SUBJECT: PHYSICS

CLASS: SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 2

TERM: FIRST
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
1. Scalar and vector Quantities-Concept of scalar and vector quantities,
vector representation etc. 2………6
2. Derivation of equation of linear motion, Motion under gravity,
calculation using these equations. 7………12
3. Projectiles and its application. 13…………20
4. Newton’s Laws of Motion - Conservation of Linear momentum and
collision energy. 20……………25
5. Moment of a force – principle of moment, couple, torque and
calculations 27…………..31
6. Equilibrium of Forces - parallel and non-parallel, resultant and
equilibrant, centre of gravity, stability of objects, conditions of
equilibrium. 25…………….33
7. Equilibrium of bodies in liquid – upthrust, Archimedes’ principle,
floatation, calculations. 33……………36
8. Simple Harmonic Motion- definition, terms used in simple harmonic
motion, examples of bodies undergoing simple harmonic motion,
conditions for a body to be in simple harmonic motion 36………..38
9. Simple Harmonic Motion - Energy of simple harmonic motion, forced
vibration, Resonance and calculations in SHM. 39…………41
10. Machines - Types and Examples, velocity ratio, mechanical
advantage, efficiency and calculations. 42………….48
11. Revision
12. Examination
13. Examination

1
 WEEK 1
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Lesson objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of scalars and vectors
2. Distinguish between scalar and vector Quantities and their representation
3. Explain the meaning of the resultant of two vectors
4. Resolve a vector into a given direction

CONTENTS

• Concept of scalar and vector quantities

• Vector representation, addition of vectors
• Resolution of vectors and resultant

CONCEPT OF SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Physical quantities are divided into scalar and vector quantities.
A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude (size) but no direction e.g. distance,
length, density, time, speed, temperature, volume, work, energy, power, mass etc.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction e.g. force, weight, magnetic flux,
electric fields, gravitational fields, acceleration, velocity, momentum, etc.
Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic while vectors added by geometrical methods.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity can be graphically represented by a line drawn so that the length of the
line denotes the magnitude of the quantity. The direction of the vector is shown by the
arrow head.

2
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
Two or more vectors acting on a body in a specified direction can be combined to produce
a single vector having the same effect. The single vector is called the resultant.
For example:
(a) Two forces Y and X with magnitude of 3N and 4N respectively acting along the same
direction will produce a resultant of 7N (algebraic sum of the two vectors).
(b) If Y and X act in opposite direction, the resultant will be 1N.
(c) If the two vectors are inclined at 900 to each other, Pythagoras theorem is used.
Y
3N Y
3
N

)θ
4N X

R2 = X2 + Y2
R2 = 42 + 32
R2 =16 + 9
R2 = 25
R = √ 25
R = 5N
Tan θ = Y/X
θ = tan-1(Y /X)
θ = tan-1(3/4)
θ = tan-1(0.75)
θ = 36.90
(d) If the two vectors are inclined at an angle less than 900 or more than 900, the resultant
is obtained by using Parallelogram law of vector addition.

3
Parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two vectors are represented in
magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the point of intersection of the vectors represents the resultant
vector in magnitude and direction.
Example
Find the resultant of two vectors of 3 units and 4 units acting at a point O an angle of 45⁰
with each other.
SOLUTION 3 units
R2=32+42-(2X3) X4XCos135⁰
=9 +16-6x4cos (180-45) α
=25-24cos45⁰ 4 units
R =6.48 units

RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
The resultant vector is that single vector which would have the same effect in magnitude
and direction as the original vectors acting together
A single vector can be resolved into two vectors called components. A vector F represented
as the diagonal of the parallelogram can be resolved into its component later taken as the
adjacent sides of the parallelogram.

F
Y
)θ X
Sinθ = y /F
y = F sin θ (vertical component)
Cosθ = x /F
x = F cos θ (horizontal component)
The direction of F is given by
Tan θ = y/x

4
 θ = tan-1 (y/x)

THE RESULTANT OF MORE THAN TWO VECTORS

To find the resultant of more than two vectors, we resolve each vector in two perpendicular
directions add all the horizontal components X, and all the vertical components, Y.
For example, consider four forces acting on a body as shown below

5
Figure 1:
F2 F1
Θ2 θ1
Θ3 θ4
F3 F4

Figure 2:
Y R

)∞
X
Add all the resolved horizontal components
Figure 1:
X = F1 cos θ1 + (-F2 cos θ2 ) + (-F3 cos θ3 ) + F4 cos θ4
Y= F1 sin θ1 + F2 sinθ2 + (-F3 sinθ3) + (-F4 sinθ4)
Figure 2:
R2 = X2 + Y2
R = √X2+ Y2
And the direction ∞ is given by
Tan ∞ = y/x

6
 WEEK 2

DERIVATION OF EQUATONS OF LINEAR MOTION

Lesson objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to;
1. Deduce the distance covered between any intervals on the velocity time graph
2. Deuce the three equations of motion from a velocity time graph with initial velocity
and constant acceleration
3. Explain the terms used in the equations of motion
4. Show on a velocity time graph the motion of a body with uniform velocity, uniform
acceleration and variable acceleration

CONTENTS

• Basic definitions
• Derivation of equations of linear motion
• Motion under gravity
BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Displacement: This is the distance traveled in a specified direction. It is a vector
quantity. Its unit is metres
2. Distance: This is the space or separation between two points. It is a scalar quantity.
Its unit is metres
3. Speed: this is the rate of change of distance with time. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit
is metre per seconds (m/s)
Speed= distance
Time
4. Velocity: this is the rate of change of distance with displacement with time. It is a
vector quantity. Its unit is metre per seconds (m/s)
Velocity= displacement
Time
5. Acceleration: this is the increasing rate of change of distance with time. It is a vector
quantity. Its unit is metre per seconds-square (m/s2). Retardation or deceleration is
a negative acceleration.

7
 Acceleration= velocity
Time

DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION

v= final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
s = distance
Average speed = total distance
Time
Total distance= average speed x time
s= (u + v) x t -------------- (1)
2
From the definition of acceleration
a = (v-u) -------------- (2)
t
From equation (2) substitute for ‘t’ into equation (1)
v2 = u2 + 2as -------------- (3)
From equation (2) substitute for ‘v’ into equation (1)
s = ut + ½(at2) -------------- (4)
Calculations Using the Equation of Motion
1. A car moves from rest with an acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Find its velocity when it
has covered distance of 50m
u= 0m/s; a= 0.2m/s2; s= 50m; v =?
v2 =u2 + 2as
v2 = (0)2 + 2 (0.2 x 50)
v2 = 20
v = √20

8
v = 2√5m/s
2. A car travels with a uniform velocity of 108km/hr .How far does it travels in ½ a
minute?
Solution
v=108km/hr; t= ½ minutes; Distance =?
v = 108 km/hr = 108 x1000
3600
v= 30m/s
t= ½ 60 = 30secs
Speed = distance
time
Distance = speed x time
s = 30 x 30
s = 900 m

FURTHER ACTIVITY
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of 30m/s after
5secs. It travels with this uniform velocity for 15secs and it is then brought to rest in 10secs
with a uniform retardation. Determine:
(a) The acceleration of the car
(b) The retardation
(c) The distance covered after 5secs
(d) The total distance covered.

9
Solution
(m/s)
A B
30

O E5 20 D 30C
(a) Acceleration = AE = 30
EO 5
= 6m/s2
(b) Retardation = CB = 0-30
DC 10
= -3m/s2
(c) The distance covered after 5secs = the area is given by area of the triangle
s=½bh
s = ½ (5) 30
s = 75m
(d) The total distance covered = area of the trapezium OABC
s = ½ (AB + OC) x h
s = ½ (15 + 30) x 30
s = 45 x 15
s = 675 m
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
A body moving with a uniform acceleration in space does so under the influence of
gravity with a constant acceleration. (g = 10 m/s2). In dealing with vertical motion
under gravity, it must be noted that:
• a= g is positive for a downward motion

10
 • a= -g for an upward motion
• the velocity v= 0 at maximum height for a vertically projected object
• The initial velocity u=0 for a body dropped from rest above the ground
• For a re-bouncing body the height above the ground is zero
• The time of fall of two objects of different masses has nothing to do with
their masses but is dependent on the distance and acceleration due to gravity
as shown below
s = ut + ½ gt2
s = ½ gt2 (u=0; initial velocity of an object dropping from a height)
t = √ [(2s)/g]
The above relationship can also be used to determine the value of acceleration due
to gravity. If we plot s against t, it will give us a parabolic curve.
S(m)

Parabola

t(s)
But the graph of s against t2 will give us a straight line through the origin with slope ½ g
from which g can be computed
S(m)

Slope = ½ g

O t2 (s2)
11
CALCULATIONS
1. A ball is thrown vertically into the air with an initial velocity, u. What is the
greatest height reached?
Solution
v2 = u2 + 2as
u = u; a = -g; v = 0
02 = u2 + 2(-g) s
2gs = u2
s = u2 /2g
2. A ball is released from a height of 20m. Calculate:
(i) the time it takes to fall
(ii) the velocity with which it hits the ground
a= +g
u=0
s =20m
t =?
t = √2s/g

t = √ (2 x20 /10)
t = 2secs
v = u + gt
v= gt
v = 10 x2
v = 20 m/s

12
 WEEK 3

PROJECTILES AND ITS APPLICATION

Lesson objectives;
1. Identify a projectile motion
2. Derive the range, maximum height and time of flight of a projectile
3. Solve simple problems on projectiles
4. Note the applications of projectiles
CONTENTS
• Meaning of projectile
• Terms associated with projectiles
• Uses of projectile
MEANING OF PROJECTILE
A projectile is an object or body launched into the air and allowed to move on its
own or move freely under gravity.
A projectile motion is one that follows a curved or parabolic path. It is due to two
independent motions at right angle to each other. These motions are
i. a horizontal constant velocity
ii. a vertical free fall due to gravity
Examples of projectile motion are the motion of;
i. A thrown rubber ball re-bouncing from a wall
ii. An athlete doing the high jump
iii. A stone released from a catapult
iv. A bullet fired from a gum
v. A cricket ball thrown against a vertical wall.

13
 Uy

Hmax
t t

)θ
P Ux Q
Uy = U sin θ (vertical component) ------------------- 1
Ux = U cos θ (horizontal component) ------------------- 2

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECTILE

1. Time of flight (T) - The time of flight of a projectile is the time required for
it to return to the same level from which it was projected.
T = time to reach the greatest height
V = u + at (but, v =o, a = -g)
θ= u sin – gt
t = U sin θ ------------------- 3
g
T = 2t = 2U sin θ ------------------- 4
g
2. The maximum height (H) - is defined as the highest vertical distance reached
or attained as measured from the horizontal projection plane.
For maximum height H,
V2 = U2 sin2θ - 2g H
At maximum height H, V=0
H = U2 sin2θ ------------------- 5
2g

14
 3. The range (R) - is the horizontal distance from the point of projection of a
projectile to the point where the projectile hits the projection plane again.
Horizontally, considering the range covered
Using S= ut + ½at2 (where a=0 for the horizontal motion)
OR
S = R = U cosθ x t (distance = velocity x time; there time is the time of flight)

R = U cos θ x (2 U sin θ)
g
R = 2U2 sin θ cos θ
g
From Trigonometry function
2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
R= U2 sin 2θ
g
For maximum range θ = 450
Sin2θ = sin 2 (45) = sin 900 = 1
R= U2
g
Rmax = U2
g

USES OF PROJECTILES
1. To launch missiles in modern warfare
2. To give athletes maximum takeoff speed at meets
In artillery warfare, in order to strike a specified target, the bomb must be released when
the target appears at the angle of depression φ given by:
Tan φ =1/u √gh/2

15
EXAMPLES
1. A bomber on a military mission is flying horizontally at a height of zoom above the
ground at 60kmmin-1. lt drops a bomb on a target on the ground. Determine the acute angle
between the vertical and the line joining the bomber and the tangent at the instant the bomb
is released

Ux 60km/ min

3,000m

Horizontal velocity of bomber = 60km/min= 103 ms-1

Bomb falls with a vertical acceleration of g = 10m/s
At the release of the bomb, it moves with a horizontal velocity equal that of the
aircraft i.e. 1000m/s
Considering the vertical motion of the bomb we have
h =ut+1/2 gt2 (u=o)
h =1/2gt2
Where: t is the time, the bomb takes to reach the ground: 300=1/2gt2
t2= 600
t=10√6 sec
Considering the horizontal motion, we have that horizontal distance moved by the
bomb in time t is given by
s =horizontal velocity x time
s = 1000 x10√6
s = 2.449x104 m
But tanθ = s = 2.449 x 104
3,000 3,000

16
 θ =83.020
2. A stone is shot out from a catapult with an initial velocity of 30m at an elevation
of 600. Find
a. the time of flight
b. the maximum height attained
c. the range
a. The time of flight
T = 2U sin θ
g
T= 2 x 30 sin 600
10
T= 5.2s
b. The maximum height,
H=U2 sin2 θ
2g
H = 302 sin2 (60)
20
H = 33.75 m

c. The range,
R = U2sin 2θ
g
R = 302 sin 2 (60)
10
R = 90 sin 120
R = 77.9 m

17
 3. A body is projected horizontally with a velocity of 60m/s from the top of a mast
120m above the grand, calculate
(i) Time of flight, and (ii) Range

60 m/s

120

R
a. s =ut+1/2gt2
a=g, u=0
120= ½ (10)t2
t2 = 24
t = 24
t = 4.9s
b. Range =u cosθ x T.
But in this case θ = 0
Cos 0 =1
R = ut
R = 60x 4.9
R =294m
4. A stone is projected horizontally with a speed of 10m/s from the top of a
tower 50m high and with what speed does the stone strike the ground?
Solution
v2=u2 + 2gh
v2= 0 + (2x10x50)
v2=1000
v2=1000
v2=33.62m/s

18
 5. A projectile is fired at an angle of 600 with the horizontal with an initial velocity
of 80m/s. Calculate:
i. the time of flight
ii. the maximum height attained and the time taken to reach the height
iii. the velocity of projection 2 seconds after being fired (g = 10m/s)
θ =60; u =80m/s
i. T = 2 U sin θ
g
T = 2x80 sin 60
10
T = 13 .86 s
ii. A. H = u2 sin 2θ
2g
H = 80 x 80 x sin60
20
H = 240 m
B. t = U sin θ
g
t = 80 sin 60
10
t = 6.93 s

R =U2 sin 2 θ
g
R = 802sin2 (60)
10
R = 640 sin 120
R = 554.3m

19
 iii. Vy = U sin θ – gt
Vy = 80 sin 60 – 20
Vy = 49.28m/s
Ux = U cos θ
Ux = 80 cos 60
Ux = 40 m/s
U2 = U 2 y + U 2 x
U2 = 49.282 + 402
U = √ (1600+ 2420)
U = 63.41 m/s

WEEK 4
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Objectives;
At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to;
1. State and explain the meaning of each of Newton’s laws of motion
2. Solve simple problems based on Newton’s laws of motion and the principle of
momentum
3. State and explain the meaning of the law of conservation of linear momentum
4. Solve simple problems involving the conservation of linear momentum
5. Explain inertial mass and the relationship between mass and weight

CONTENTS
• Newton’s laws of motion
• Conservation of linear momentum
• Collision
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s first law of motion states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in straight line unless it is acted upon by an external force. The tendency of a body
to remain at rest or, if moving, to continue its motion in a straight line is called the inertia.
That is why Newton’s first law is otherwise referred to as the law of inertia.

20
Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force
acts.
F α mv –mu
t
F α m (v –u)
t
F α ma
F = kma
Where k =1
F =ma
MOMENTUM
Momentum of a body is the product of the mass and velocity of the body. The S.I.
unit of momentum is kgm/s.
IMPULSE
Impulse is the product of a force and time. It is also defined as the change in
momentum. Thus, both momentum and impulse have ‘Ns’ as unit
F = m (v-u)/t
Ft = mv – mu (where ‘mv-mu’ is the change of momentum)
F x t = I (Ns)
Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action, there is an equal but opposite
reaction. A practical demonstration of this law can be observed when a bullet is fired from
a gun, the person holding it experiences the backward recoil force of the gun (reaction)
which is equal to the propulsive force (action) acting on the bullet.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, force is proportional to change in
momentum
Therefore, the momentum of the bullet is equal and opposite to the momentum of the gun
i.e.
Mass of bullet x muzzle velocity = mass of gun x recoil velocity

21
Hence, if: m= mass of bullet, v= velocity of bullet, M=mass of gun, V= velocity of the
recoil of the gun.
Then, the velocity, V, of the recoil of the gun is given by:
MV = mv
V = mv/M
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that when two or more bodies
collide, their momentum remain constant provided there is no external force acting on the
system. This implies that in a closed or isolated system where there is no external force, the
total momentum after collision remains constant. The principle is true for both elastic and
inelastic collision.
COLLISION
There are two types of collision- elastic and inelastic.
In elastic collision the two bodies collide and then move with different velocities. Both
momentum and kinetic energy are conserved e.g. collision between gaseous particles, a
ball which rebounds to its original height etc.
If the two colliding bodies have masses m1and m2 initial velocities u1 and u2 and final
velocities v1 and v2. The conservation principle can be mathematically expressed as:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
In an inelastic collision, the two bodies join together after the collision and with the same
velocity. Here, momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved because part of
it has been converted to heat or sound energy, leading to deformation.
Thus, the conversation principle can be re-written as:
m1u1 + m2u2 = v (m1 +m2)
Since momentum is a vector quantity, all the velocities must be measured in the same
direction, assigning positive signs to the forward velocities and negative signs to the
backward or opposite velocities

22
TWO BODIES MOVING IN THE SAME DIRECTION BEFORE COLLISION
VA VB

MA MB MA MB
BEFORE COLLISION AFTER COLLISION
MAVA + MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= common velocity
V= MAVA + MBVB
(MA + MB)

TWO BODIES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION

=
MA MB MA MB
MAVA - MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA + MBVB
MA + MB

COLLISION BETWEEN A STATIONARY AND MOVING BODY

VA = V
MA MB MAMB

The momentum of a stationary body is zero because velocity is zero

MAVA + 0 = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA
MA + MB

23
EXAMPLE
1. Two moving toys of masses 50kg and 30kg are traveling on the same plane with
speeds of 5 m/s and 3 m/s respectively in the same direction. If they collide and stick
together, calculate their common velocity.
MAVA + MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA + MBVB
(MA + MB)
V = (50 x 5) + (30 x 3)
50 + 30
V = 250 + 90
80
V = 340
80
V = 4.05 m/s
2. Two balls of masses 0.5 kg and 0.3kg move towards each other in the same line at
speeds of 3 m/s and 4 m/s respectively. After the collision, the first ball has a speed
of 1m/s in the opposite direction. What is the speed of the second ball after collision

3 m/s 4 m/s 1 m/s V

0.5kg 0.3kg 0.5kg 0.3kg

Before collision After collision

3x0.5 + (0.3 x-4) = 0.5 (-1) + 0.3v

1.5 - 1.2 = -0.5 + 0.3v
0.3v = 2.0 - 1.2
V = 0.8 / 0.3
V = 2.7m/s
3. A gun of mass 100kg fires a bullet of mass 20g at a speed of 400m/s. What is the
recoil velocity of the gun?

24
 Solution
Momentum gun = momentum of bullet
MV = m v
10 x V = 0.002 x 400
V = 0.002 x 400
10
V= 0.8 m/s
Application of Newton’s and conservation of momentum laws
1. Recoil of a gun: When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun jerks backward or
recoils. The propulsive force (action) acting on the bullet must be equal and
opposite to the recoil force (reaction) acting on the gun
2. Jet and rocket propulsion: Gases are burnt within the combustion chambers of
the engine. As jets of hot gases are expelled downwards through the tail nozzle
at very high speeds from the rocket or aircraft, an equal and opposite momentum
is given to the aircraft which then moves
3. Why walking is possible: A person walks by pushing his or her foot against the
ground. The ground exerts an equal and opposite force back on the person

WEEK 5 & 6

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

CONTENTS

• Conditions for equilibrium

• Principles of moment
• Conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
A body is said to be in equilibrium if under the action of several forces, it does accelerate
or rotate.
1. The sum of the upward forces must be equal to the sum of the downward forces.
2. The sum of the clockwise moment above a point must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moment about the same point.

25
MOMENT OF A FORCE
The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance

M = F x distance
Unit =Nm
Consider the diagram below,
F1 F2

X1 X2

X3
X4

F4
F3

F1 + F2 = F3 + F4
(F1+F2) - (F3+F4) = 0
Clockwise moment = F2X2 + F4X4
Anticlockwise moment = F1X1+ F3X3
(F1X1+ F3X3) - (F2X2 + F4X4) = 0
Sum of clockwise moment = sum of anticlockwise moment

COUPLE
A couple is a system of two parallel, equal and opposite forces acting along the same line
F
d

26
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the two forces
M = f x 2r
M=fxd
The distance between the two equal forces is called the arm of the couple
The moment of a couple is also called a torque
Application of the Effect of Couples
1. It is easier to turn a tap on or off by applying couple
2. It is easier to turn a steering wheel of a vehicle by applying a couple with our two
hands instead of a single force with one arm.

EXAMPLES
1. A light beam AB sits on two pivots C and D. A load of 10N hangs at 0; 2m from
the support at C. Find the value of the reaction forces P and Q at C and D respectively.

P Q
x2
4m 2m 6m
A B
C D

10N

P + Q = 10N
X 2 = Q (2 + 6)
20 = 8Q
Q = 20/8 =2.5 N
OR
Taking moment about D
P x8 = 10 x6
P = 60/8

27
 P =7.5N
Q = 10 -7.5
Q = 2.5 N
2. A pole AB of length 10m and weight 600N has its center of gravity 4m from the end A and
lies on horizontal ground. Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the pole when the
end B is lift this end. Prove that this force applied at the end A will not be sufficient to lift
the end A from the ground.

R
6m

4m

600N

Clockwise moment = 600 x 4 =2400Nm

Anticlockwise moment =p x 10 = 10pNm
P =240Nm
If this force of 240Nm is applied at A, we have
P= 240Nm

4m 6m
A

600N

Taking moment about B, we have

Clockwise moment =240 x 10 =2400Nm

28
Anticlockwise moment =600 x 6 =3600 Nm
The anticlockwise moment is greater than the clockwise moment.
Therefore, the 240N force A will not be sufficient to lift the end A because the
turning effect due to the 600N force far exceeds that due to the 240N force

3 A

3m

B
60o

20N
Find the moment of the force of 20N in the diagram above about A and B
Taking moment about A
Cos 60 =d/3m
D= 3 cos 60
D = 1.5m
Moment about A =F x d
M = 20 x 1.5
= 30 Nm
The Moment about B= 0
3. A uniform rod lm long weighing 100N is supported horizontally on two knife
edges placed 10cm from its ends. What will be the reaction at the support when a
40N load is suspended 10cm from the midpoint of the rod.
R1 R2

10cm 40cm 10cm 30cm 10cm

29

100N
40N
 R1 + R2 = 140N
Taking moment about R1
R2 x 80 = (100 x 40 ) + (40 x 50 )
80R2 = 4000 + 2000
R2 = 6000/80
R2=75N
R1 = 140 – 75
=65N
4. A metre rule is found to balance horizontally at the 50cm mark. When a body
of mass 60kg is suspended at the 6cm mark, the balance point is found to be at the
30cm mark, calculate:
-The weight of the metre rule
-The distances of the balance point to the 60kg mass if the mass is moved to the
13cm mark

6cm 24cm 50cm

600N W

w x 20 = 24 x 600
w = 14400/20
= 720N

13cm xcm 37cm 50cm

600N 720N

600x(X)=720(37-X)
600x = 6640 – 720x
600x+ 720x = 6640

30
x = 6640/1320
x = 20. 18cm

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the line of action of the weight
of the body always passes irrespective of the position of the body. It is also the point at
which the entire weight of the body appears to be concentrated.
The centre of mass of a body is the point at which the total mass of the body appears to be
concentrated. Sometimes, the center of mass may coincides with the centre of gravity for
small objects.

STABILITY OF OBJECTS
There are three types of equilibrium- stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium, and neutral
equilibrium.
1. Stable equilibrium: a body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it tends to return to its
original position when slightly displaced. A low centre of gravity and wide base will
put objects in stable equilibrium e.g. a cone resting on its base; a racing car with low
C.G and wide base; a ball or a sphere in the middle of a bowl.
2. Unstable equilibrium: a body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium if when slightly
displaced it tends to move further away from its original position e.g. a cone or an egg
resting on its apex. High C.G. and a narrow base usually causes unstable equilibrium.
3. Neutral equilibrium: a body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if when slightly
displaced, it tends to come to rest in its new position e.g a cone or cylinder or an egg
resting on its side.

31
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES
Coplanar forces acts along the same plane.
The resultant of two or more forces is the single force which has the same effect both in
magnitude and direction as the forces combined.

Equilibrant of a force is the single force which is equal in magnitude to the resultant of
forces but acts in opposite direction. Equilibrant force balances the effect of a resultant
force.

ϴ3

ϴ2 ϴ1

If the forces F1, F2 and F3 are in equilibrium, then each of the forces will be an
equilibrant of the other two combined.
Example:
A body P of mass q kg is suspended by two light inextensible strings AB and DB
attached to a horizontal table. The strings are inclined at 30° and 60° respectively to the
horizontal and the tension in AB is 48N. If the system is in equilibrium :

(i) sketch a diagram to represent the information; (ii) calculate the tension in DB;

32
Solution

Using Lami’s Theorem,

48 𝑇
=
sin 150 sin 120
48 sin 120
T=
sin 150

T = 83.14N
Similarly,
48 𝑄
=
sin 150 sin 90

Q = 96N
96
Hence the mass of Q = (ie. W = mg)
10

Q = 9.6N

Class Activity:
Two forces 10N each inclined at 120o to each other. Find the single force that will:
a) Replace the given force system.
b) Balance the given force system.

WEEK 7
EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES IN A LIQUID

When a body is immersed in a liquid it becomes lighter in weight because the liquid
exerts an upward force called upthrust, U on the body.
Hence,
The weight of the body in the liquid = The weight in air – Upthrust of the liquid on
the body:
WL = WA - U
33
 Conversely, the loss of weight (upthrust) is given as
Upthrust = Weight in air – Weight in liquid.

Archimedes Principle.
Archimedes’ Principle states that when a liquid is fully or partially immersed in a
fluid (liquid or gas), it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.

For the problem solving purpose, note that

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
density = ,
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
mass = density x volume;
weight (W) = mg,
∴ weight = density x volume x gravity
Weight of liquid displaced = density of liquid x volume of liquid x
gravity
= density of liquid x volume of object x
gravity
= upthrust.
W = d × v × g.
Floatation
When a body of weight W is immersed in water of upthrust U, the following cases are
possible:
a) If weight is greater than upthrust, the body will sink.
b) If weight is less than upthrust, the body will rise.
c) If weight is equal to upthrust, the body will float or rest.

Summarily, a body whose density is higher than that of the liquid will sink until it
the weight of the liquid displaced is just equal to the weight of the body.
Weight = Upthrust,
This is the principle of floatation.

34
 The principle of floatation states that a body will float in a fluid if the weight of the
fluid it displaced is equal to its own weight. In other words, a body will float if the
upthrust exerted on it by a fluid equals to its own weight.
Applications of Archimedes Principle
The application of Archimedes’ of floatation are found in the following:
1. The hydrometer.
2. Submarine
3. Fish
4. Hot-air balloon
5. Ship
6. etc.

Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument for measuring density of liquids. Its construction is
basically on the fact that the depth l to which a tube sinks in a liquid depends on the
density, 𝜌:
1
l∝
𝜌
A simple hydrometer can be made by putting some pebbles or lead shot in a test -tube
place vertically in water and depth read with a graduated scale. It can be calibrated by
using the densities of water (1000kg/m3) and any other liquid, e.g. paraffin (800 kg/m3).

Examples: A metal block of density 9000kgm-3 weighs 60N

in air. Find its weight when it is immersed in paraffin wax density 800 kgm-3 (g = 10ms-2)

Solution:
60
Mass of block =
10
= 6 kg
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
volume of block =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

35
 6
=
9000

= 0.000667m3
Upthrust of paraffin = weight of paraffin displaced.
=v×d×g
= 0.000667 × 800 × 10
= 5.336N
Weight of metal block in paraffin = weight in air – upthrust in paraffin.
= 60 – 5.336
= 54.7N

WEEKS 8 & 9

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

CONTENT
• Definition
• Speed
• Amplitude
• Displacement
• Acceleration
• Period
• Frequency
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
➢ Define simple harmonic motion.
➢ Give examples of simple harmonic motion.
➢ State the conditions necessary for a body to be in simple harmonic motion
➢ Explain and compute the terms used in simple harmonic motion,
➢ Solve questions involving the energy of bodies in simple harmonic motion.
DEFINITION
This is the periodic motion of a body or particle along a straight line such that the
acceleration of the body is directed towards a fixed point .

36
A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion will move to and fro in a straight line under
the influence of a force. This influential force is called a restoring force as it always directs
the particle back to its equilibrium position.
Examples of simple harmonic motions are
i. loaded test tube in a liquid
iiMass on a string
iii The simple pendulum
B
Pq s
A
A θ
Y C Q Z

As the particle P moves round the circle once, it sweeps through an angle θ = 360 (or 2π
radians) in the time T the period of motion. The rate of change of the angle θ with time (t)
is known as the angular velocity ω
Angular velocity (ω) is defined by
angle turned through by the body
ω=
Time taken

ω = θ /t (rad /sec)
θ = ωt
This is similar to the relation distance = uniform velocity x time (s= vt ) for motion in a
straight line
As the angle is changing with time so is the arc length
S=zp
Changing with time. By definition θ in radians = s/r and hence
S= rθ
A = r = radius of the circle
s/t = rθ /t = s/r /t
s/t = s/t x 1/r = r θ /t

37
v =r ω
The linear velocity v at any point,Q whose distance from C the central point is x is given
by
V = ω √ A2 – X2
The minimum velocity, Vm corresponds to the point at X = 0 that is the velocity at the
central point or centre of motion.
Hence, Vm = ω A
Thus the maximum velocity of the SHM occurs at the centre of the motion (X=0) while
the minimum velocity occurs at the extreme position of motion (x=A ).

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR ACCELERATION AND ANGULAR

VELOCITY
X = A COS θ
θ = ωt
X = A cos ω t
dx = -ωA sin ω t
dt

dv =-ω2 A cos ω t
dt
=-ω2X
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is always inwards towards C while the
displacement is measured outwards from C.

38
ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

R Q
P.E. = mgh P.E. = mgh
(P.E. is max) h (P.E. is max)

C
v = max, K.E. = max,
P.E. = 0
h=0, PE =0; KE = ½ mv2; KE is max

Since force and displacement are involved, it follows that work and energy are involved in
simple harmonic motion.
At any instant of the motion , the system may contain some energy as kinetic energy
(KE ) or potential energy(PE) .The total energy (KE + PE ) for a body performing SHM
is always conserved although it may change form between PE and KE .
When a mass is suspended from the end of a spring stretched vertically downwards and
released , it oscillates in a simple harmonic motion .During this motion , the force
tending to restore the spring to its elastic restoring force is simply the elastic restoring
force which is given by
F= - ky
K is the force constant of the spring

y
mg 39
The total work done in stretching the spring at distance y is given by
W = average force x displacement
W = ½ ky × y = ½ ky2
Thus the maximum energy total energy stored in the spring is given by
W = ½ KA2
A = amplitude (maximum displacement from equilibrium position).
This maximum energy is conserved throughout the motion of the system.
At any stage of the oscillation, the total energy is
W = ½ KA2
W= ½ mv2 + ½ ky2
½ mv2 = ½ KA2 – ½ ky2
v2 = k/m (A2 –y2)
V = √k/m(A2-y2)
The constant K is obtained from
Hooke’s law in which
F= mg = ke
Where e is the extension produced in the spring by a mass m
But V= ω√A2-X2
Therefore ω =√k/m
2π
Hence the period, T =
ω

𝑚
T = 2π√
𝑘

EXAMPLE
A body of mass 20g is suspended from the end of a spiral spring whose force constant is
0.4Nm-1. The body is set into a simple harmonic motion with amplitude 0.2m. Calculate:
a. The period of the motion
b. The frequency of the motion

40
 c. The angular speed
d. The total energy
e. The maximum velocity of the motion
f. The maximum acceleration
SOLUTION
a. T = 2π √m/k = 2π √ 0.02/0.4 = 0.447 π sec = 1.41 sec
b. f=1/T = 1/1.41 = 0.71Hz
c. ω =2πf = 2π x 0.71= 4.46 rad. S-1
d. Total energy = ½ KA2 = ½ (0.4) (0.2)2 = 0.008 J
e. ½ mv2 = /12 KA2
Vm2 = 0.008 x 2
0.02
= 0.8
Vm= 0.89 m/s
Or V= ω A
= 4.462 x 0.2
= 3.98m/s2
FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE
Vibrations resulting from the action of an external periodic force on an oscillating body are
called forced vibrations. Every vibrating object possesses a natural frequency (f o) of
vibration. This is the frequency with which the object will oscillate when it is left
undisturbed after being set into vibration. The principle of the sounding board of a piano
or the diaphragm of a loudspeaker is based on the phenomenon of forced vibrations.
Whenever the frequency of vibrating body acting on a system coincides with the natural
frequency of the system, then the system is set into vibration with relatively large
amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance.

41
 WEEKS 10 & 11

MACHINES
CONTENT
• Definition
• Terminologies used in machines
• Types and examples
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
➢ Define simple machine
➢ Mention the various classes (order) of lever with examples.
➢ Mention the types and examples of simple machines
➢ State the formula for calculating the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, and
efficiency of various types of machines.
➢ Derive the relationship between Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and the
efficiency of a simple machine.
➢ Solve problems involving simple machines.

A machine is a device or tool which allows a force (effort) applied at one point to overcome
a resisting force (load) at another point.
Types of simple machines are
i. Lever
ii. inclined plane
iii. pulley
iv. screw jack
v. wheel and axle
vi. wedge
vii. gears

Terminologies Used In Machines

1. FORCE RATIO (MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE)
2. VELOCITY RATIO
3. EFFICIENCY
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (M.A.) OR FORCE RATIO (F.R.)
Effort (E) as the force applied to a machine.
Load (L) is the force or resistance overcome by the machine.

42
The ability of a machine to overcome a large load through a small effort is referred to as
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) or Force Ratio. It is the ratio of the load to the effort.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑳)
Mechanical Advantage =
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝑬)

It can also be defined by

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
M.A. =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

The friction in the moving parts of a machine reduces its mechanical advantage. A
machine without friction is called an ideal machine or perfect machine.
VELOCITY RATIO (V.R.)
The Velocity Ratio (V.R.) of a machine is the ratio of the distances moved by the effort
and load in the same time interval. It is independent of friction. In an ideal machine,
mechanical advantage equals velocity ratio.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
V.R. =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

EFFICIENCY (Ꜫ)
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the work output and the work put into
(work input) to the machine. It is expressed in percentage.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑴. 𝑨.
Efficiency = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹.

TYPES OF MACHINES
1. LEVER
This is the simplest form of machine. It consist of a rigid rod pivoted about a point called
the fulcrum F with a small effort applied at one end of the lever to overcome a large
load L at the other end . There are various types of lever depending on the relative
positions of the load, effort and fulcrum.
Taking moment about F

43
E x a = L x b which is given
L = a =M.A
E b
a/b = V.R

Examples of first class lever are the crowbar, pair of scissors or pincers, claw hammer, see-
saw ,pliers etc

In second order lever, the load is between the fulcrum and effort

E
a
F
b

L
Examples are wheel barrow, nut cracker tarp door, an oar etc .
In the third order lever, the effort is between the fulcrum and the load. Human fore arm,
laboratory tong etc. E
a
F
b
L
2. WHEEL AND AXLE
It consists of a large wheel to which a rope or string is attached and an axle or small
wheel with the rope or string wound round it in opposite direction . The load to be lifted
is hung at the free end of the rope on the axle while the effort is applied at the end of the
rope on the wheel . For each complete rotation the load and the effort move through
distance equal to the circumference of the wheel and axle respectively.

44
 Wheel
Axle
R
r

Effort Load

𝑅
V.R =
𝑟

The principle of wheel and axle is used in brace, screw driver, belt drives, gear-
boxes, etc.
3. GEAR WHEELS
In gear boxes , there are toothed wheels of different diameter interlocked to give
turning force at low speed depending on which gear is the driver and which is
the driven
V.R = No of teeth on driven wheel ( A)
No of teeth on driving wheel (B)

belt
Aa
BB
shaft

4. THE HYDRAULIC PRESS

The machine is widely used for compressing waste paper and cotton into compact bales
forging different alloys into desirable shape etc .Its work is based on Pascal’s principle
which states that pressure is transmitted equally in fluid. Oil is the liquid usually used in
hydraulic press

Effort
Load
𝑹𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹. =
𝒓𝟐

45
Hydraulic oil
 5. THE WEDGE
The wedge is a combination of two inclined planes. It is used to separate bodies which are
held together by large force. Examples of wedge type of machines are axes chisels, knives
etc.
xo

x1

𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑥1

M.A = =
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑥2

6. PULLEY
A simple pulley is a fixed wheel hung on a suitable support with a rope passing round its
groove.

Effort Load

BLOCK AND TACKLE (PULLEY)

This is the more practical system of pulleys in which one or more pulleys are mounted
on the same axle with one continuous rope passing all-round the pulleys.

46
 V.R = 4 V.R =5

EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON MACHINE

Work is always wasted in machines to overcome the frictional forces present between the
moving parts and also to lift to parts of the machine. The greater the friction, the greater
the effort required and the smaller the M.A.
Mechanical advantage is affected by friction.
The efficiency of nearly all the machines varies with the load and the load and effort are
related by: E = aL + b ( a and b are constant ).This is called linear law for a machine. It
follows that E is proportional to L .The value to give us the effort required to operate
the machine moving part only if no load is present while A gives us the measure of
the friction present
= M.A x 100
V.R
In practical machines, the efficiency is usually less than 100% because of friction in the
moving parts of the machine.

47
(1)INCLINED PLANE: This is in form of a sloping plank commonly used to raise heavy
load such as barrels of oil with little applied effort than by lifting it vertically .

V.R = Distance moved by effort

Distance moved by load
= x /h ; V.R = 1/ sin θ

THE SCREW
Geometrically speaking the screw is an inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder to form a
thread. The distance between successive threads on a screw is called its pitch. For one
complete revolution of screw through an effort , the load moves a distance equal to its
pitch e.g. screw jack, nut and bolt
In a screw jack where length of the operating handle (tummy bar) is a, the effort moved a
distance equal to the pitch P.
2πa
Thus V.R =
𝑝

If frictional forces are negligible

48