Biology AS Level (Mostly) Summary

Nucleus
Vesicles
Plasma Membrane
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Flagellum
Cilia
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Body
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Plant cells –
Cell wall
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Prokaryotic cell
Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Types of Microscope
Magnification vs Resolution
Light Microscope
Electron Microscopes
Measures
Biochemistry
Glucose stuff
Lipids
Proteins
Purple
Colour
Enzymes
Plasma Membrane
Water
Osmosis
Hypertonic - Hypotonic - Isotonic -
Ψ is Higher outside Ψ is lower outside Ψ is same outside
Diffusion
Active Transport
Passive Transport Active Transport

Doesn’t Use ATP Uses ATP from Respiration
Across Conc. Gradient Against Conc. Gradient
Can use both Channel and Only Uses Carrier Protein as the
Carrier Protein Transport Protein
Large Molecules can’t be Large Molecules can’t be
transported via this method transported via this method.
Maths stuff
Independent Data Variables Related Data Variables
When p > 0.05
When p < 0.05
DNA Stuff
Releases DNA from Nucleus
Attached to the DNA

Causes DNA to precipitate
DNA is wrapped around Glass

Rod to extract the DNA
Holds Sister
Chromatids Together
Prevents DNA from Degrading
Plasmids replicate independently of the

main circular strand
No of Plasmids per daughter cell
might differ.
G0 Phase: Cells that fail to pass the G1 checkpoint enter this
phase, preventing the mutated cell from dividing. The cells
which cannot divide further, such as ones which are
differentiated, are also in this Phase
Metaphase Checkpoint: Checks if all of the chromosomes are
attached to the spindle fibres and are alive.
Meselson – Stahl Experiment
Semi – Conservative Replication:

1) DNA Helicase breaks the Hydrogen Bonds between the 2 Strands.
2) The Broken strands now acts as templates for Free floating nucleotides.
3) The Free-floating Nucleotides are attracted to the template Strands and DNA Polymerase
forms phosphodiester bonds between the Nucleotides through Condesation reaction.
4) This forms 2 identical DNA molecule, where in each of them, one strand is the old strand
while the other strand is the new strand.
This makes this process Semi – Conservative.

Features of Genetic Code:
1) Triplet of Bases – It is made up of triplet of Bases known as Codons.
2) Universal – Same Codon codes for the same amino acid in all organisms.
3) Degenerate – More than one codon codes for the same amino acid.
4) Non – Overlapping – Each nucleotide in each codon is only read once.
Immunity Stuff
Phagocytosis:
1) Phagocyte is attracted to the chemicals released by the pathogen,
and moves along the conc. Gradient.
2) Receptors on the Phagocyte bind to the pathogen, recognising it as a
non – self.
3) The Phagocyte engulfs the pathogen to form a phagosome.
4) Lysosomes in the Phagocyte fuses with the phagosome, forming a
Phagolysosome.
5) Lysosomes releases Lysozymes which hydrolyses the pathogen.
Neutrophil Macrophage
Small Big
Short lasting Long lasting
Granular Agranular
Multi Lobed Nucleus Single Lobed Nucleus
Made in Stem Cells Made in Stem cells
Most abundant type of WBC 1 of the Most abundant WBC
Humoral Response:
- Primary Immune response :
1) After encountering a Pathogen for the first time,Naïve B cell receptor binds
to complementary Antigen of the pathogen, and presents the antigen on
the surface of the B Cell on its MHC, becoming an APC ( Antigen presenting
cell).
2) The processed antigen now binds to a complementary T helper cell

receptor. This is known as Clonal Selection.
3) The T cell now releases Interleukins stimulating the B cell to clone itself and
differentiate into Plasma cells and B Memory cells. This process is known as
Clonal Expansion.
4) The Plasma cells release antibodies specific to this pathogen and help
phagocytes engulf pathogens by agglutination and becoming opsonins. The
Plasma cells last for a few days.
5) The B memory cells circulate around the blood till the same pathogen is
encountered for a second time. These memory cells can survive for years.
Humoral Response:
- Secondary Immune response :
1) If a B Memory cell encounters the same pathogen again, It clones itself and
differentiates into Plasma Cells and more B Memory Cells. This process is
still known as Clonal Expansion.
2) Compared to the Primary immune response, the Secondary Immune

response is quicker, and releases a greater conc. of Antbodies.
Primary Immune Secondary Immune

Response Response
Exposure to First Second or after
Pathogen
Speed of response Slow Fast
to Pathogen
Symptoms Yes No
experienced
Cells active B and T cells Memory B and T
Cells
Rate of Antibody Low High
Prod.
Conc. of Antibody Low High
Prod.
Time taken for Long (4 – 7 days) Short ( 1- 3 days)
antibody Prod.
Cell Mediated Response:
1) In the thymus, T cells can develop into T helper cells, T killer
cells and T regulatory cells.
2) Naïve T helper cells bind to APCs which helps them to clone
themselves to form Cloned T helper cells.
3) These Cloned T helper cells can:
- Stimulate B Cells to undergo Clonal Expansion.
- Stimulate Phagocytosis
- Stimulate T killer cells
- Develop into T memory Cells
4) T killer cells bind to the antigen present on Virus/ Pathogen
infected Cell and release the protein Perforin.
5) Perforin causes holes to form in the plasma membrane and
leads to apoptosis, i.e Programmed cell death.
6) T regulatory Cell can recognise when pathogens in our body has
been completely eliminated and suppresses our immune response.
Herd immunity : Protection from infectious disease that occurs when a sufficient
fraction of a population has become immune through vaccination.

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Biology AS Level (Mostly) Summary

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Nucleus

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Passive Transport Active Transport

Attached to the DNA

DNA is wrapped around Glass

Prevents DNA from Degrading

Plasmids replicate independently of the

Semi – Conservative Replication:

This makes this process Semi – Conservative.

2) The processed antigen now binds to a complementary T helper cell

2) Compared to the Primary immune response, the Secondary Immune

Primary Immune Secondary Immune

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