Republic of the Philippines

Leyte Normal University

Tacloban City 6500
San Isidro Campus
San Isidro, Leyte 6535

The Contemporary World

(GE 103)

A WORLD OF REGIONS
Lapas, Jo-ann
Saure, Hanny Glenn
Batingal, Gera Mickyla
Catam-isan, Famila
Velayo, Ma. Alexis
Tagalogon, Precious Dhan Mel
Isolan, Glendy
Dulfo, Elisha
Pepito, Crisan
Group II, BEEd- III Students

Mrs. Florence Viagedor

Instructor
 LESSON 12
GLOBAL DIVIDES
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify perspectives in global stratification;

2. discuss the concept of global divide; and

3. review some historical antecedents relating to the understanding of the global

divide.

Introduction
Across history, there have been many manifestations of stratification in
different societies. Social stratification is essentially the phenomenon of
segregating, grouping, and ranking people based on differences in class, race,
economic status, and other categories. In earlier civilizations, we hear of nobilities
and commoners, the lord and the peasant, and many other social statuses and
positions that embody hierarchy of power in a social system. These hierarchies,
especially when pushed toward the extremes, have often led to inequalities, wherein
the group which possesses control over power and resources are given much
privilege at the expense of those who are deprived.

This is problematic because, in principle, humans, with our intrinsic dignity

and consequential rights to live and prosper, should also have equitable access to
resources-both material and non-material. Unfortunately, in the contemporary world,
these hierarchies remain to exist, albeit, in different forms.

Perspectives in Global Stratification

There are various theories which attempt to explain the dynamics and impacts
of stratification among people in the world, especially in the context of their power to
tap on resources and maximize these toward development and toward having a
better quality of life.

One of the theories attempting to explain pathways of development is

modernization theory. In a nutshell, this theory suggests that all societies undergo
a similar process of evolution-from agricultural, industrial, and urbanized and
modern-that is motivated and catalyzed by internal factors. It hints that more than
external influences, internal processes within states are responsible for social
change.

For instance, it opines that a well-functioning bureaucracy that will ensure

welfare among citizens is a necessary infrastructure to achieve development. It also
assumes that when these internal sources of development-e.g., education, market-
driven economy, and political infrastructures-are present, any society will progress
(Ynalvez & Shrum, 2015) and poverty will be resolved.
 However, it can be observed even today that there are countries very rich in
natural resources, but their people remain to experience extreme poverty. Amidst the
affordances in scientific and technological advancements that are circulated around
the globe, we can see that some countries remain disadvantaged in terms of digital
technology transfer that they are still left behind economically.

Based primarily on the works of Raul Prebisch and Hans Singer (thus,
Prebish-Singer hypothesis), the dependency theories suggest that countries are
either "core" (i.e., developed) or "peripheral" (i.e., developing) such that resources
tend to flow from peripheries to the core.

A related theory discussed in earlier lessons is that of Wallerstein (1975),

speaking about a world system composed of boundaries, structures, member
groups, rules of legitimation, and coherence. This world system is assumed to
"comprises a single capitalist world-economy" (Graf, 1980, p.29) so to speak.

First, Second, and Third Worlds

After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union, which were
wartime allies, entered a Cold War—a state of political tension and rivalry, from the
mid-1940s to early 1990s. Several contemporary works have reviewed this event in
the light of post-war events. These include the writings of Gaddis (2005), Zubok
(2007), Westad (2017), among others.

In a nutshell, the Cold War came forth due to political doubts among wartime
allies. For instance, the United States has always been wary of the Soviet Union's
communist leanings, and it has stated its position to contain the latter's expansion.
The Cold War yielded two chief political factions: the Western Bloc, comprised by the
industrial/capitalist US and the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO), which include United
Kingdom, Canada, France, Italy among others; and the Eastern Bloc (Albania,
Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Afghanistan), led by the
communist/socialist Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. The Western Bloc
has been referred to as First World countries, while the Eastern Bloc has been
referred to as Second World countries.

In 1952, Alfred Sauvy, in his article Trois Mondes, Une Planète (Three
Worlds, One Planet) at the L'Observateur, said: "Car enfince Tiers Monde ignoré,
exploité, méprisé comme le Tiers Etat, veut, lui aussi, être quelque chose" (in the
end, The Third World, ignored, exploited, and misunderstood just like the Third
Estates desires to be something). In this article, Sauvy (1952) likened the Third
World to the Third Estates-the French commoners-whose suffering and upheaval led
to the French revolution.

In 1974, Teng Hsiao-Ping, vice-premier of the People's Republic of China

1977, spoke to the United Nations General Assembly. In this talk, Teng (1974)
profoundly noted the distinction among Three Worlds: "The United States and the
Soviet Union make up the First World. The developing countries in Asia, Africa, Latin
America and other regions make up the Third World. The developed countries
between the two make up the Second World."
The Brandt Report and Its Criticism
In the 1980s, a comprehensive analysis of global economy was reported by
the Independent Commission on International Development Issues. The commission
was led by Willy Brandt, West German chancellor. This analysis was encapsulated in
what is popularly known as the Brandt Report.
Briefly, this report categorized countries in the northern hemisphere as
comparatively smaller in population and more economically affluent than countries in
the southern hemisphere—a categorization that gave birth to the Brandt line—an
imaginary line that divides the world into the developed north and the developing
south.
The bottom line of this report was the contention on mutuality-that for both the
northern and southern countries to thrive, global economy must be restructured, for
instance by transferring resources to southern economies, thus ending poverty. In
the early 2000s, another report, The Brandt Equation, was prepared by James
Bernard Quilligan, describing the new global economy as facing "financial
contagion," and requiring "major international relief program" (Quilligan, 2010, p. 3).

Daniel Sneider (1980), in a special report in EIR News Service Inc.,

summarized the contentions of the Brandt Report (p. 27):
• “one world economic system” that governs even countries’ taxation of certain
items
• “zero growth and Malthusianism”, which suggests that controlling
overpopulation will cure underdevelopment
• “basic needs and appropriate technology”, focusing on labor than technology
• “promotion of solar energy”
• “strengthen the IMF/World Bank system”

The Brandt Report had critiques, which was a healthy process for a report that
tackled such a monumental issue as global economic affairs. William D. Graf, a
political and foreign affairs expert at that time, wrote a comprehensive critique in The
Socialist Register (1981). First, he pointed out that while the Brandt commission is
seemingly represented by northern and southern countries, it is not represented
according to “classes” within these countries, because most of the representatives
are coming from political elites.

Graf also noted that the Brandt Report’s recommendations are not totally new
as there are already proposals in the past with similar recommendations. He likewise
opined that the Brandt Report “is compelled by its raison d’être to exclude historical
dimensions from its platform” (p.29), which means that it did not put emphasis on the
antecedents on why in the first place the North and the South arrived to have such
kind of dynamics.

For Graf (1980, p. 28), a proposal for a global economic reform should: (1)
look at the “historical evolution of the world order”; (2) examine “global relations”
including “class relations”; (3) “define goals and objectives”; and (4) “specify strategy
and tactic,” things that are seemingly absent or not so clearly defined in the Brandt
Report.
SUMMARY
While arguably, we can say that our world today has been far better
compared to what it has been before, as can be seen primarily from longer life span,
more access to opportunities, more choices, and generally lesser poverty, there
remains to be disparity across nations and within nations. Our discussion of global
stratification and the existence of the Global North-Global South only surfaces the
challenge to us all, humans, to persevere so we can include as many people in
enjoying these affordances and opportunities.

References

Editorial Department (Nov. 1, 1977). Chairman Mao's Theory of the Differentiation of

the Three Worlds is a Major Contribution to Marxism-Leninism. Renmin Ribao
(People's Daily) Retrieved from https://www.marxists.org/history/ erol/ncm-5/theory-
3-worlds/.

Odeh, L. (2010). A comparative analysis of Global North and Global South

economies. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Volume 12(3):

338-348. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3629/

a2898d4dc51902de3b8bd6b1c3b553fe7fff.pdf.

Prebisch, R. (1945). Introducción al curso de economía política. Revista de

ciencias económicas 33:525-37.

Quilligan, J. B. (2010). The Brandt Equation: 21st Century Blueprint for the New
Global Economy. Retrieved from http://www.brandt21forum.info/BrandtEquation.

195ept04.pdf.

Sauvy, A. (August, 14, 1952). Trois Mondes, Une Planète. L'Observateur. Retrieved
from http://www.homme-moderne.org/societe/demo/sauvy/3mondes. html.

Singer, H. W. 1949. Economic Progress in Underdeveloped Countries. Social

Research: An International Quarterly.of Political and Socia/ Science, 16(1).

Solarz, M. W. (2012) 'Third World': the 60th anniversary of a concept that changed
history, Third World Quarterly, 33:9, 1561-1573, doi:
10.1080/01436597.2012.720828.

Teng Hsiao-Ping (Apr 10, 1974). Speech By Chairman of the Delegation of the
People's Republic of China, Teng Hsiao-Ping, At the Special Session of the U.N.

General Assembly. Retrieved from https://www.marxists.org/reference/ archive/deng-

xiaoping/1974/04/10.htm.
Yee, H. S. (1983). The Three World Theory and Post-Mao China's Global Strategy
International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Vol. 59, No. 2
(Spring, 1983), pp. 239-249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2619937.

Ynalvez, M & M. Shrum, W. (2015). Science and Development. International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.85020-5.
 Lesson 13: THE GLOBAL SOUTH
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
1. Discuss the ever-changing concept of the Global South;
2. Identify countries which are commonly associated with the Global South; and
3. Survey the political and economic conditions in the contemporary Latin
America.
Definition of Terms

Global North- may refer to countries that are geographically in the northern
hemisphere or to countries that are developed.
Global South- may refer to countries that are geographically in the southern
hemisphere or to countries that are developing.

Introduction
“The global S therefore continues to be imagined and reimagined with those who
dominate it even as movements from below reshape these constructions through
resistance” – Lisandro Claudio, “Locating the Global South”
In earlier lessons, we discussed that the changing globa Bingl landscape has
made disparities in various spheres more defined-a phenomenon which creates a
paradox in a world where is your graphical and intellectual access have been made
more possible by the advancement of technology.
In the past, it would have been grueling for explorers to visit various places in
the world as they were limited only by the transportation technologies they had. The
aviation technology has made it's possible for humans to be more connected, at
least in principle, as it speeds up transfer from one country to another.

Defining Global North and Global South

The rise and evolution of a capitalist society has created disparities in various
spheres of life-social, political, cultural, and economic. These disparities have
defined gaps between and among nations that are less geographical and more
socioeconomic in nature.
In literature on globalization and development, the term Global North is
used to refer to countries that are economically developed, While the term global S is
used to pertain to countries that are economically struggling (Odeh, 2010). While the
common frame of reference in such stratification is economic, there are broad
indicators that distinguish economies as either global north or global South: “politics,
technology, wealth, and demography” (Odeh, 2010).
 Global South countries are generally oppressed and deprived in terms
of human development, having higher birth and death rates are perceived to be
economically dependent on the countries in the Global North, notwithstanding the
reality that most of the global S countries are also rich in both natural and human
resources.

The Global South

But what really is global South? Where is it? Is it a placeis it a state of being? In his
article, “Locating the Global South”, Claudio (2014) discussed the nuances of
construing the Global South. He suggests that “there is no uniform Global South” as
the concept is constructed both objectively objectively, and thus begging for
“academic analysis” to articulate it. His vivid examples on how we might see and
experience globalization in our daily lives from the lens of diverging opinions about
globalization, emphasize how “globalization creates both affluence and poverty”
and how “poverty is also being globalized”

Claudio (2024) argued that, amidst these complex views on globalization,

looking at the state and interstate inequalities is essential in understanding the global
south. He provided three contentions.
• “Deconolization process produces states”.
• Problems of globalization can be discussed and solved at the state level.
• “Transnational phenomena” are arguably outcomes of state politics
He, however, forewarned that some might object against his
frameworks for the following reasons, which he also discussed in detail:Some
inequalities cannot be explained by state politics.Not all colonial territories are
statesGlobalization challenges “geographically bound conceptions of poverty and
inequality”

The Rise of the Global South: The Latin America Experience

Many of the countries in the world are referred to as countries in the Global
South. Among the countries commonly associated with the term are the countries in
Latin America (Dados & Connel, 2012).
Latin America can be construed geographically as a group of countries in
South America which share the same language and culture. These socio- cultural
characteristics are linked with their common colonizers, Portugal and Spain.
Historically, countries in this part of the world have manifested a colorful political
scene, characterized by massive and forceful resistance from the grassroots. Across
time as well, countries in the Latin Americas have been plagued by poverty and
economic instability.
 Sawe (2018) noted that Latin America comprises 13 percent of the earth’s
land surface area. The following are some of the major countries, which are
generally cordial with one another.

Country Capital Land Area (km)

Brazil Brasilia 8,515,767
Mexico Mexico City 1,972,550
Colombia Bogota 1,141,748
Argentina Buenos Aires 2,780,400
Peru Lima 1,285,216

Economic Conditions in the Latin Americas

There are two major trade organizations in the Latin Americas, Pacific Alliance
and Merccosur.
Alianza de Pacifico Mercosur
 Organization website:  Organization website:
https://alianzadepacifico.net/en/wh https://www.mercosur.int/en/abo
at-is-the-pacifico-alliance/ ut-mercosur/mercosur-in-broef/
 Also “Pacific Alliance”  Also “The Southern Common
Market”
 Founders: Chile, Colombia,
Mexico and Peru  Founders: Argentina, Brazil,
Paraguay and Uruguay
 Nature: Inclusive integration
process  Subsequent members:
Valenzuela, and Bolivia
 Goal: participatory integration for
free mobility in trade, inclusive and  Nature: Regional integration
equitable economic development, process
“platform of political articulation,
 Goal: common space for
economic and commercial
business generation and
integration and projection to the
investment opportunities
world, with emphasis on the Asia
through “competitive integration
Pacific region.”
of national economies into the
international market”

In 2016, Morgan Stanley economist articulated that Latin America plays a role
in the accelerating global economy in the following year. Brail and Argentina
managed to stand up from economic turmoil. This is despite Mexico facing difficulties
due to the conflict with US’ policy at that time. Economists highlighted that politics
and policy choices remain significant in determining economic growth in the area.

Summary
The Global South is a changing concept. While for most part of the modern
world the Global South has been associated to poverty and dependency, some of
these countries are gaining momentum toward achieving their economic and political
goals. There is a good deal to learn about the experiences of the Global South,
especially about the issues and the struggles that their people are going through. But
at the same time, there is also plenty to learn about how collective action and
people's empowerment in these locals are paving the way for progress. Most
essentially, the phenomenon of the Global South encourages us to reflect on the
affordances and the challenges that globalization poses for people across economic
strata.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Claudio, L. E. (2014). Locating the Global South. In M. Stegger, P. Battersby, & J.

Siracusa,

The SAGE Handbook of Globalization. SAGE Publications, Ltd., pp. 185-199.

doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473906020.n12

Dados, N. & Connel, R. (2012). The Global South. Contexts, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 12-
13.

ISSN 1536-5042, electronic ISSN 1537-6052. https://contexts.sagepub.com.

Doi 10.117/1536504212436479

Morgan Stanley (2017). Latin America Economic Outlook. Retrieved from https://

web.archive.org/web/20170317233627/http://www.latinamericainvest.

com/informe_stanleypdf.

Sawe, B. E. (2018, June 31). Latin American Countries. Retrieved from https://

www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-countries-make-up-latin-america.html

Other sources:

https://alianzapacifico.net/en/what-is-the-pacific-alliance/
https://www.mercosur.int/en/about-mercosur-mercosur-in-brief/

Lesson 14
Asian Regionalism
Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define regionalism;
2. Identify factors influencing regionalism in Asia; and
3. Understand how Asian nations deal with globalization and regionalism.
Definition of Term
Regionalism – strengthened collective identity in a conglomerate of nations
occupying a particular geographical area or aiming at shared goals; increase in
economic exchanges in a particular area.

INTRODUCTION
“There is no single Asian idea of regionalism.”
-Baogang He & Takashi Inoguchi, “Introduction to Ideas of Asian Regionalism”
Amidst globalization, another phenomenon is becoming more apparent:
regionalism. Tanaka and Inoguchi (1996), in a compilation of papers presented at
the United Nations University, articulated that the post-Cold War era is characterized
by unique dynamics in international relations.
First, countries tend to rely on global for a such as the United Nations in
resolving regional conflicts, thus, paving way for the emergence of peacekeeping
initiatives and regional trade organizations. In general, nations nowadays are more
aggregable, at least as indicated by less profound armed conflicts and wars among
nations. Conflicts are however present in other spheres, such as for instance,
territorial disputes which have implication on assertion of political powers in a given
region or which will provide competitive advantage in economic opportunities. In the
earlier years of human history, these misunderstandings or conflict of interest could
have been resolved outright by bloody and massive wars. But now, nations are
utilizing their diplomatic prowess to mitigate the possibility of catastrophic ends.
Second is the emergence of regional cooperation among countries to achieve
political and economic goals. Hernandez (1996) even suggested that such flexibility
and fluidity in regionalism is consequential to the end of the Cold War. As we can see
nowadays, countries are becoming more open to collaborate with other countries in
terms of economic development, in particular, and human development, in general.
Another trend is nations’ commitment to their cultural identities. According to
Huntington (1996), one of the consequences of the post-Cold War affairs is the shift
of power from the West to groups of nations with similar cultural identity. Huntington
referred to these nations as “civilizations”-a proposition foundational to his “clash of
civilization” hypothesis. Apparently, nations are becoming more committed to other
nations which cultural identity they share. Idrees M (2017), in an article on the South
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), noted that regionalism may be
a manifestation of a “space for regional arrangement” (p. 1 of 4) amidst an
overburdened world system. Indrees M continued by pointing out that after the
Second World War, global trends have emerged which show why regionalism is a
necessary phenomenon. First, amidst globalization, global problems remained to be
tackled in regional spheres. Second, the collapse of the alliances has led to
regionalism and trans-regionalism trends. Third, regionalism is an attempt for
resilience in a world which remains to acknowledge superpower tendencies among
particular states such as America. Fourth and lastly, growing insecurity within
particular regions require solutions from within these regions, something which is
made complicated by global dynamics.
In these articulations, we can see that regionalism is apparently another
response to the ever-growing needs and complexities of globalization.

Hettne’s Faces of Regionalism and Degrees of Regionness

Hettne (1996) argued that regionalism has two faces: the old and the new.
The following table summarizes Hettne’s articulation:
Old Regionalism New Regionalism
 bipolar such that it was produced  multipolar as it is open for
in a schism between opposing multilateral engagement and
political alliances collaborations among countries
 imposed by the superpowers  spontaneous and sought
voluntarily by constituents
 secures economic security
within alliances  open inasmuch as it is multipolar
 specific to economic and political  comprehensive and
objectives multidimensional (political,
cultural, economic, social)
 focused only on nation-states
 involves non-state actors

Furthermore, Hettne (1996) suggested that regionness as a concept has varying

degrees.
 Region as a geographical unit- A region can be construed as a place, as a
physical environment. For example, we can determine Asia as a region based
on the land and water boundaries surrounding it.
 Region as a social system- A region can be construed as a conglomerate of
people occupying a particular space and possessing unique dynamics of
interaction. For instance, we can determine Asia as a region based on the
 group of people occupying it and the shared ancestry, language, and culture
these people have.
 Region as organized cooperation- A region can be construed as a group of
nations who agree to take part and form a formal organization. For instance,
Southeast Asia is a region within Asia, and it has been formalized through
memberships in the Association of South East Asian Nations or ASEAN.
 Region as civil society- A region can be construed as a network of cultural
and social linkages among countries who voluntarily take part in a cooperation
among nations.
 Region as an acting subject- A region can be construed as a group of
nations concerned about peace, welfare, and prosperity of its people.

ASIAN REGIONALISM
There are many regions in the world where regionalism can be observed. Asia
is among these regions where regional cooperation’s are emergent and becoming
more influential. Hernandez (1996), mentioned specific trends which probably
necessitate regional cooperation in the Asia Pacific regions. Security challenges,
ecological breakdown, demands for human resources, labor migration, international
terrorism, epidemics, and drug trafficking are just among the issues faced in this part
of the world- phenomena which demands multilateral response.
Asia is the largest and most populated continent in the world.
Geographically, it is separated from the European continent by the Urals, from Africa
by the Suez Canal, from the North America by the Bering Strait (The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia, 2012). It is comprised of district regions such as Central
Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.

Coastal Regions Some Countries Overview

Central Asia Kazakhstan, Important in the
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Silk Road trade, the
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan historical economic and
cultural exchange
between Rome and China
East Asia China, Hong Kong, Cradle of ancient
Japan, Macau, Mongolia civilizations such as the
North Korea, South Chinese and Japanese
Korea, and Taiwan. civilizations as well as the
Mongol Empire
South Asia Afghanistan, High population
Bangladesh, Bhutan, density; cradle of the
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
 the Maldives, Nepal Indian civilization
Southeast Asia Brunei, Cambodia, Found in the Asia
Indonesia, Laos, Pacific Ring of Fire;
Malaysia, Myanmar, historically the goal
Philippines, Singapore, destination of the
Thailand, Timor Lester, European expeditions for
Vietnam its spice
Western Asia Armenia, Many are rid
(Middle East) Azerbaijan, Bahrain, desert regions but serve
Cyprus, Georgia, Israel, as gateways and routes
Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, to major bodies of water
Lebanon, Oman, in the world
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Turkey,
United Arab Emirates,
Yemen

Asia has been the cradle of several ancient civilizations, such as the Chinese
and Indian civilizations. It has also been the home of influential cultural,
philosophical, and religious movements. Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism,
Taoism, and other oriental philosophies and religions generally originated from an
Asian country and have been proliferated around the globe.
In the contemporary world, Asia has become an economic force characterized
by reduced poverty and fast pace economic development (Asian Development Bank,
2008).

DYNAMICS OF ASIAN REGIONALISM

"Asia learned the hard way in 1998 that the absence of regional cooperation can cost
an economic misfortune."
-Sri Mulyanilndrawati (Minister of Finance, Republic of Indonesia);
"Emerging Asian Regionalism: A Partnership for Shared Responsibility"
"Asia learned the hard way in 1998 that the absence of regional cooperation can cost
an economic misfortune."
-Sri Mulyanilndrawati (Minister of Finance, Republic of Indonesia);
"Emerging Asian Regionalism: A Partnership for Shared Responsibility"
"Asia learned the hard way in 1998 that the absence of regional cooperation can cost
an economic misfortune."
-Sri Mulyanilndrawati (Minister of Finance, Republic of Indonesia); "Emerging Asian
Regionalism: A Partnership for Shared Responsibility"
In 2008, the Asian Development Bank published a book on the emerging
regionalism in Asia.
Haruhiko Kuroda, then president of ADB, in the Foreword of this manuscript,
articulated that integration is contributory to the economic development experienced
by Asian countries then.
In 2008, the Asian Development Bank published a book on the emerging
regionalism in Asia. Haruhiko Kuroda, then president of ADB, in the Foreword of this
manuscript, articulated that integration is contributory to the economic development
experienced by Asian countries. Kuroda identified some factors which are influential
in the growing integration at that time:
 Enhanced dialogue between citizens of various nations - This is facilitated
by growing tourism activities in the regions and the consistent multilateral
meetings among leaders of nation-states.
 Expanding intraregional trade and investments - This brings forth closer
financial markets and interdependent economies.
 Increased connectivity - This is facilitated by regional infrastructure projects
as well as collaboration in delivering public goods.
Furthermore, Kuroda noted that the "market-friendly, multitrack, and
multispeed" (p.v) approach of the Asian integration is beneficial for the Asian region
because of the following reasons:
 Members can integrate based on their capacity vis-à-vis the available
opportunities.
 It opens up for collaboration and merging of smaller groups.
 It is responsive to business and open markets.
There are various benefits perceived from the Asian integration. Some of
those discussed by ADB (2008, p. 13) are as follows:
 It harnesses the strengths of diverse economies.
 It provides platform for connecting financial markets (reduced capital, shared
risks).
 It makes the economy more resilient to global risks.
 It pools resources.
 It creates regional mechanisms for safety and security.
However, there are also challenges (ADB, 2008, p. 17):
 The need to establish compatible product standards
  The need to establish guidelines that buffer financial contagion and ensure
compatible financial regulations
 The need to coordinate macroeconomic policies
 The need to manage cross-border environmental and social policies (e.g., fair
treatment of migrant workers).
Amitav Acharya (2010), a professor of International Relations, pointed out
several criticisms that people who are skeptical to Asian regional institutions have.
Skeptics think that these institutions have neither truly contributed in resolving
conflicts and disputes (e.g., People's Republic of China-Taiwan, Sokor/ Nokor, and
India-Pakistan conflicts) nor have used available mechanisms to resolve conflict,
instead, relying on International Court of Justice. Likewise, skeptics observe that
these institutions have failed to successfully establish trust-building within the region,
manifested in arms acquisition and increasing naval operations. Furthermore, there
are no humanitarian mechanisms despite the fact the region is relatively at risk to
calamities.
Amidst challenges and criticisms, cooperations in the Asian region remain to
exist, in principle, to serve the goals of its members. These cooperations are as
follows:
 APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation)
 Is a regional economic forum established in1989 to leverage the
growing interdependence of the Asia Pacific. APEC’s 21 members,
which are Canada, The United States, Mexico, Peru, Chile, New
Zealand, Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Brunei,
Barussalam, The Philippines, Hongkong, Chinese Tapei, Japan,
Republic of Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Republic
of China, and Russia.
 EAS (East Asian Summit)
 Is a regional forum held annually by leaders of countries in East Asian,
Southern Asian, and Oceanic regions. It is the premier leader’s forum
for strategic dialogue and cooperation on key challenges facing the
East Asian Region.
 APC (Asia Pacific community)
 The word "Asia" to mean chiefly East and South East Asia and "the
Pacific" for the countries of Pacific Rim from East and South East Asia
to Australia and New Zealand, and on to North, Central, and South
America. Thus, the "Asia-Pacific" encompasses all of these countries
and regions. It as a comity of nations or an assembly of sovereign
states, such as China, Korea, Japan, the United States, Canada, and
so forth. The European Union, formed in the 1950s, is a model for a
community of this type. Another idea is to view an APC being as a
 community formed by ties among individual citizens or members of the
private sector of the countries in the region.
 EAC (East Asian Community)
 The East Asian Community is a proposed trade bloc for the East and
South East Asian(ESEA) countries that may arise out of either ASEAN
Plus Three or the East Asia Summit (EAS).
 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)
 On 8 August 1967, five leaders – the Foreign Ministers of Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand – sat down together
in the main hall of the Department of Foreign Affairs building in
Bangkok, Thailand and signed a document. By virtue of that document,
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was born. The
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on
8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the ASEAN
Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Founding Fathers of ASEAN:
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei
Darussalam joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, followed by Vietnam on
28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia
on 30 April 1999, making up what is today the ten Member States of
ASEAN.
 The five Foreign Ministers who signed it – Adam Malik of Indonesia,
Narciso R. Ramos of the Philippines, Tun Abdul Razak of Malaysia, S.
Rajaratnam of Singapore, and Thanat Khoman of Thailand – would
subsequently be hailed as the Founding Fathers of probably the most
successful inter-governmental organization in the developing world
today. And the document that they signed would be known as the
ASEAN Declaration.
 APT (ASEAN Plus Three)
 ASEAN Plus Three (APT) consist of 10 ASEAN Member States and
the People’s Republic of China, Japan and the Republic of Korea. The
APT Cooperation process began in December 1997 and since then
has evolve as the main vehicles to promote East Asian Cooperation
towards the long-term goal of building the East Asian Community, with
ASEAN as the driving force. The APT has become one of the most
comprehensive cooperation frameworks in the region, and APT
cooperation continue to broadened and deepened in a wide range of
areas, including political-security, trade and investment, finance,
energy, tourism, agriculture and forestry, environment, education,
health, culture and arts, etc. among others. The APT also supports the
implementation of the ASEAN Community Vision 2025
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