Text for activity 1: Overview of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of sugars and other organic compounds. This
process consists of a series of chemical reactions that require carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O) and
store chemical energy in the form of sugar. Light energy drives the reactions. Oxygen (O 2) is a by-product
of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere. The following equation summarizes
photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis transfers electrons from water to energy-poor CO 2 molecules, forming energy-rich sugar
molecules (C6H12O6). This electron transfer is an example of an oxidation-reduction process: the water is
oxidized (loses electrons) and the CO 2 is reduced (gains electrons). Photosynthesis uses light energy to
drive the electrons from water to their more energetic states in the sugar products, thus converting solar
energy to chemical energy.

In plants, photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, mainly in leaf cells. The light reactions occur along the
thylakoid membranes within the chloroplasts, where pigments capture light energy. The sugar-making
reactions of the Calvin cycle occur in the stroma, the fluid between the inner membrane of the chloroplast
and the thylakoids.

In the light reactions, light is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules, exciting their electrons. The energy of
excited electrons is then used to join ADP and phosphate to form ATP. NADP+ joins with excited
electrons to form NADPH, which temporarily stores the energized electrons. In the process, water is split
and oxygen is released.

In the Calvin cycle, energy from ATP, electrons from NADPH, and carbon from carbon dioxide are
combined to produce sugar molecules.

Text for activity 2: Light Energy and Pigments

Sunlight is a type of energy called radiation, or electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy travels
through space in a manner similar to the motion of waves in water. The distance between the crests of two
adjacent waves is called a wavelength. The full range of electromagnetic wavelengths is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum. What we call visible light--the wavelengths that our eyes see as different
colors--is only a small fraction of the spectrum. The light reactions of photosynthesis use only certain
wavelengths, or colors, of visible light.

The thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts contains light-absorbing molecules called pigments. Different
pigments absorb light of different wavelengths. One pigment, chlorophyll a, absorbs mainly blue-violet
and red light. This molecule participates directly in the light reactions. Another molecule, chlorophyll b,
absorbs mainly blue and orange light. We do not see these absorbed colors when we look at a leaf.
Instead, we see the green wavelengths that are reflected back from the leaf or transmitted through it.
Text for activity 3: The Light Reactions

The photosystems consist of arrays of chlorophyll molecules. Chlorophyll-- the green pigment of leaves--
absorbs light energy. The absorbed energy excites electrons to a higher energy level. Energized electrons
from photosystem I are passed down an electron transport chain and added to NADP+ to form NADPH.
Meanwhile, energized electrons from photosystem II are passed through another electron transport chain.
Their energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (H+) from the stroma into the thylakoid compartment,
creating a concentration gradient. Electrons leaving this electron transport chain enter photosystem I,
replenishing its lost electrons. Photosystem II replenishes its electrons by splitting water. Hydrogen ions
and oxygen are released into the thylakoid compartment. This is where the oxygen gas generated by
photosynthesis comes from.

The buildup of hydrogen ions inside the thylakoid compartment stores potential energy. This energy is
harvested by an enzyme called ATP synthase. As hydrogen ions diffuse through ATP synthase, down
their concentration gradient, the enzyme uses the energy of the moving ions to make ATP. Next, ATP and
NADPH are used in the sugar-making process of the Calvin cycle.

Text for activity 4: The Calvin Cycle

So far, energy from light has been stored in the chemical bonds of ATP and NADPH. In the Calvin cycle,
this stored energy is used to produce sugar molecules.

The Calvin cycle is a complex series of chemical reactions carried out in the stroma. The Calvin cycle
begins with carbon fixation. Three molecules of carbon dioxide are added to three molecules of a five-
carbon sugar abbreviated RuBP. These molecules are then rearranged to form six molecules called 3-
PGA, which have three carbons each.

In the next two reactions, products from the light reactions are used to boost the energy of these three-
carbon molecules. First, high-energy phosphate groups are added.

One of the G3P molecules represents the three carbon dioxide molecules fixed so far. The other five G3Ps
are reshuffled to regenerate the original RuBP molecules. To summarize, so far the Calvin cycle has used
the energy of the light reactions to reduce three molecules of carbon dioxide and produce one molecule of
G3P.

Three more carbon dioxide molecules are fixed to form G3P in this same complicated way. To make each
G3P, the Calvin Cycle consumes 9 ATP molecules and 6 NADPH molecules. These are regenerated in
the light reactions. G3P is the actual final product of the Calvin cycle. The cell can combine two G3Ps to
make glucose, which stores the energy that chlorophyll originally captured from the sun.

Text for activity 5.1:

Organic compounds such as glucose store energy in their arrangements of atoms. These molecules are
broken down and their energy extracted in cellular respiration. The first stage of cellular respiration
occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid, while the second and third stages occur in mitochondria. In cellular
respiration, electrons are transferred from glucose to hydrogen carriers such as NADH and FADH 2. As
electrons flow downhill to oxygen, energy is released that is used to make ATP. Carbon dioxide and
water are given off as by-products.

Glycolysis is a series of steps in which a glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic
acid. As the chemical bonds in glucose are broken, electrons (and hydrogen ions) are picked up by NAD +,
forming NADH. Glucose is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced. A net output of two ATP molecules are also
produced in glycolysis for every glucose molecule processed. But most of the energy released by the
breakdown of glucose is carried by the electrons attached to NADH.

The pyruvic acid molecules are modified as they enter the mitochondrion, releasing carbon dioxide. The
altered molecules enter a series of reactions called the Krebs cycle. More carbon dioxide is released as
the Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of glucose. Two ATPs are formed per glucose, but most of the
energy released by the oxidation of glucose is carried by NADH and FADH2.

Almost all of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is banked in the final phase-- the electron
transport chain and chemiosmosis. The NADH and FADH2 molecules produced in glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle donate their electrons to the electron transport chain. At the end of the chain, oxygen exerts a
strong pull on the electrons, and combines with them and hydrogen ions to form water. The electron
transport chain uses the downhill flow of electrons to power the process of chemiosmosis, which
produces about 34 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule consumed.

Text for activity 6.1:

The oxidation of glucose continues in the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate molecules formed during glycolysis
diffuse from the cytosol into the mitochondrion, but pyruvate itself does not enter the citric acid cycle. A
reaction occurs that removes a carbon atom, releasing it in carbon dioxide. Electrons are transferred to an
NADH molecule, storing energy. Coenzyme A, or CoA, joins with the 2-carbon fragment, forming acetyl
CoA.

One molecule of acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle. The 2-carbon fragment of acetyl CoA attaches to
the 4-carbon molecule oxaloacetate in the first reaction of the cycle. This forms citrate. In a series of
steps, bonds break and reform. Two carbon atoms are released, one at a time, in molecules of carbon
dioxide. Electrons are carried off by molecules of NADH and FADH 2. One step produces an ATP
molecule by substrate-level phosphorylation. A 4-carbon oxaloacetate molecule is regenerated.

Since two acetyl CoA molecules are produced for each glucose molecule broken down, a second acetyl
CoA enters the citric acid cycle. The same series of reactions occurs, releasing carbon dioxide and
producing more NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The cell has gained two ATPs that can be used directly.
However, most of the energy originally contained in the bonds of glucose is now carried by the NADH
and FADH2 molecules.