrove Mangrove 4130,935.15 4130,935.15 0 ​ ​
Decrease ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Mangrove Fishpond 1047,666.67 0 153,546.03 ​ ​
Increase ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Scrubland Mangrove 295,596 1122,028.56 − 121,121.96 32,424.07 tCO2
Parang Constant ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Mangrove Mangrove 339,248.64 339,248.64 0 ​ ​
Decrease ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Mangrove Fishpond 254,876.49 0 37,354.70 ​ ​
Increase ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Scrubland Mangrove 46,078.20 174,904.45 − 18,880.78 18,473.92 tCO2
Nyamuk Constant ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Mangrove Mangrove 173,474.42 173,474.42 0 ​ ​
Decrease ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Mangrove Fishpond 203,835.19 0 29,874.09 ​ ​
Increase ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Scrubland Mangrove 25,879.14 98,232.50 − 10,604.11 19,269.98 tCO2

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

on fishponds. Station to C3 Station respectively. Furthermore, the examination of

marine water at nine KNP Stations led to probable terrestrial ecotoxi­
cological effects measured at 7.97E-24, 7.57E-24, 7.70E-24, 8.10E-24,
3.2. Potential environmental impacts in the Karimunjawa National Park
7.90E-24, 7.70E-24, 1.48E-23, 1.46E-23, and 1.47E-23 kg 1.4-DB eq
conservation area
from A1 Station to C3 Station respectively (Table 5). Cobalt (Co) (Figs. 3
- 11), present in KNP water, is the primary factor responsible for the
The land in KNP is undergoing functional changes, which are causing
impacts of freshwater ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and marine
water quality issues and possible environmental consequences. Table 5
ecotoxicity in KNP. Meanwhile, molybdenum (Mo) only contributes less
presents the potential environmental consequences of the water quality.
than 50 % to the three ecotoxicity impacts at C1 – C3 Stations, except for
Figs. 3 - 11 illustrate the primary factors that contribute to each envi­
A1 - A3 Stations and B1 - B3 Stations, where Mo’s contribution reaches
ronmental impact caused by changes in land use, as assessed using a life
50 % to the ecotoxicity of freshwater.
cycle assessment.
The presence of Co and Mo in saltwater can have substantial adverse
effects on the environment. Co and Mo can be derived from silt produced
3.2.1. Eutrophication
in fishpond activities. High concentrations of these two elements in
The potential impact of eutrophication is quantified in kilograms of
marine aquatic, freshwater aquatic, and terrestrial environments can
phosphate equivalents (kg PO4 — eq) to assess the contribution of each
disrupt the balance of marine ecosystems (Haji and Slocum, 2019;
chemical to the eutrophication process. Measured data from A1, A2, A3,
Shaheen et al., 2020). Furthermore, the presence of molybdenum and
B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3 Stations indicate that alterations in land use
cobalt in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial organisms can lead to
within KNP reflect the effects of eutrophication, with values ranging
contamination. This contamination can cause poisoning in shellfish and
from 3.36E-06–3.98E-06 kg PO4 — eq (Table 5). These numbers denote
crustaceans and constitutes an imminent threat to human health when
the quantity of pollutans emitted by each station that conributes to the
contaminated marine fish are consumed. The consumption of such fish
potential for eutrophication. Phosphorus (P) has been established as the
can result in disorders of the nervous system, kidneys, and even carci­
primary factor influencing euthropication in KNP, attributed to the
nogenic effects (Kośla et al., 2019; Briffa et al., 2020; Zaynab et al.,
application of synthetic fertilizers and excessive feed in ponds and
2022; Zhang et al., 2022). Hence, it is crucial to exert control and reduce
agricultural areas (Halim et al., 2022). The contribution of phosphorus is
the contamination of these two elements in marine, freshwater, and
evaluated according to its concentration in water and its function in
terrestrial environments in order to uphold the equilibrium of marine
promoting excessive algal proliferation. In addition to phosphorus,
ecosystems. This aligns with research by Xin et al. (2014), which
Phosphate (PO−4 ) and Nitrate (NO−3 ) exert influence, but to a lesser
discovered a strong correlation between changes in land function and
extent that phosphorus (Figs. 3 - 11). The function of each component is
heavy metal levels. More specifically, the growing transformation of
determined by their relative quantities in the environment and their
mangroves into ponds and communities leads to a higher concentration
capacity to promote the growth of algae and aquatic vegetation. The
of heavy metals in the sediments of mangroves.
predominant land uses in Karimunjawa, including ponds, mixed plan­
tations, and agricultural land, significantly contribute to the release of
3.2.3. Human toxicity
phosphate and nitrate into the water, resulting in the accumulation of
Toxicity characterization in humans offers comparative assessments
these compounds in the environment. Phosphorus, being the primary
of different chemicals that have the potential to cause cancer or other
nutrient in artificial pond feed (Potužák et al., 2016), significantly
detrimental effects on human health. The potential human toxicity for
contributes to the escalation of eutrophication. Excessive accumulation
any hazardous material released into soil, water, and air is typically
of phosphates leads to algal blooms, which can obstruct light and oxygen
determined relative to 1.4 dichlorobenzene and expressed in kilograms
penetration in aquatic environments, resulting in the mortality of
of 1.4 dichlorobenzene equivalent (kg 1.4-DB eq). Table 5 indicates that
aquatic creatures and a marked decline in water quality (Kogawa et al.,
marine water in KNP, after land use change, has a possible toxicity
2017; Wahyono et al., 2022).
impact on humans of 9.77E-03, 9.28E-03, 9.44E-03, 9.93E-03, 9.69E-03,
9.44E-03, 9.23E-03, 9.09E-03, and 9.16E-03 kg 1.4-DB eq from A1
3.2.2. Ecotoxicity
Station to C3 Station respectively (Table 5). Molybdenum (Mo) is the
Toxicity of the environment can be assessed using three impact
primary factor responsible for the adverse impacts of human toxicity on
categories: freshwater, terrestrial, and marine. The standard unit of
KNP land use (Figs. 3 - 11). Mo arise from pond operations, which
measurement for freshwater ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and
produce sediment (Shaheen et al., 2020). Elevated concentrations of Mo
marine ecotoxicity is kilogram of 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent (kg
can result in water pollution, a deterioration in water purity, and a
1,4-DB eq). The analysis of marine water samples from KNP revealed
potential hazard to organisms. High levels concentrations of Mo can be
that each liter of marine water analyzed had a potential ecotoxicity
dangerous. Humans can readily absorb soluble molybdenum compounds
impact on freshwater waters of 1.89E-24, 1.80E-24, 1.83E-24, 1.93E-24,
by ingestion (Tallkvist and Oskarsson, 2015). Mo can induce gout,
1.88E-24, 1.83E-24, 3.59E-24, 3.54E-24, and 3.56E-24 eq from A1
diarrhea, and anemia upon immediate exposure. Additional symptoms
Station to C3 Station, respectively. The marine ecotoxicity impacts in
include arthralgia, lethargy, hepatic impairment, reduced appetite,
KNP were 1.00E+01, 9.52E+00, 9.69E+00, 1.02E+01, 9.94E+00,
anorexia, bone loss, and involuntary muscle contractions (Smedley and
9.69E+00, 2.14E+01, 2.11E+ 01, and 2.12E+01 kg 1.4-DB eq from A1

Table 5
Environmental impacts on land use in the Karimunjawa National Park Conservation Area.
Impact category Reference A1 Station A2 Station A3 Station B1 Station B2 Station B3 Station C1 Station C2 Station C3 Station
unit

Eutrophication kg PO4 — eq 3.91E− 06 3.72E− 06 3.79E− 06 3.98E− 06 3.88E− 06 3.78E− 06 3.41E− 06 3.36E− 06 3.41E− 06
Freshwater aquatic kg 1,4-DB eq 1.89E− 24 1.80E− 24 1.83E− 24 1.93E− 24 1.88E− 24 1.83E− 24 3.59E− 24 3.54E− 24 3.56E− 24
ecotox.
Marine aquatic kg 1,4-DB eq 1.00E+01 9.52E+00 9.69E+00 1.02E+01 9.94E+00 9.69E+00 2.14E+01 2.11E+01 2.12E+01
ecotoxicity
Terrestrial ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 7.97E− 24 7.57E− 24 7.70E− 24 8.10E− 24 7.90E− 24 7.70E− 24 1.48E− 23 1.46E− 23 1.47E− 23
Human toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 9.77E− 03 9.28E− 03 9.44E− 03 9.93E− 03 9.69E− 03 9.44E− 03 9.23E− 03 9.09E− 03 9.16E− 03
Species extinction NEX 9.93E− 22 9.93E− 22 9.27E− 22 1.19E− 21 9.27E− 22 1.13E− 21 7.94E− 22 7.94E− 22 9.27E− 22

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

A1 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 3. The environmental impact contributors in the A1 Station.

A2 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 4. The environmental impact contributors in the A2 Station.

A3 Station

Eutrophication

Fresh water aquatic ecotox.

Cobalt

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Molybdenum

Nitrate
Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Demand

Species extinction

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 5. The environmental impact contributors in the A3 Station.

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

B1 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 6. The environmental impact contributors in the B1 Station.

B2 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 7. The environmental impact contributors in the B2 Station.

B3 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 8. The environmental impact contributors in the B3 Station.

Kinniburgh, 2017). The research conducted by Malik et al. (2017) 3.2.4. Species extinction
confirmed the idea that transforming mangrove land into ponds causes The biodiversity index that can be utilized is known as NEX, which
toxicity due to the excessive use of feed. stands for "normalized extinction of species." It is determined by

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

C1 Station

Eutrophication
Cobalt
Fresh water aquatic ecotox.
Molybdenum

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity
BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Species extinction Demand

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 9. The environmental impact contributors in the C1 Station.

C2 Station

Eutrophication

Fresh water aquatic ecotox.

Cobalt

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Molybdenum

Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Demand

Species extinction

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 10. The environmental impact contributors in the C2 Station.

C3 Station

Eutrophication

Fresh water aquatic ecotox.

Cobalt

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Molybdenum

Nitrate

Terrestrial ecotoxicity Phosphate

Phosphorus
Human toxicity BOD5, Biological Oxygen
Demand

Species extinction

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 11. The environmental impact contributors in the C3 Station.

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

calculating the proportion of all species included on the red list. The 06, 3.88E-06, 3.78E-06, 3.41E-06, 3.36E-06, and 3.41E-06 kg PO4—eq;
analysis of marine water indicates that the potential impact on the Marine aquatic ecotoxicity:1.00E+01, 9.52E+00, 9.69E+00, 1.02E+01,
extinction rates at 9.93E-22, 9.93E-22, 9.268E-22, 1.19E-21, 9.27E-22, 9.94E+00, 9.69E+00, 2.14E+01, 2.11E+01, and 2.12E+01 kg; Species
1.13E-21, 7.944E-22, 7.944E − 22, and 9.268E-22 NEX, from A1 Sta­ extinction: 9.93E-22, 9.93E-22, 9.268E-22, 1.19E-21, 9.27E-22, 1.13E-
tion to C3 Station respectively (as shown in Table 5). The presence of 21, 7.944E-22, 7.944E-22, and 9.268E-22 NEX. The highest environ­
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) in water within KNP is the primary mental impact is on Kemujan Island (B1 Station) and Menjangan Besar
factor responsible for the extinction of species in the park. This is evident Island (C1 Station). The main contributor to Eutrophication is P, the
from Figs. 3 - 11. Changes in land function in KNP, especially the primary contributor to Marine aquatic ecotoxicity is Co, and the main
mangrove area and/or its surroundings, are factors that heighten the cause to Species extinction is BOD5. Fishpond activities contribute to the
likelihood of species extinction (Richards and Friess, 2016). The decline P content in sea waters, especially the use of artificial feed, while BOD5
in biodiversity is mainly attributed to shifts in human land use patterns, and Co can be sourced from activities including water treatment
which are widely regarded as significant contributors. The impact of equipment and pond infrastructure. Phytoremediation and Bioremedi­
these shifts is anticipated to be increasingly pronounced in this century. ation techniques can be used to decrease the concentration of heavy
Significant reductions in the presence of appropriate habitats have been metals in marine waters. Future research could assess the environmental
observed for species in many parts of the world, with an estimated 1700 performance of fishpond activities and the effectiveness of bioremedi­
species facing the threat of extinction as a result of alterations in land ation and phytoremediation in Karimunjawa National Park. While this
utilization (Selwood et al., 2015). These findings are consistent with LCA study offers valuable insights, it is important to note that it does not fully
research by Yuguda et al. (2022), which suggests that species extinction consider the potential indirect environmental impacts of fishpond con­
is caused by habitat loss as a result of changes in the function of version, such as greenhouse gas emissions from downstream mangrove
mangrove land. forests due to nutrient runoff. Future research should delve deeper into
these areas, as recommended by Ouyang et al. (2021).
3.3. Mitigation
Funding
Land use change in KNP resulted in emissions of 32,424.07 tCO2 on
Karimunjawa and Kemujan Island, 19,269.98 tCO2 on Nyamuk Island, No funding was obtained for this research.
and 18,473.92 tCO2 on Parang Island. To establish a net zero emissions
balance, restoring 4.01 ha of scrubland to mangroves in Karimunjawa CRediT authorship contribution statement
and Kemujan, 2.38 ha in Nyamuk, and 2.28 ha in Parang is essential.
Furthermore, the release of emissions into saltwater harms the envi­ Anissa Dewi Suryaningtyas: Validation, Supervision, Methodol­
ronment and contributes to species extinction. Phosphorus (P) is the ogy. Anisah Anisah: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software,
main factor responsible for the acidification impact of land use change Methodology, Conceptualization. Sundari Sundari: Validation, Super­
(LUC) on the ecosystem. P is also the main driver of eutrophication vision, Methodology. Rohmadi Ridlo: Validation, Supervision, Meth­
impact. The leading cause of toxicity to humans is Molybdenum (Mo). odology. Lambas Parlaungan Panggabean: Validation, Supervision,
The major contributor to the impact and ecotoxicity of freshwater wa­ Methodology. Mutia Citrawati Lestari: Methodology, Formal analysis.
ters, aquatic ecotoxicity marine, and ecotoxicity of terrestrial waters is Martin Anda: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Conceptuali­
the heavy metal Cobalt (Co). Phytoremediation and Bioremediation zation. Dita Ariyanti: Methodology, Formal analysis. Virny Zasyana
techniques can be utilized to decrease heavy metal concentrations in Eka Putri: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis.
marine waters. Bioremediation employs microorganisms to mitigate the Hashfi Hawali Abdul Matin: Methodology, Formal analysis. Isnaeni
presence of heavy metals. Bacteria, fungi, and algae are the microor­ Kumalasari: Methodology, Formal analysis. M. Arief Rahman Halim:
ganisms most often employed for metal clean-up in marine environ­ Methodology, Formal analysis. Nugroho Adi Sasongko: Validation,
ments (Ansari et al., 2020). Additionally, these microorganisms have Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. Muhammad Raihan
demonstrated favorable effects. Meanwhile, phytoremediation tech­ Farras Hakim: Methodology, Formal analysis. Novy Ariyanto: Writing
niques utilize plants to eliminate pollutants from the environment. – original draft, Visualization, Software, Methodology, Conceptualiza­
Phytoremediation is a more economically efficient option when tion. Endah Dwi Novianti: Methodology, Formal analysis. Yoyon
compared to other alternative methods of remediation (Negrin et al., Wahyono: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software, Methodol­
2020). The Lumnitzera littorea mangrove species efficiently absorbs and ogy, Conceptualization.
stores Mo pollution, while the Quassia indica species is well-suited for
the remediation of various heavy metals (Mercado and Aribal, 2020). . Declaration of Competing Interest

4. Conclusions The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
The Karimunjawa National Park faces the challenge of developing the work reported in this paper.
sustainable environmental management approaches to function as both
a conservation area and a tourist destination. The land conversion in the Acknowledgments
area results in environmental impacts. Four major islands in the area,
including Karimunjawa, Kemujan, Nyamuk, and Parang, have under­ The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Research
gone significant alterations in land use. The land changes led to the Centre for Sustainable Production System and Life Cycle Assessment
release of 32,424.07 tCO2 in Karimunjawa and Kemujan Island, -PRSPBPDH, the National Research and Innovation Agency - BRIN
19,269.98 tCO2 in Nyamuk Island, and 18,473.92 tCO2 in Parang Is­ Indonesia 2024, for their assistance in preparing this scientific article.
land. Achieving a net zero emission balance in that area requires Furthermore, the authors wish to express their gratitude to the
restoring 4.01 ha of scrubland in Karimunjawa and Kemujan Island, Advanced Chemical Characterization Laboratory, the National Research
2.38 ha in Nyamuk Island, and 2.28 ha in Parang Island to mangroves. and Innovation Agency – BRIN, for providing facilities and technical and
The CML IA Baseline method is utilized to quantify the environmental scientific assistance throughout E-Layanan Sains - BRIN.
impact of emissions into marine water at nine stations. The results
indicate the following impacts at A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3
Stations namely Eutrophication: 3.91E-06, 3.72E-06, 3.79E-06, 3.98E-

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A. Anisah et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 80 (2024) 103889

Data Availability recover carbon fibers from carbon fiber-reinforced polymer waste. Int. J. Life Cycle
Ass. 23 (9), 1825–1838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-017-1416-6.
Ouyang, X., Lee, S., Wang, W., 2021. The ‘Perfect’conversion: Dramatic increase in CO2
No data was used for the research described in the article. efflux from shellfish ponds and mangrove conversion in China. Sustainability 13
(23), 13163. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313163.
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