Software Engineering Lecture notes

UNIT – 5
Unit IV:
User Interface Design: The Golden Rules, User Interface Analysis and Design, Interface
Analysis, Interface Design Steps, WebApp Interface Design, Design Evaluation.
WebApp Design: WebApp Design Quality, Design Goal, A Desigin Pyramid for WebApps,
WebApp Interface Design, Aestheic Design, Content Design, Architecture Design, Navigation
Design, Component-Level Design, Object-Oriented Hypermedia Design Method(OOHMD).

4.1 USER INTERFACE DESIGN

What is it? User interface design creates an effective communication medium between a
human and a computer. Following a set of interface design principles, design identifies
interface objects and actions and then creates a screen layout that forms the basis for a
user interface prototype.
Who does it? A software engineer designs the user interface by applying an iterative
process that draws on predefined design principles.
Why is it important? If software is difficult to use, if it forces you into mistakes, or if it
frustrates your efforts to accomplish your goals, you won’t like it, regardless of the
computational power it exhibits, the content it delivers, or the functionality it offers. The
interface has to be right because it molds a user’s perception of the software.
What are the steps? User interface design begins with the identification of user, task,
and environmental requirements. Once user tasks have been identified, user scenarios
are created and analyzed to define a set of interface objects and actions. These form the
basis for the creation of screen layout that depicts graphical design and placement of
icons, definition of descriptive screen text, specification and titling for windows, and
specification of major and minor menu items. Tools are used to prototype and ultimately
implement the design model, and the result is evaluated for quality.
What is the work product? User scenarios are created and screen layouts are
generated. An interface prototype is developed and modified in an iterative fashion.
How do I ensure that I’ve done it right? An interface prototype is “test driven” by the
users, and feedback from the test drive is used for the next iterative modification of the
prototype.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

THE GOLDEN RULES

The three golden rules on interface design are

1. Place the user in control.
2. Reduce the user’s memory load.
3. Make the interface consistent.
These golden rules actually form the basis for a set of user interface design principles that guide
this important aspect of software design.

4.1.1 Place the User in Control: During a requirements-gathering session for a major new
information system, a key user was asked about the attributes of the window-oriented graphical
interface. User wanted to control the computer, not have the computer control her. Most
interface constraints and restrictions that are imposed by a designer are intended to simplify the
mode of interaction. The result may be an interface that is easy to build, but frustrating to use.
Mandel defines a number of design principles that allow the user to maintain control:
Define interaction modes in a way that does not force a user into unnecessary or
undesired actions. An interaction mode is the current state of the interface. For example, if
spell check is selected in a word-processor menu, the software moves to a spell-checking mode.
There is no reason to force the user to remain in spell-checking mode if the user desires to make
a small text edit along the way. The user should be able to enter and exit the mode with little or
no effort.
Provide for flexible interaction. Because different users have different interaction preferences,
choices should be provided. For example, software might allow a user to interact via keyboard
commands, mouse movement, a digitizer pen, a multi touch screen, or voice recognition
commands.
Allow user interaction to be interruptible and undoable. Even when involved in a sequence
of actions, the user should be able to interrupt the sequence to do something else (without losing
the work that had been done). The user should also be able to “undo” any action.
Streamline interaction as skill levels advance and allow the interaction to be customized.
Users often find that they perform the same sequence of interactions repeatedly. It is worthwhile
to design a “macro” mechanism that enables an advanced user to customize the interface to
facilitate interaction.
Hide technical internals from the casual user. The user interface should move the user into
the virtual world of the application. The user should not be aware of the operating system, file
management functions, or other arcane computing technology. In essence, the interface should
never require that the user interact at a level that is “inside” the machine (e.g., a user should
never be required to type operating system commands from within application software).
Design for direct interaction with objects that appear on the screen. The user feels a sense
of control when able to manipulate the objects that are necessary to perform a task in a manner
similar to what would occur if the object were a physical thing. For example, an application
interface that allows a user to “stretch” an object is an implementation of direct manipulation.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4.1.2 Reduce the User’s Memory Load: The more a user has to remember, the more error-
prone the interaction with the system will be. It is for this reason that a well-designed user
interface does not tax the user’s memory.
Reduce demand on short-term memory. When users are involved in complex tasks, the
demand on short-term memory can be significant. The interface should be designed to reduce
the requirement to remember past actions, inputs, and results.
Establish meaningful defaults. The initial set of defaults should make sense for the average
user, but a user should be able to specify individual preferences.
Define shortcuts that are intuitive. When mnemonics are used to accomplish a system
function (e.g., alt-P to invoke the print function), the mnemonic should be tied to the action in a
way that is easy to remember.
The visual layout of the interface should be based on a real-world metaphor. For example,
a bill payment system should use a checkbook and check register metaphor to guide the user
through the bill paying process. This enables the user to rely on well-understood visual cues,
rather than memorizing an arcane interaction sequence.
Disclose information in a progressive fashion. The interface should be organized
hierarchically. That is, information about a task, an object, or some behavior should be
presented first at a high level of abstraction. More detail should be presented after the user
indicates interest with a mouse pick.

4.1.3 Make the Interface Consistent: The interface should present and acquire information in a
consistent fashion. This implies that (1) all visual information is organized according to design
rules that are maintained throughout all screen displays, (2) input mechanisms are constrained
to a limited set that is used consistently throughout the application, and (3) mechanisms for
navigating from task to task are consistently defined and implemented.
Allow the user to put the current task into a meaningful context. Many interfaces implement
complex layers of interactions with dozens of screen images. It is important to provide indicators
(e.g., window titles, graphical icons, consistent color coding) that enable the user to know the
context of the work at hand. In addition, the user should be able to determine where he has
come from and what alternatives exist for a transition to a new task.
Maintain consistency across a family of applications. A set of applications (or products)
should all implement the same design rules so that consistency is maintained for all interaction.
If past interactive models have created user expectations, do not make changes unless there is
a compelling reason to do so. Once a particular interactive sequence has become a de facto
standard the user expects this in every application he encounters. A change will cause
confusion.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4.2 USER INTERFACE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The overall process for analyzing and designing a user interface begins with the creation of
different models of system function. Tools are used to prototype and ultimately implement the
design model, and the result is evaluated by end users for quality.

4.2.1 Interface Analysis and Design Models: Four different models come into play when a
user interface is to be analyzed and designed. To build an effective user interface, “all design
should begin with an understanding of the intended users, including profiles of their age, gender,
physical abilities, education, cultural or ethnic background, motivation, goals and personality . In
addition, users can be categorized as:
Novices. No syntactic knowledge of the system and little semantic knowledge of the application
or computer usage in general.
Knowledgeable, intermittent users. Reasonable semantic knowledge of the application but
relatively low recall of syntactic information necessary to use the interface.
Knowledgeable, frequent users. Good semantic and syntactic knowledge that often leads to
the “power-user syndrome”; that is, individuals who look for shortcuts and abbreviated modes of
interaction.
The user’s mental model (system perception) is the image of the system that end users carry in
their heads. For example, if the user of a particular word processor were asked to describe its
operation, the system perception would guide the response.
The implementation model combines the outward manifestation of the computer based system
(look and feel interface), coupled with all supporting information (books, manuals, videotapes,
help) that describes interface syntax and semantics. When the implementation model and the
user’s mental model are coincident, users generally feel comfortable with the software and use it
effectively. In essence, these models enable the interface designer to satisfy a key element of
the most important principle of user interface design: “Know the user, know the tasks.”

4.2.2 The Process: The analysis and design process for user interfaces is iterative and can be
represented using a spiral model. Referring to Figure 11.1, the four distinct framework activities:
(1) interface analysis and modeling, (2) interface design, (3) interface construction, and (4)
interface validation. The spiral shown in Figure 11.1 implies that each of these tasks will
occur more than once, with each pass around the spiral representing additional elaboration of
requirements and the resultant design.

In most cases, the construction activity involves prototyping—the only practical way to validate
what has been designed. Interface analysis focuses on the profile of the users who will interact
with the system. Skill level, business understanding, and general receptiveness to the new
system are recorded; and different user categories are defined. For each user category,
requirements are elicited. In essence, you work to understand the system perception for each
class of users.
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Once general requirements have been defined, a more detailed task analysis is conducted.
Those tasks that the user performs to accomplish the goals of the system are identified,
described, and elaborated.

Finally, analysis of the user environment focuses on the physical work environment. Among the
questions to be asked are
• Where will the interface be located physically?
• Will the user be sitting, standing, or performing other tasks unrelated to the interface?
• Does the interface hardware accommodate space, light, or noise constraints?
• Are there special human factors considerations driven by environmental factors?

The goal of interface design is to define a set of interface objects and actions (and their screen
representations) that enable a user to perform all defined tasks in a manner that meets every
usability goal defined for the system.
Interface construction normally begins with the creation of a prototype that enables usage
scenarios to be evaluated. As the iterative design process continues, a user interface tool kit
may be used to complete the construction of the interface.
Interface validation focuses on (1) the ability of the interface to implement every user task
correctly, to accommodate all task variations, and to achieve all general user requirements; (2)
the degree to which the interface is easy to use and easy to learn, and (3) the users’ acceptance
of the interface as a useful tool in their work.
Subsequent passes through the process elaborate task detail, design information, and the
operational features of the interface.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4.3 INTERFACE ANALYSIS

A key tenet of all software engineering process models is: understand the problem before you
attempt to design a solution. In the case of user interface design, understanding the problem
means understanding (1) the people (end users) who will interact with the system through the
interface, (2) the tasks that end users must perform to do their work, (3) the content that is
presented as part of the interface, and (4) the environment in which these tasks will be
conducted. We examin these elements of interface analysis with the intent of establishing a solid
foundation for the design tasks that follow.

4.3.1 User Analysis: The only way that you can get the mental image and the design model to
converge is to work to understand the users themselves as well as how these people will use the
system. Information from a broad array of sources can be used to accomplish this:
User Interviews. The most direct approach, members of the software team meet with end users
to better understand their needs, motivations, work culture, and a myriad of other issues. This
can be accomplished in one-on-one meetings or through focus groups.
Sales input. Sales people meet with users on a regular basis and can gather information that
will help the software team to categorize users and better understand their requirements.
Marketing input. Market analysis can be invaluable in the definition of market segments and an
understanding of how each segment might use the software in subtly different ways.
Support input. Support staff talks with users on a daily basis. They are the most likely source of
information on what works and what doesn’t, what users like and what they dislike, what features
generate questions and what features are easy to use.

The following set of questions will help you to better understand the users of a system:
• Are users trained professionals, technicians, clerical, or manufacturing workers?
• What level of formal education does the average user have?
• Are the users capable of learning from written materials or have they expressed a desire for
classroom training?
• Are users expert typists or keyboard phobic?
• What is the age range of the user community?
• Will the users be represented predominately by one gender?
• How are users compensated for the work they perform?
• Do users work normal office hours or do they work until the job is done?
• Is the software to be an integral part of the work users do or will it be used only occasionally?
• What is the primary spoken language among users?
• What are the consequences if a user makes a mistake using the system?
• Are users experts in the subject matter that is addressed by the system?
• Do users want to know about the technology that sits behind the interface?
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

Once these questions are answered, you’ll know who the end users are, what is likely to
motivate and please them, how they can be grouped into different user classes or profiles, what
their mental models of the system are, and how the user interface must be characterized to meet
their needs.

4.3.2 Task Analysis and Modelling: The goal of task analysis is to answer the following
questions:
• What work will the user perform in specific circumstances?
• What tasks and subtasks will be performed as the user does the work?
• What specific problem domain objects will the user manipulate as work is performed?
• What is the sequence of work tasks—the workflow?
• What is the hierarchy of tasks?
To answer these questions, you must use techniques that are are applied to the user interface.
Use cases. When used as part of task analysis, the use case is developed to show how an end
user performs some specific work-related task. The use case provides a basic description of one
important work task for the computer-aided design system. From it, you can extract tasks,
objects, and the overall flow of the interaction.
Task elaboration. The stepwise elaboration is (also called functional decomposition or stepwise
refinement) a mechanism for refining the processing tasks that are required for software to
accomplish some desired function.
Task analysis can be applied in two ways. An interactive, computer-based system is often used
to replace a manual or semi manual activity. To understand the tasks that must be performed to
accomplish the goal of the activity, you must understand the tasks that people currently perform
(when using a manual approach) and then map these into a similar (but not necessarily
identical) set of tasks that are implemented in the context of the user interface.

Alternatively, you can study an existing specification for a computer-based solution and derive a
set of user tasks that will accommodate the user model, the design model, and the system
perception. Regardless of the overall approach to task analysis, you must first define and
classify tasks. Each of the major tasks can be elaborated into subtasks.

Object elaboration. Rather than focusing on the tasks that a user must perform, you can
examine the use case and other information obtained from the user and extract the physical
objects that are used by the interior designer. These objects can be categorized into classes.
Attributes of each class are defined, and an evaluation of the actions applied to each object
provide a list of operations. The user interface analysis model would not provide a literal
implementation for each of these operations. However, as the design is elaborated, the details of
each operation are defined.
Workflow analysis. When a number of different users, each playing different roles, makes use
of a user interface, it is sometimes necessary to go beyond task analysis and object elaboration
and apply workflow analysis. This technique allows you to understand how a work process is
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

completed when several people (and roles) are involved. Consider a company that intends to
fully automate the process of prescribing and delivering prescription drugs. The entire process
will revolve around a Web-based application that is accessible by physicians (or their
assistants), pharmacists, and patients. Workflow can be represented effectively with a UML
swimlane diagram (a variation on the activity diagram). See Figure 11.2
Regardless, the flow of events (shown in the figure) enables you to recognize a number of key
interface characteristics:

1. Each user implements different tasks via the interface; therefore, the look and feel of the
interface designed for the patient will be different than the one defined for pharmacists or
physicians.
2. The interface design for pharmacists and physicians must accommodate access to and
display of information from secondary information sources (e.g., access to inventory for the
pharmacist and access to information about alternative medications for the physician).
3. Many of the activities noted in the swimlane diagram can be further elaborated using task
analysis and/or object elaboration (e.g., Fills prescription could imply a mail-order delivery, a visit
to a pharmacy, or a visit to a special drug distribution center).

Hierarchical representation. A process of elaboration occurs as you begin to analyze the

interface. Once workflow has been established, a task hierarchy can be defined for each user
type. The hierarchy is derived by a stepwise elaboration of each task identified for the user. For
example, consider the following user task and subtask hierarchy.

User task: Requests that a prescription be refilled

• Provide identifying information.
• Specify name.
• Specify userid.
• Specify PIN and password.
• Specify prescription number.
• Specify date refill is required.
To complete the task, three subtasks are defined. One of these subtasks, provide identifying
information, is further elaborated in three additional sub-subtasks.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4.3.3 Analysis of Display Content: The user tasks lead to the presentation of a variety of
different types of content. For modern applications, display content can range from character-
based reports (e.g., a spreadsheet), graphical displays (e.g., a histogram, a 3-D model, a picture
of a person), or specialized information (e.g., audio or video files).
These data objects may be
(1) generated by components (unrelated to the interface) in other parts of an application, (2)
acquired from data stored in a database that is accessible from the application, or (3) transmitted
from systems external to the application in question.
During this interface analysis step, the format and aesthetics of the content (as it is displayed by
the interface) are considered. Among the questions that are asked and answered are:
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

• Are different types of data assigned to consistent geographic locations on the screen (e.g.,
photos always appear in the upper right-hand corner)?
• Can the user customize the screen location for content?
• Is proper on-screen identification assigned to all content?
• If a large report is to be presented, how should it be partitioned for ease of understanding?
• Will mechanisms be available for moving directly to summary information for large collections
of data?
• Will graphical output be scaled to fit within the bounds of the display device that is used?
• How will color be used to enhance understanding?
• How will error messages and warnings be presented to the user?
The answers to these (and other) questions will help you to establish requirements for content
presentation.

4.3.4 Analysis of the Work Environment: Hackos and Redish stated the importance of work
environment analysis as:
People do not perform their work in isolation. They are influenced by the activity around them,
the physical characteristics of the workplace, the type of equipment they are using, and the work
relationships they have with other people. If the products you design do not fit into the
environment, they may be difficult or frustrating to use.

4.4 INTERFACE DESIGN STEPS

Once interface analysis has been completed, all tasks (or objects and actions) required by the
end user have been identified in detail and the interface design activity commences. Interface
design is an iterative process. Although many different user interface design models (e.g.,
have been proposed, all suggest some combination of the following steps:
1. Using information developed during interface analysis define interface objects and actions
(operations).
2. Define events (user actions) that will cause the state of the user interface to change. Model
this behavior.
3. Depict each interface state as it will actually look to the end user.
4. Indicate how the user interprets the state of the system from information provided through the
interface.

4.4.1 Applying Interface Design Steps: The definition of interface objects and the actions that
are applied to them is an important step in interface design. To accomplish this, user scenarios
are parsed. That is, a use case is written. Nouns (objects) and verbs (actions) are isolated to
create a list of objects and actions.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

Once the objects and actions have been defined and elaborated iteratively, they are categorized
by type. Target, source, and application objects are identified. A source object (e.g., a report
icon) is dragged and dropped onto a target object (e.g., a printer icon).
When you are satisfied that all important objects and actions have been defined (for one design
iteration), screen layout is performed. Like other interface design activities, screen layout is an
interactive process in which graphical design and placement of icons, definition of descriptive
screen text, specification and titling for windows, and definition of major and minor menu items
are conducted.

4.4.2 User Interface Design Patterns: Graphical user interfaces have become so common that
a wide variety of user interface design patterns has emerged. As an example of a commonly
encountered interface design problem, consider a situation in which a user must enter one or
more calendar dates, sometimes months in advance. A vast array of interface design patterns
has been proposed over the past decade.

4.4.3 Design Issues: As the design of a user interface evolves, four common design issues
almost always surface: system response time, user help facilities, error information handling,
and command labeling
Response time. System response time is the primary complaint for many interactive
applications. In general, system response time is measured from the point at which the user
performs some control action (e.g., hits the return key or clicks a mouse) until the software
responds with desired output or action.
System response time has two important characteristics: length and variability. If system
response is too long, user frustration and stress are inevitable. Variability refers to the deviation
from average response time.
Help facilities. Almost every user of an interactive, computer-based system requires help now
and then. In most cases, however, modern software provides online help facilities that enable a
user to get a question answered or resolve a problem without leaving the interface. A number of
design issues must be addressed when a help facility is considered:
• Will help be available for all system functions and at all times during system interaction?
Options include help for only a subset of all functions and actions or help for all functions.
• How will the user request help? Options include a help menu, a special function key, or a
HELP command.
• How will help be represented? Options include a separate window, a reference to a printed
document (less than ideal), or a one- or two-line suggestion produced in a fixed screen location.
• How will the user return to normal interaction? Options include a return button displayed on the
screen, a function key, or control sequence.
• How will help information be structured? Options include a “flat” structure inwhich all
information is accessed through a keyword, a layered hierarchy of information that provides
increasing detail as the user proceeds into the structure, or the use of hypertext.
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4.5 WEBAPP INTERFACE DESIGN

Where am I?

What can I do now?

Where have I been, where am I going?

4.5.1 Interface Design Principles and Guidelines:

Communication

Consistency

Controlled autonomy.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

Efficiency. The design of the WebApp and its interface should optimize the user’s work
efficiency, not the efficiency of the developer who designs and builds it or the client server
environment that executes it.
Flexibility. The interface should be flexible enough to enable some users to accomplish tasks
directly and others to explore the WebApp in a somewhat random fashion.
Focus. The WebApp interface (and the content it presents) should stay focused on the user
task(s) at hand.
Fitt’s law. “The time to acquire a target is a function of the distance to and size of the target”
If a sequence of selections or standardized inputs (with many different options within the
sequence) is defined by a user task, the first selection (e.g., mouse pick) should be physically
close to the next selection.
Human interface objects. A vast library of reusable human interface objects has been
developed for WebApps. Use them. Any interface object that can be “seen, heard, touched or
otherwise perceived” by an end user can be acquired from any one of a number of object
libraries.
Latency reduction. Rather than making the user wait for some internal operation to complete
(e.g., downloading a complex graphical image), the WebApp should use multitasking in a way
that lets the user proceed with work as if the operation has been completed. In addition to
reducing latency, delays must be acknowledged so that the user understands what is
happening. This includes (1) providing audio feedback when a selection does not result in an
immediate action by the WebApp, (2) displaying an animated clock or progress bar to indicate
that processing is under way, and (3) providingsome entertainment (e.g., an animation or text
presentation) while lengthy processing occurs.
Learnability. A WebApp interface should be designed to minimize learning time, and once
learned, to minimize relearning required when the WebApp is revisited. In general the interface
should emphasize a simple, intuitive design that organizes content and functionality into
categories that are obvious to the user.
Metaphors. An interface that uses an interaction metaphor is easier to learn and easier to use,
as long as the metaphor is appropriate for the application and the user. A metaphor should call
on images and concepts from the user’s experience, but it does not need to be an exact
reproduction of a real-world experience.
Maintain work product integrity. A work product must be automatically saved so that it will not
be lost if an error occurs To avoid data loss, a WebApp should be designed to autosave all
user-specified data. The interface should support this function and provide the user with an easy
mechanism for recovering “lost” information.
Readability. All information presented through the interface should be readable by young and
old. The interface designer should emphasize readable type styles, font sizes, and color
background choices that enhance contrast.
Track state. When appropriate, the state of the user interaction should be tracked and stored so
that a user can logoff and return later to pick up where she left off. In general, cookies can be
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

designed to store state information. However, cookies are a controversial technology, and other
design solutions may be more palatable for some users.
Visible navigation. A well-designed WebApp interface provides “the illusion that users are in
the same place, with the work brought to them”
• Reading speed on a computer monitor is approximately 25 percent slower than reading speed
for hardcopy. Therefore, do not force the user to read voluminous amounts of text, particularly
when the text explains the operation of the WebApp or assists in navigation.
• Avoid “under construction” signs—an unnecessary link is sure to disappoint.
• Users prefer not to scroll. Important information should be placed within the dimensions of a
typical browser window.
• Navigation menus and head bars should be designed consistently and should be available on
all pages that are available to the user. The design should not rely on browser functions to assist
in navigation.
• Aesthetics should never supersede functionality. For example, a simple button might be a
better navigation option than an aesthetically pleasing, but vague image or icon whose intent is
unclear.
• Navigation options should be obvious, even to the casual user. The user should not have to
search the screen to determine how to link to other content or services.
A well-designed interface improves the user’s perception of the content or services provided by
the site. It need not necessarily be flashy, but it should always be well structured and
ergonomically sound.

4.5.2 Interface Design Workflow for WebApps: Information contained within the requirements
model forms the basis for the creation of a screen layout that depicts graphical design and
placement of icons, definition of descriptive screen text, specification and titling for windows, and
specification of major and minor menu items. Tools are then used to prototype and ultimately
implement the interface design model. The following tasks represent a rudimentary workflow for
WebApp interface design:
1. Review information contained in the requirements model and refine as required.
2. Develop a rough sketch of the WebApp interface layout. An interface prototype (including
the layout) may have been developed as part of the requirements modeling activity. If the layout
already exists, it should be reviewed and refined as required. If the interface layout has not been
developed, you should work with stakeholders to develop it at this time.
3. Map user objectives into specific interface actions. For the vast majority of WebApps, the
user will have a relatively small set of primary objectives. These should be mapped into specific
interface actions as shown in Figure 11.4. In essence, you must answer the following question:
“How does the interface enable the user to accomplish each objective?”
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4. Define a set of user tasks that are associated with each action. Each interface action
(e.g., “buy a product”) is associated with a set of user tasks. These tasks have been identified
during requirements modeling. During design, they must be mapped into specific interactions
that encompass navigation issues, content objects, and WebApp functions.
5. Storyboard screen images for each interface action. As each action is considered, a
sequence of storyboard images (screen images) should be created to depict how the interface
responds to user interaction. Content objects should be identified (even if they have not yet been
designed and developed), WebApp functionality should be shown, and navigation links should
be indicated.
6. Refine interface layout and storyboards using input from aesthetic design. In most
cases, you’ll be responsible for rough layout and storyboarding, but the aesthetic look and feel
for a major commercial site is often developed by artistic, rather than technical, professionals.
Aesthetic design is integrated with the work performed by the interface designer.
7. Identify user interface objects that are required to implement the interface. This task
may require a search through an existing object library to find those reusable objects (classes)
that are appropriate for the WebApp interface. In addition, any custom classes are specified at
this time.
8. Develop a procedural representation of the user’s interaction with the interface. This
optional task uses UML sequence diagrams and/or activity diagrams to depict the flow of
activities (and decisions) that occur as the user interacts with the WebApp.
9. Develop a behavioral representation of the interface. This optional task makes use of UML
state diagrams to represent state transitions and the events that cause them. Control
mechanisms (i.e., the objects and actions available to the user to alter a WebApp state) are
defined.
10. Describe the interface layout for each state. Using design information developed in Tasks
2 and 5, associate a specific layout or screen image with each WebApp state described in Task
11. Refine and review the interface design model. Review of the interface should focus on
usability. It is important to note that the final task set you choose should be adapted to the
special requirements of the application that is to be built.
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

4.6 DESIGN EVALUATION

The user interface evaluation cycle takes the form shown in Figure 11.5. After the design model
has been completed, a first-level prototype is created. The prototype is evaluated by the user,
who provides you with direct comments about the efficacy of the interface. In addition, if formal
evaluation techniques are used (e.g., questionnaires, rating sheets), you can extract information
from these data (e.g., 80 percent of all users did not like the mechanism for saving data files).
Design modifications are made based on user input, and the next level prototype is created. The
evaluation cycle continues until no further modifications to the interface design are necessary.

The prototyping approach is effective, but is it possible to evaluate the quality of a user interface
before a prototype is built? If you identify and correct potential problems early, the number of
loops through the evaluation cycle will be reduced and development time will shorten. If a design
model of the interface has been created, a number of evaluation criteria can be applied during
early design reviews:
1. The length and complexity of the requirements model or written specification of the system
and its interface provide an indication of the amount of learning required by users of the system.
2. The number of user tasks specified and the average number of actions per task provide an
indication of interaction time and the overall efficiency of the system.
3. The number of actions, tasks, and system states indicated by the design model imply the
memory load on users of the system.
4. Interface style, help facilities, and error handling protocol provide a general indication of the
complexity of the interface and the degree to which it will be accepted by the user.
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Once the first prototype is built, you can collect a variety of qualitative and quantitative data that
will assist in evaluating the interface. To collect qualitative data, questionnaires can be
distributed to users of the prototype. Questions can be: (1) simple yes/no response, (2) numeric
response, (3) scaled (subjective) response, (4) Likert scales (e.g., strongly agree, somewhat
agree), (5) percentage (subjective) response, or (6) open-ended.
If quantitative data are desired, a form of time-study analysis can be conducted.

4.7 WEBAPP DESIGN

What is it? Design for WebApps encompasses technical and nontechnical activities that
include: establishing the look and feel of the WebApp, creating the aesthetic layout of the
user interface, defining the overall architectural structure, developing the content and
functionality that reside within the architecture, and planning the navigation that occurs within
the WebApp.
Who does it? Web engineers, graphic designers, content developers, and other
stakeholders all participate in the creation of a WebApp design model.
Why is it important? Design allows you to create a model that can be assessed for quality
and improved before content and code are generated, tests are conducted, and end users
become involved in large numbers. Design is the place where WebApp quality is
established.
What are the steps? WebApp design encompasses six major steps that are driven by
information obtained during requirements modeling. Content design uses the content model
(developed during analysis) as the basis for establishing the design of content objects.
Aesthetic design (also called graphic design) establishes the look and feel that the end user
sees. Architectural design focuses on the overall hypermedia structure of all content objects
and functions. Interface design establishes the layout and interaction mechanisms that
define the user interface. Navigation design defines how the end user navigates through the
hypermedia structure, and component design represents the detailed internal structure of
functional elements of the WebApp.
What is the work product? A design model that encompasses content, aesthetics,
architecture, interface, navigation, and component-level design issues is the primary work
product that is produced during WebApp design
How do I ensure that I’ve done it right? Each element of the design model is reviewed in
an effort to uncover errors, inconsistencies, or omissions. In addition, alternative solutions
are considered, and the degree to which the current design model will lead to an effective
implementation is also assessed.
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4.7.1 Web App Design Quality: Design is the engineering activity that leads to a high-quality
product. In fact, the user’s perception of “goodness” might be more important than any technical
discussion of WebApp quality . Olsina and his colleagues have prepared a “quality requirement
tree” that identifies a set of technical attributes—usability, functionality, reliability, efficiency, and
maintainability—that lead to high-quality WebApps. Figure 13.1 summarizes their work.

Security. WebApps have become heavily integrated with critical corporate and government
databases. E-commerce applications extract and then store sensitive customer information. For
these and many other reasons, WebApp security is paramount in many situations. The key
measure of security is the ability of the WebApp and its server environment to rebuff
unauthorized access and/or thwart an outright malevolent attack.
Availability. Even the best WebApp will not meet users’ needs if it is unavailable. In a technical
sense, availability is the measure of the percentage of time that a WebApp is available for use.
The typical end user expects WebApps to be available 24/7/365. Anything less is deemed
unacceptable.3 But “up-time” is not the only indicator of availability. Offutt suggests that “using
features available on only one browser or one platform” makes the WebApp unavailable to those
with a different browser/platform configuration. The user will invariably go elsewhere.
Scalability. Can the WebApp and its server environment be scaled to handle 100, 1000, 10,000,
or 100,000 users? Will the WebApp and the systems with which it is interfaced handle significant
variation in volume or will responsiveness drop dramatically? It is not enough to build a WebApp
that is successful. It is equally important to build a WebApp that can accommodate the burden of
success and become even more successful.
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Time-to-market. Although time-to-market is not a true quality attribute in the technical sense, it
is a measure of quality from a business point of view. The first WebApp to address a specific
market segment often captures a disproportionate number of end users.

4.7.2 Design Goals: Jean Kaiser suggests a set of design goals that are applicable to virtually
every WebApp regardless of application domain, size, or complexity:

Simplicity. Better the web design should be moderation and simple. Content should be
informative but succinct and should use a delivery mode (e.g., text, graphics, video, audio) that
is appropriate to the information that is being delivered. Aesthetics should be pleasing, but not
overwhelming (e.g., too many colors tend to distract the user rather than enhancing the
interaction). Functions should be easy to use and easier to understand.
Consistency. Content should be constructed consistently. . Graphic design (aesthetics) should
present a consistent look across all parts of the WebApp. Architectural design should establish
templates that lead to a consistent hypermedia structure. Interface design should define
consistent modes of interaction, navigation, and content display. Navigation mechanisms should
be used consistently across all WebApp elements
Identity. The aesthetic, interface, and navigational design of a WebApp must be consistent with
the application domain for which it is to be built. You should work to establish an identity for the
WebApp through the design.
Robustness Based on the identity that has been established, a WebApp often makes an implicit
“promise” to a user. The user expects robust content and functions that are relevant to the user’s
needs. If these elements are missing or insufficient, it is likely that the WebApp will fail.
Navigability The navigation should be simple and consistent. It should also be designed in a
manner that is intuitive and predictable. That is, the user should understand how to move about
the WebApp without having to search for navigation links or instructions.
Visual Appeal. Beauty (visual appeal) is undoubtedly in the eye of the beholder, but many
design characteristics do contribute to visual appeal.
Compatibility. A WebApp will be used in a variety of environments and must be designed to be
compatible with each.

4.7.3 A Design Pyramid For Webapps

What is WebApp design? The creation of an effective design will typically require a diverse set
of skills. Sometimes, for small projects, a single developer may need to be multi-skilled. For
larger projects, it may be advisable and/or feasible to draw on the expertise of specialists: Web
engineers, graphic designers, content developers, programmers, database specialists,
information architects, network engineers, security experts, and testers. Drawing on these
diverse skills allows the creation of a model that can be assessed for quality and improved
before content and code are generated, tests are conducted, and end-users become involved in
large numbers. If analysis is where WebApp quality is established, then design is where the
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

quality is truly embedded. The appropriate mix of design skills will vary depending upon the
nature of the WebApp. Figure 13.2 depicts a design pyramid for WebApps. Each level of the
pyramid represents a design action.

4.7.4 Webapp Interface Design: One of the challenges of interface design for WebApps is the
indeterminate nature of the user’s entry point. The objectives of a WebApp interface are to: (1)
establish a consistent window into the content and functionality provided by the interface, (2)
guide the user through a series of interactions with the WebApp, and (3) organize the navigation
options and content available to the user. To achieve a consistent interface, you should first use
aesthetic design to establish a coherent “look.” This encompasses many characteristics, but
must emphasize the layout and form of navigation mechanisms. To guide user interaction, you
may draw on an appropriate metaphor5 that enables the user to gain an intuitive understanding
of the interface. To implement navigation options, you can select from one of a number of
interaction mechanisms:
• Navigation menus—keyword menus (organized vertically or horizontally) that list key content
and/or functionality. These menus may be implemented so that the user can choose from a
hierarchy of subtopics that is displayed when the primary menu option is selected.
• Graphic icons—button, switches, and similar graphical images that enable the user to select
some property or specify a decision.
• Graphic images—some graphical representation that is selectable by the user and implements
a link to a content object or WebApp functionality.
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4.7.5 AESTHETIC DESIGN

Aesthetic design, also called graphic design, is an artistic endeavor that complements the
technical aspects of WebApp design. Without it, a WebApp may be functional, but unappealing.

4.7.5.1 Layout Issues: Like all aesthetic issues, there are no absolute rules when screen layout
is designed. However, a number of general layout guidelines are worth considering:
Don’t be afraid of white space. It is inadvisable to pack every square inch of a Web page with
information. The resulting clutter makes it difficult for the user to identify needed information or
features and create visual chaos that is not pleasing to the eye.
Emphasize content. After all, that’s the reason the user is there. Nielsen suggests that the
typical Web page should be 80 percent content with the remaining real estate dedicated to
navigation and other features.
Organize layout elements from top-left to bottom-right. The vast majority of users will scan a
Web page in much the same way as they scan the page of a book—top-left to bottom-right. If
layout elements have specific priorities, high-priority elements should be placed in the upper-left
portion of the page real estate.
Group navigation, content, and function geographically within the page. Humans look for
patterns in virtually all things. If there are no discernable patterns within a Web page, user
frustration is likely to increase (due to unnecessary searching for needed information).
Don’t extend your real estate with the scrolling bar. Although scrolling is often necessary,
most studies indicate that users would prefer not to scroll. It is better to reduce page content or
to present necessary content on multiple pages.
Consider resolution and browser window size when designing layout. Rather than defining
fixed sizes within a layout, the design should specify all layout items as a percentage of available
space.

4.7.5.2 Graphic Design Issues: Graphic design considers every aspect of the look and feel of a
WebApp. The graphic design process begins with layout and proceeds into a consideration of
global color schemes; text types, sizes, and styles; the use of supplementary media (e.g., audio,
video, animation); and all other aesthetic elements of an application.

4.8 CONTENT DESIGN

Content design focuses on two different design tasks. First, a design representation for content
objects and the mechanisms required to establish their relationship to one another is developed.
Second, the information within a specific content object is created.

4,8.1 Content Objects:. A content object has attributes that include content-specific information
(normally defined during WebApp requirements modeling) and implementation-specific attributes
that are specified as part of design.
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4.8.2 Content Design Issues: Once all content objects are modeled, the information that each
object is to deliver must be authored and then formatted to best meet the customer’s needs.
Content authoring is the job of specialists in the relevant area who design the content object by
providing an outline of information to be delivered and an indication of the types of generic
content objects (e.g., descriptive text, graphic images, photographs) that will be used to deliver
the information. Aesthetic design may also be applied to represent the proper look and feel for
the content.

As content objects are designed, they are “chunked” to form WebApp pages. The number of
content objects incorporated into a single page is a function of user needs, constraints imposed
by download speed of the Internet connection, and restrictions imposed by the amount of
scrolling that the user will tolerate.

4.9 ARCHITECTURE DESIGN

Content architecture focuses on the manner in which content objects (or composite objects such
as Web pages) are structured for presentation and navigation. WebApp architecture addresses
the manner in which the application is structured to manage user interaction, handle internal
processing tasks, effect navigation, and present content.

In most cases, architecture design is conducted in parallel with interface design, aesthetic
design, and content design. Because the WebApp architecture may have a strong influence on
navigation, the decisions made during this design action will influence work conducted during
navigation design.

4.9.1 Content Architecture: The design of content architecture focuses on the definition of the
overall hypermedia structure of the WebApp. Although custom architectures are sometimes
created, you always have the option of choosing from four different content structures

Linear structures (Figure 13.4) are encountered when a predictable sequence of interactions
(with some variation or diversion) is common.
Grid structures (Figure 13.5) are an architectural option that you can apply when WebApp
content can be organized categorically in two (or more) dimensions.
Hierarchical structures (Figure 13.6) are undoubtedly the most common WebApp architecture.
A networked or “pure web” structure (Figure 13.7) is similar in many ways to the architecture that
evolves for object-oriented systems.
The architectural structures can be combined to form composite structures.
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4.9.2 WebApp Architecture:. Jacyntho and his colleagues describe the basic characteristics of
this infrastructure in the following manner:

Applications should be built using layers in which different concerns are taken into account; in
particular, application data should be separated from the page’s contents (navigation nodes) and
these contents, in turn, should be clearly separated from the interface look-and-feel (pages).

The three-layer design architecture that decouples interface from navigation and from
application behavior. They argue that keeping interface, application, and navigation separate
simplifies implementation and enhances reuse. The Model-View-Controller (MVC) architecture is
one of a number of suggested WebApp infrastructure models that decouple the user interface

from the WebApp functionality and informational content. The model (sometimes referred to as
the “model object”) contains all application-specific content and processing logic, including all
content objects, access to external data/information sources, and all processing functionality that
is application specific. The view contains all interface specific functions and enables the
presentation of content and processing logic, including all content objects, access to external
data/information sources, and all processing functionality required by the end user. The
controller manages access to the model and the view and coordinates the flow of data between
them. In a WebApp, “the view is updated by the controller with data from the model based on
user input”. A schematic representation of the MVC architecture is shown in Figure 13.8.
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4.10 NAVIGATION DESIGN

Once the WebApp architecture has been established and the components (pages, scripts,
applets, and other processing functions) of the architecture have been identified, you must
define navigation pathways that enable users to access WebApp content and functions. To
accomplish this, you should (1) identify the semantics of navigation for different users of the site,
and (2) define the mechanics (syntax) of achieving the navigation.

4.10.1 Navigation Semantics: Like many WebApp design actions, navigation design begins
with a consideration of the user hierarchy and related use cases developed for each category
of user (actor). Each actor may use the WebApp somewhat differently and therefore have
different navigation requirements. A series of navigation semantic units (NSUs)—“a set of
information and related navigation structures that collaborate in the fulfillment of a subset of
related user requirements. The overall navigation structure for a WebApp may be organized as
a hierarchy of NSUs.

4.10.2 Navigation Syntax: As design proceeds, your next task is to define the mechanics of
navigation. A number of options are available as you develop an approach for implementing
each NSU:
• Individual navigation link—includes text-based links, icons, buttons and switches, and graphical
metaphors. You must choose navigation links that are appropriate for the content and consistent
with the heuristics that lead to high-quality interface design.
• Horizontal navigation bar—lists major content or functional categories in a bar containing
appropriate links. In general, between four and seven categories are listed.
• Vertical navigation column—(1) lists major content or functional categories, or (2) lists virtually
all major content objects within the WebApp. If you choose the second option, such navigation
columns can “expand” to present content objects as part of a hierarchy (i.e., selecting an entry in
the original column causes an expansion that lists a second layer of related content objects).
• Tabs—a metaphor that is nothing more than a variation of the navigation bar or column,
representing content or functional categories as tab sheets that are selected when a link is
required.
• Site maps—provide an all-inclusive table of contents for navigation to all content objects and
functionality contained within the WebApp. In addition to choosing the mechanics of navigation,
you should also establish appropriate navigation conventions and aids.

4.11 COMPONENT-LEVEL DESIGN

Modern WebApps deliver increasingly sophisticated processing functions that (1) perform
localized processing to generate content and navigation capability in a dynamic fashion, (2)
provide computation or data processing capability that are appropriate for the WebApp’s
business domain, (3) provide sophisticated database query and access, and (4) establish data
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

interfaces with external corporate systems. To achieve these (and many other) capabilities, you
must design and construct program components that are identical in form to software
components for traditional software.

4.12 OBJECT-ORIENTED HYPERMEDIA DESIGN METHOD (OOHDM)

One of the most widely discussed WebApp design methods— OOHDM. Daniel Schwabe and
his colleagues originally proposed the Object-Oriented Hypermedia Design Method (OOHDM),
which is composed of four different design activities: conceptual design, navigational design,
abstract interface design, and implementation. A summary of these design activities is shown in
Figure 13.10

4.12.1 Conceptual Design for OOHDM: OOHDM conceptual design creates a representation
of the subsystems, classes, and relationships that define the application domain for the
WebApp. UML may be used to create appropriate class diagrams, aggregations, and composite
class representations, collaboration diagrams, and other information that describes the
application domain. The class diagrams, aggregations, and related information developed as
part of WebApp analysis are reused during conceptual design to represent relationships
between classes.

4.12.2 Navigational Design for OOHDM: Navigational design identifies a set of “objects” that
are derived from the classes defined in conceptual design. A series of “navigational classes” or
“nodes” are defined to encapsulate these objects. UML may be used to create appropriate use
 Software Engineering Lecture notes

cases, state charts, and sequence diagrams—all representations that assist you in better
understanding navigational requirements. In addition, design patterns for navigational design
may be used as the design is developed. OOHDM uses a predefined set of navigation classes—
nodes, links, anchors, and access structures.

Access structures are more elaborate and include mechanisms such as a WebApp index, a site
map, or a guided tour.

4.12.3 Abstract Interface Design and Implementation: The abstract interface design action
specifies the interface objects that the user sees as WebApp interaction occurs. A formal model
of interface objects, called an abstract data view (ADV), is used to represent the relationship
between interface objects and navigation objects, and the behavioral characteristics of interface
objects.

The ADV model defines a “static layout” that represents the interface metaphor and includes a
representation of navigation objects within the interface and the specification of the interface
objects (e.g., menus, buttons, icons) that assist in navigation and interaction. In addition, the
ADV model contains a behavioral component that indicates how external events“trigger
navigation and which interface transformations occur when the user interacts with the
application”.

The OOHDM implementation activity represents a design iteration that is specific to the
environment in which the WebApp will operate.