Physics 2

MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTERS, Level IV
RTQF LEVEL 4-MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF THE MATTER-Gatumba TVET school Page 1 of 71
LU1. DESCRIBE LAWS OF MOTION AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
LO1.Describe the concept of the force

1.1.1 Contact force and field forces
 Force is a pull or push upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with another
object.
 Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each object.
 When the interaction ceases or stops, the two objects no longer experience the force.
 Force exist only as a result of an interaction.
 Contact force exists when two objects are in contact with each other. It is a direct force and
requires a contact.
For example, pushing a car up on a hill, or kicking a ball across a room.
Examples of contact forces are friction force, tensional forces, normal force, air resistance
force, applied forces, spring forces, etc.
 Field force is a force which does not require direct contact between the bodies. In this case, the
objects interact without touching each other.
Examples of field forces are magnetic forces, gravitational forces, and electrical forces.
1.1.2. Fundamental forces and their characteristics

 Fundamental forces are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic
interactions.
 There are four (4) fundamental forces:
1. Gravitational forces
2. Electromagnetic forces
3. Weak forces, and
4. Strong forces
 These forces govern everything that happens in the universe.
 Fundamental forces are characterized on the basis of the following four criteria:
1. Types of particles that experience the force
2. Relative strength of the force
3. Range over which the force is effective, and
4. Nature of the particles that mediate the force.
1.1.3. Internal and external forces

 Internal forces are produced from the external forces acting on structure members such as
poled, beamed or columned. Generally, we have three types of internal forces: axial, shear,
and moment.
1. Axial force: sometimes is called normal force, is compression or tension force acting aligned
with expression of structure member.
2. Shear force: is force acting in a direction perpendicular to alignment of member.
3. Moment force: lastly, is turning result of force multiplied by distance from its acting location
to turning point.
 External force: it is acting on a system from outside the system as opposed to internal forces
which act between components within the system.
 In our everyday life, we are exposed to many external physical forces as we perform our
activities.
 These forces vary in magnitude and direction and hence, vary in their effects.
Simply, external forces are forces applied to the structure from outside of the structure.
Examples of external forces includes applied force, normal force, friction force, and air
resistance force.
LO1.2. Interpret Newton’s laws

1.2.1 First law of Newton (law of Inertia)
Newton’s first law states that if a body is at rest or moving at constant speed in straight line, it will
remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted upon by a force.
Examples of Newton’s first law
1. An object placed on a plane surface
2. A ball rolling on ground
3. Shaking a tree
Motion at constant velocity.
 Motion with constant velocity is one of simplest forms of motion. This type of motion occurs
when an object is moving or sliding in presence of little or negligible friction force.
 To have constant velocity, an object must have a constant speed in constant direction.
 Constant direction constrains the object to motion to straight path.
 This means that the acceleration is zero. In mathematical expression,
𝒅𝑽
𝒂= =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
 If the object is moving at constant velocity, the graph of distance Vs time (X Vs t) shows as
the same change in position over each interval of time.
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝑽𝒕
Where 𝑥0 is displacement when t=0
Body at rest
For a body at rest, displacement-time graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.
1.2.2. Second Newton’s law

Newton’s second law says that when a constant force acts on a massive body, it causes it to
accelerate. i.e to change its velocity, at constant rate.
In simple case, a force applied to an object at rest cause it to accelerate in the direction of force.
∑ 𝑭 = 𝒎. 𝒂
Where F is net force, m is mass of object, a is acceleration, ∑ 𝑖𝑠 vector sum of forces.
Net external forces and Vectors
The vector sum of external forces acting on an object or system is called the net external force (
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) and is also represented as ∑ 𝐹.
By Newton’s second law of motion, the net force produces an acceleration on the body it acts on
as long as its value is not zero.
Eg: Calculate the net force of the following system.
Ans: ∑ 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑭𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 + 𝑭𝑮

∑ 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵 − 𝟒𝟎𝑵 = −𝟏𝟎𝑵
1.2.3. Newton’ third law of motion
Newton’s 3rd law state that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 The 3rd law of Newton is also known as the law of action and reaction.
 Law of action and reaction states that for every action force, there is an opposed and equal
reaction force.
Examples: 1. A book resting on a table applies a downward force equal to its weight on the table.
2. A person pushes against a wall (action force), and the wall exerts an equal and opposite force
(reaction force) against the person.
Mathematically, if a body A exerts a force F on a body B, then B simultaneously exerts a force –
F on A, or in vector equation form,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑨𝑩 = −𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑨
LO1.3. Apply Newton's laws

1.3.1. Motion on a plane
Motion on a plane is the point where we consider motion in two dimensions as only two
dimensions make a plane. In this case we consider both directions (X-axis and y-axis).
Equations of motion in a plane
Apply equations of motion in straight line separately in both directions, X and y.
𝑽𝒙 = 𝑼𝒙 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝑽𝒚 = 𝑼𝒚 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝑺𝒙 = 𝑼𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 𝑺𝒚 = 𝑼𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑽𝒙 𝟐 = 𝑼𝒙 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒔 𝑽𝒚 𝟐 = 𝑼𝒚 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒚 𝒔
Example: A motorboat of 40kg starting from rest on a lake accelerates in straight line. It travels a
distance of 96m in 8sec.
i) Calculate it acceleration.
ii) By applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion, calculate the force of the motorboat.
 Static friction
Static friction is a friction present between two or more objects that are not moving with respect
to other. EX: A book on a table.
Laws of static friction
There are two laws of static friction:
 First law: The maximum force of static friction is not dependent on the area of contact.
 Second law: The maximum force of friction is comparative to the normal force. I.e. if
normal force increases, the maximum external force that can endure without moving, also
increases.
Note that, static friction force, 𝐹𝑠 is directly proportional to the normal force, N
𝑭𝒔 ∝ 𝑵
𝑭𝒔 = 𝝁 𝒔 𝑵
Where 𝑭𝒔 is static friction force, 𝝁𝒔 is coefficient of static friction force, N is normal force and is
given by 𝑵 = 𝒎𝒈, m is mass and g is acceleration due to gravity.
 Coefficient of friction is a ratio of friction force and normal force. Therefore, coefficient of
𝑭𝒔
static friction force, 𝝁𝒔 is given by: 𝝁𝒔 = 𝑵
 Coefficient of friction is dimensionless.
 Coefficient of friction helps an object to lie on a surface.
 Kinetic friction/Dynamic friction

 Kinetic friction is a friction a force that acts between moving surfaces and it is denoted as 𝑭𝒌 .
 A body moving on a surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its movement.
Laws of kinetic friction
There are four (4) laws of kinetic friction:
1st law: the force of kinetic, 𝑭𝒌 is directly proportional to the normal reaction, N between two
surface in contact where 𝝁𝒌 is constant called coefficient of kinetic friction.
𝑭𝒌 ∝ 𝑵
𝑭𝒌 = 𝝁 𝒌 𝑵
2nd law: Force of kinetic friction is independent of shape and apparent area of the surfaces in
contact.
3rd law: Force of kinetic friction depends upon nature and material of surface in contact.
4th law: Force of kinetic friction is independent of the velocity of object in contact provided the
relative velocity and surface is not too long.
Difference between static and kinetic friction force

Static friction Kinetic friction
Static fiction is a friction present between two Kinetic friction is the friction present between
or more objects that do not moving respect to two or more objects that are in motion with
each other. respect each other.
The magnitude of static friction is greater than The magnitude of kinetic friction is
due to the greater value of its coefficient. comparatively lesser due to the low value of its
coefficient.
The equation representing static friction is The equation representing kinetic friction is
given by: 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 given by:𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
Examples
1. An object having a mass of 10kg is placed on smooth surface. Static friction between these two
surfaces is given as 15N. Find the coefficient of static friction.
2. the normal force and static frictional force of an object are 50N and 80N respectively. Find the
coefficient of static friction.
3. What is the relationship between static and kinetic friction?
Ans: The force of static friction keeps a stationary object at rest. Once the force of static
friction is overcome, the force of kinetic friction is what slows down a moving object.
4. A fridge weighs 1619N and the static friction coefficient is 0.50. what is the least force used to
move the fridge?
5. A worker exerts a force of 400N on a large cardboard of mass 75.0kg with a coefficient of
kinetic friction of 0.520.
a) Find the magnitude of force of friction.
b) Calculate the net force moving the cardboard.
 Free body diagram on a plane
 Free body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all
forces upon an object in a given situation.
Rules of drawing free diagram
1. Draw cycle or square around the object of interest to be sure you focus on labeling the forces
acting on an object.
If you are treating object as particle (no size or shape and no rotation), represent the object as
point.
2. Include all forces that act on the object, representing these force as vectors. Consider the types
of forces (normal force, friction, tension, and spring forces as well as weight and applied force).
Do not include net force on the object. Also do not include action and reaction pair.
3. Convert the free body diagram into more detailed diagram showing the X- and y- component of
a given force. This helps to solve a problem using 1st or 2nd law of Newton.
4. If there are two or more objects or bodies in the problem, draw a separate free body diagram for
each object.
Example: A book is at rest on tabletop. Draw the forces acting on the book.
Ans:
1.3.2. Motion of suspended object

Suspended object/body is an object/body hung so as to be free on all side except at the point of
support.
 Weight of suspended body
Suspended body is not in motion, its weight is due to the gravitational acceleration, g. so weight
of suspended body/hanging body is product of its mass and gravitational acceleration.
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈
Where m is mass, g is gravitational acceleration (g=9.8m/s2), and W is weight.
The SI unit of weight is Newton (N) or kgm/s2.
Ex: A hanging spring balance whose 50kg was measuring the sack of 100kg. Find the weight of
spring balance and sack.
Ans: let 𝒎𝒕 be total mass of balance and sack and W be weight of sack and balance
𝒎𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈
Then, 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒕 𝒈
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟎𝑵
 Tension forces
 Tension force is the force generated when a load is applied at one or more ends of material in
directional away.
 It is often given as pulling force.
Examples:
 Pulling a block with the help of a rope
 Crane machine
 Gym equipment
 Free diagram on a suspended body
Example1: A gymnast holding onto a bar is suspended motionless in mind-air. The bar is
supported by two ropes that attach to ceiling. Diagram the forces acting on the combination of
gymnast and bar.
Ans: A free diagram for this situation looks like this:
Example2: a college student rests a backpack upon his shoulder. The pack is suspended motionless
by one strap from one shoulder. Draw a free diagram for this situation.
Ans: A free diagram for this situation looks like this:
 Rocket motion
Rocket motion is based on Newton’s 3rd law which states that for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
u: exhaust velocity, V: Rocket velocity.

 Trust
 Trust is a force which moves the rocket through the air and through space.
 It is given by:
∆𝒎
𝑻 = 𝒗𝒆
∆𝒕
∆𝒎
Where 𝑻 is trust force, 𝒗𝒆 is escape velocity or exhaust velocity, ∆𝒕 is fuel burn rate.
 Acceleration of rocket is given by:
𝒗𝒆 ∆𝒎
𝒂= −𝒈
𝒎 ∆𝒕
Where a is acceleration of rocket, m is mass of rocket, 𝒗𝒆 is escape velocity or exhaust velocity,
∆𝒎
is fuel burn rate and g is acceleration due to gravity.
∆𝒕
Example: A Saturn V’s mass at liftoff was 2.8 × 106 𝑘𝑔, its fuel burn rate was 1.4 × 104 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
and the exhaust velocity was 2.4 × 103 𝑚/𝑠. Calculate its initial acceleration.
∆𝒎
Ans: Given: 𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒈, ∆𝒕
= 𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝒈/𝒔, 𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 and
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒗𝒆 ∆𝒎
Formula: 𝒂= −𝒈
𝒎 ∆𝒕
𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
𝒂=( × 𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝒈/𝒔) − 𝟗. 𝟖𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝟐. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒈
𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐
 Rocket velocity, V is given by:

𝒎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒏
𝒎𝒇
Where V is rocket velocity, 𝒗𝒆 is exhaust velocity, 𝒎𝟎 is initial mass of rocket, 𝒎𝒇 is final mass
of rocket.
Factors affecting rocket acceleration
 The greater exhaust velocity, 𝒗𝒆 of gases relative to the rocket, the greater acceleration.
 The faster the rocket burns its fuel, the greater its acceleration.
 The smaller the rocket’s mass, the greater acceleration.
 Air resistance
 Air resistance is a force acting opposite to relative motion of any object moving with respect
to surrounding fluid.
 It is a frictional force air exerts against a moving body.
 As an object moves, air resistance slows it down.
Air resistance is also known as drag force, 𝐹𝐷 and it is given by:
𝟏
𝑭𝑫 = 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑪𝑫 𝑨
𝟐
Where 𝑭𝑫 is drag force or air resistance force, 𝝆 is density of air, V is speed of rocket, 𝑪𝑫 is drag
coefficient, and A is cross sectional area.
 Free body diagram on a rocket
A rocket is experienced by:
 Trust force: Force pushing up the rocket, and
 Weight: force pulling down the rocket
Then, the free diagram for the rocket looks like this;
LU2. APPLY STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY
LO2.1: Apply conditions of static equilibrium

 Static equilibrium is a state in which a system is stable and at rest.
 To achieve static equilibrium, a system must have both rotational equilibrium and
transitional equilibrium.
 Transitional equilibrium is a state in which net force is equal to zero, while an object is in
rotational equilibrium if the velocity of it rotation is constant.
 To be in rotational equilibrium, the net torque acting on the object must be zero.
2.1.1. Moment of the force

 A moment of force is the turning effect of force.
 Moments act about a pivot in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
 To calculate magnitude of torque, 𝝉, firstly determine the lever arm and multiply applied force.
 Lever arm is a perpendicular distance from axis of rotation to the line of force.
2.1.2. Necessary conditions for equilibrium of an object
 First condition for equilibrium
 The sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero,
∑𝑭 = 𝟎
 Second condition for equilibrium
 The sum of all external torques from external forces is zero.
∑𝝉 = 𝟎
2.1.3. Center of gravity
 Center of gravity is the average location of weight of an object.
 It is also a geometric property of an object.
 It is also an important concept in determining stability of an object.
2..1.4. Determination of center of gravity

 The center of gravity of an object is calculated by taking of its moments divided by overall
weight of the object.
 The moment is the product of weight and its location as measured from set point called the
origin.
𝑾𝟏 𝒅𝟏 + 𝑾𝟐 𝒅𝟐 + 𝑾𝟑 𝒅𝟑 + ⋯
𝑪𝑮 =
𝑾
Where 𝑾𝟏 , 𝑾𝟐 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑾𝟑 are weight of object 1, 2, 3, respectively, 𝒅𝟏 , 𝒅𝟐 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒅𝟑 are distance
from origin to object 1, 2, 3 respectively, and 𝑾 is total weight.
Examples:
1. A long rod of length 20m has a mass of 100kg. there is 25kg mass at the left end. Where is the
center of gravity relative to the left end?
2. Where would you place a 50kg mass on 75kg, 14m rod so that its center of mass is 10meter to
the left of physical center of the rod?
LO 2.2: Describe examples of rigid objects in static equilibrium

 Static equilibrium refers to any system where the sum of all forces and torques on every
particle of the system happens to be zero.
 In simple words, static equilibrium is the equilibrium of the whose parts acts are at rest.
 In physics, a rigid body/ rigid object is a solid body in which deformation is zero or small it
can be neglected.
 In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in
time regardless of external forces exerted on it.
2.2.1. The seesaw revisited

 Determine magnitude of the upward force
A seesaw consisting of uniform board of mass M, and length l, supports at rest a father and
daughter with masses 𝑚𝑓 and 𝑚𝑑 respectively as shown in the following figure.
The support (called fulcrum) is under the center of gravity of board, the father is a distance d, from
the center and daughter is distance 𝑙⁄2 from the center.
a) Determine the magnitude of the upward force 𝑛⃗ exerted by the support on the board.
b) Determine where the father should sit to balance the system at rest.
Ans:
a) Apply the 1st condition for equilibrium, ∑ 𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝟎
⃗ − 𝒎𝒇 𝒈
𝒏 ⃗⃗ − 𝑴𝒈 ⃗⃗ − 𝒎𝒅 𝒈 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗ = 𝒎𝒇 𝒈
𝒏 ⃗⃗ + 𝑴𝒈 ⃗⃗ + 𝒎𝒅 𝒈 ⃗⃗
⃗ = (𝒎𝒇 + 𝑴 + 𝒎𝒅 )𝒈
𝒏 ⃗⃗
b) Apply 2 condition for equilibrium, ∑ 𝝉𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝟎
nd
𝒍
(𝒎𝒇 𝒈 ⃗⃗ )𝒅 − (𝒎𝒅 𝒈 ⃗⃗ ) = 𝟎
𝟐
𝒍
(𝒎𝒇 𝒈 ⃗⃗ )𝒅 = (𝒎𝒅 𝒈 ⃗⃗ )
𝟐
𝒎𝒅 𝒈 ⃗⃗ 𝒍
𝒅=( )
𝒎𝒇 𝒈⃗⃗ 𝟐
𝒎𝒅 𝒍
𝒅=( )
𝒎𝒇 𝟐
2.2.2. A weighted hand
 Upward and downward forces
 Upward force is any force that counteracts the force of gravity.
Eg: Buoyancy is a good example of an upward force because it pushes an object away from
the earth’s center of mass.
 In fact, every object that sits on surface of the earth is not only experiencing gravity, but it is
always experiencing an upward force as well.
 Example, a book sitting on table stays on table due to gravity, however, the table is also equally
pushing up on the book in reactive force which keeps the book sitting on the table. If there is
no upward force the book, the book would fall right through the table.
2.2.3. Standing on horizontal beam.

 Determination of horizontal and vertical component
 By taking a vector to be analyzed as the hypotenuse, the horizontal and vertical components
can be found by completing a right triangle.
 The bottom edge of the triangle is the horizontal component and the side opposite the angle is
the vertical component.
 The angle that the vector makes the horizontal can be used to calculate the length of the two
components.
Examples:
1. The force of 120N form an angle Ɵ with an x-axis as sown in the following figure:
i. Calculate the angle Ɵ.

ii. Calculate vertical and horizontal components (Fx and Fy)
Ans:
Data: F=120N, Opposite side of 𝜽=3.5m, Adjacent side of 𝜽=1m
Asked: 𝜽 =?
𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝜽
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 =
𝑭
𝟑. 𝟓𝒎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 =
𝑭
𝐀𝐝𝐣𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝜽
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝑭
𝟏𝒎
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝑭
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟑. 𝟓𝒎⁄𝑭
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟏𝒎⁄
𝑭
𝟑. 𝟓𝒎 𝑭
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = ×
𝑭 𝟏𝒎
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟑. 𝟓
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟑. 𝟓
𝜽 = 𝟕𝟒°
ii) Asked: Fx and Fy
𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟕𝟒
𝑭𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑𝑵
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟕𝟒
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟓𝑵
2. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pair A and reaction on the
beam at C.
Ans:
+ ∑ 𝝉𝑨 = 𝟎
−𝑭𝒚 × 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎 + 𝟒𝑲𝑵 × 𝟑𝒎 = 𝟎
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟖𝒌𝑵
∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
−𝑨𝒙 + 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟖𝒌𝑵
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑨𝒚 + 𝑭𝒚 − 𝟒𝒌𝑵 = 𝟎
𝑨𝒚 + 𝟖𝒌𝑵 − 𝟒𝒌𝑵 = 𝟎
𝑨𝒚 = −𝟒𝒌𝑵
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟒𝒌𝑵 ↓
𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑭𝒚
𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑥
From 𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑭𝒚 , calculate F
𝑭𝒚
𝑭=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟖𝒌𝑵
𝑭=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟏. 𝟓𝒎
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝟏. 𝟓𝒎
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝟖𝒌𝑵
𝑭=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟓
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝒌𝑵
2.2.4. The learning ladder
A ladder is a structure of wood, metal, or rope, commonly consisting of two sidepieces between
which a series of bar or rungs are set at suitable distances, forming a means of climbing up or
down.
 A uniform ladder at rest
 Uniform ladder rests against vertical wall where there is negligible friction.
 The bottom of ladder rests on rough ground where there is a friction.
 The top of ladder is at a height h, above the ground and foot of ladder is at a distance 2a from
the wall.
 The diagram shows forces which act on the ladder.
Apply the condition of equilibrium,

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐹 − 𝐹𝑆 = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑁−𝑊 =0
∑𝜏 = 0 − 𝑤𝑎 + 𝐹ℎ = 0
For small triangle,
𝑎
cos 𝜃 =
𝑙⁄
2
𝑙
𝑎 = cos 𝜃
2
For big triangle
ℎ
sin 𝜃 =
𝑙
ℎ = 𝑙 sin 𝜃
then, ℎ = 𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑙
∑ 𝜏 = −𝑤 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 0
2
Example: A 20kg uniform ladder 2.5meters long rest against a smooth wall at an angle of
53 degrees with the horizontal.
i) Diagram a free body diagram of this system /5marks
ii) Calculate the forces on the ladder exerted by the floor and wall. /8marks
Solution
a) Learning ladder: structure of wood, metal, or rope, commonly consisting of two sidepieces
between which a series of bars or rungs are set at suitable distances, forming a means of
climbing up or down.
b) i) Free diagram of uniform learning ladder looks like this,
ii) To answer this question, we apply the conditions for equilibrium.

1st condition
∑ 𝑭𝑿 = 𝟎, 𝑭𝒔 − 𝑭𝑾 = 𝟎 ↔ 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒘
∑ 𝑭𝒀 = 𝟎, 𝑭𝑵 − 𝑭𝒈 = 𝟎 ↔ 𝑭𝑵 = 𝑭𝒈
𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖
𝑭𝑵 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝑵 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑭𝒈 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝑵 ( 𝑭𝒈 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝑵)
For small triangle,
𝑿 𝒍
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = ↔ 𝑿 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒍⁄ 𝟐
𝟐
For big triangle,
𝒚
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ↔ 𝒚 = 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒍
𝑨𝒔 ∑ 𝝉 = −𝑭𝒈 𝑿 + 𝑭𝑾 𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒍
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, ∑ 𝝉 = −𝑭𝒈 ( 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) + 𝑭𝑾 (𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) = 𝟎
𝟐
𝒍
𝑭𝑾 (𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) = 𝑭𝒈 ( 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
𝟐
𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝑭𝑾 = 𝑭𝒈 ( )
𝟐𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝑭𝑾 = 𝑭𝒈 ( )
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟏𝟗𝟔𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝟑
𝑭𝑾 = ×( )
𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝟑
𝑭𝑾 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝑵
𝑨𝒔 𝑭𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑭𝒔 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝑵
LO2.3. Apply elastic properties of solids

2.3.1. Deformation of solids in terms of the concepts of stress and strain
 Stress is a quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause deformation.
 Stress is generally defined as force per unit area.
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
 The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa).
 Strain is the change in length divided by original length of object.
∆𝑳
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝑳𝟎
 Strain is dimensionless.
There are three (3) types of stress and strain,
1. Tensile stress: Deformation/ change in length. Then, the strain under tensile stress is called
tensile strain.
2. Bulk stress: Deformation/ change in volume. Then, the strain under bulk stress is called
bulk strain/ volume strain.
3. Shear stress: Deformation/ change in geometry. Then, the strain under shear stress is
called shear strain.
Note that,
 Strain is dimensionless while the SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa).
 The ratio of stress and strain is called elastic modulus and SI unit is the same as stress, (Pa).
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
2.3.2. Three types of deformation and elastic modulus for each.
1. Young’s modulus: is the elastic modulus for tensile stress. It is denoted as Y.
Young’s modulus is a ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
𝑭↓
⁄
𝒀=
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝑨 = 𝑭↓ × 𝑳 𝟎
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑳⁄ 𝑨 ∆𝑳
𝑳𝟎
Where A is area, ∆𝑳 is change in length, 𝑭↓ is deforming force, 𝑳𝟎 is initial length.
2. Bulk modulus: is the elastic modulus for bulk stress. It is denoted by B.
It is a ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain.
∆𝑽
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝑽𝟎
The balk strain results from stress which is a force 𝑭↓ normal to the surface that pressures
on unit surface area A of submerged object. This kind of physical quantity, or pressure P
is defined as,
𝑭↓
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑷 =
𝑨
Then,
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆𝑷 𝑽𝟎
𝑩= =− = −∆𝑷
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑽⁄ ∆𝑽
𝑽𝟎
Note: The minus sign (-) in this equation is for consistency, to ensure that B is positive quantity.
 Note that minus sign (-) is necessary because an increase ∆𝑷 in pressure (positive quantity)
always causes a decrease ∆𝑉 in volume, and decease in volume is a negative quantity.
 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility, K or,
∆𝑽⁄
𝟏 𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑽
𝑲= =− =−
𝑩 ∆𝑷 ∆𝑷𝑽𝟎
 The term compressibility is used in relation to fluids (gas and liquid).
 Compressibility is the change in volume of fluid per unit increase in pressure.
3. Shear modulus: It is a ratio of shear stress to shear strain and is denoted as S.
∆𝑿
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝑳𝟎
𝑭‼
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
The shear stress is due to the force parallel to the surface 𝑭‼.
𝑭‼⁄
𝑺= 𝑨 = 𝑭‼ × 𝑳𝟎
∆𝑿⁄ 𝑨 ∆𝑿
𝑳𝟎
 Stress versus strain curve for an elastic solid.
 When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding their elastic
properties is most important.
 We can learn about the elastic properties of materials by studying the stress-strain relationships
under different leads in these materials.
 The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship.
 In stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted.
 Example of a stress-strain curve is
1. Proportional limit: It is a region in stress-strain curve that obey Hook’s law.

In this limit, the stress-strain curve ratio gives us proportionality constant known as Young’s
modulus. The point 0A in the graph represent proportional limit.
2. Elastic limit: It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely removed.
Beyond this limit, the material does not return to its original position and plastic deformation starts
to appear in it.
3. Yield point: It is defined as the point at which material starts to deform plastically.
 After yield point is pasted, permanent plastic deformation occurs.
 There are two yield point: Upper yield point and Lower yield point.
4. Ultimate stress point: It is a point that represents the maximum stress that material can endure
before failure. Beyond this this point failure occurs.
5. Fracture or Breaking point: It is a point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the
material takes place.
 Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that “the strain of material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic
limit of that material”.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:
𝑭 = −𝑲𝑿
Where F is a force, X is extension length, K is constant of proportionality known as spring constant
in 𝑵⁄𝒎.
Example: A spring is displaced by 5cm and held in place with a force of 500N. What is the spring
constant of the spring?
Ans: Given 𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑿 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
Asked: 𝑲 =?
𝑭
Formula: 𝑭 = −𝑲𝑿, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 ! − 𝑲! = 𝑿
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑲= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
LU3. ANALYZE FLUID MECHANICS
LO3.1. Describe pressure and its variation with depth.

3.1.1. Pressure
 Pressure is perpendicular force per unit area.
 It is a stress at point within confined fluid.
 The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa).
 Pressure in fluid
 Fluids: are substances that have no fixed shape and yield easily to external pressure.
Examples are gas and liquids.
 Pressure in fluids is given by,
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝝆𝒉𝒈
Where P is pressure, 𝑷𝟎 is atmospheric pressure, 𝝆 is density of fluids, 𝒉 is height or depth and 𝒈
is acceleration due to gravity.
 If the atmospheric pressure, 𝑷𝟎 <<<<< 𝟏, pressure will be,
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈
 Force and pressure
 Force: is the pull or push action resulting in acceleration of an object.
 Pressure: is a force acting upon a certain area and acted upon something perpendicular to its
surface.
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
Where P is pressure, F is force, and A is area.
 Difference between force and pressure
Force Pressure
Force is a pull or push action resulting in Pressure is a force acting upon a certain area
acceleration of an object. and acted upon something perpendicular to its
surface
Its SI unit is Newton (N) Its SI unit is Pascal (Pa)
Instrument used to measure force is called Instrument used to measure force is called
Dynamometer Manometer
Force is a vector quantity which means that has Pressure is scalar quantity which means that
direction no direction
Force can be acted upon the face, side, edges Pressure only acts on surface or face of object.
or vertices of the objects
Force change the speed and direction of an Pressure cannot change the speed and direction
object. of an object
 A simple device for measuring the pressure exerted by a fluid
 The instrument used to measure the pressure in fluid is called Manometer.
 Manometer is a U-tube device used to measure pressure
3.1.2. Variation of pressure with depth

 Variation of atmospheric pressure against altitude
 Altitude is related to air pressure.
 As altitude increases, the amount of gas molecules in the air decreases, the air becomes less
dense than nearer to sea level.
 This means that, atmospheric pressure is lower at higher altitude and it becomes higher at lower
altitude.
 Water pressure against depth
 The pressure increases as depth increases.
 This is due to the weight of water above the object in water and air above the water.
 Pressure exerted on the bottom by weight of fluid

𝑾 𝒎𝒈
𝑷= ↔ 𝑷=
𝑨 𝑨
 Mass of fluid from its volume and density,
𝒎
𝝆= ↔ 𝒎 = 𝝆𝑽
𝑽
 Volume of fluid is related to dimension of container,
𝑽 = 𝑨𝒉
Where A is cross sectional Area, h is depth
 Combining the last two equations gives,
𝒎 = 𝝆𝑨𝒉
 Replace the value of mass, m in equation of pressure, P, we get,
𝝆𝑨𝒉𝒈
𝑷=
𝑨
A cancels, and rearranging the variables yields,
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
 This value is pressure due to the weight of fluid.
Example1: The dam is 500m wide, and the water is 40,0m deep at the dam.
a) What the average pressure on the dam due to the water?
b) Calculate the force exerted against the dam and compare it with the weight of water in the dam.
(weight of water in dam, 𝑊 = 1.96 × 1013 𝑁, density of water, 𝜌 = 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
Ans: Given: 𝒍 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎, 𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎, 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑 , 𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐 , 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝑵
Asked: 𝒂)𝝆 =?, 𝒃)𝑭 =? 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑭
Formula: 𝒂) 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 𝒃) 𝑷 = 𝑨 ↔ 𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
a) 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑 × 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝑲𝑷𝒂
𝑭
b) 𝑷 = 𝑨 ↔ 𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
 𝑨 = 𝒍 × 𝒉 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎 × 𝟒𝟎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝟐
Then, 𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵
F is smaller than weight.
Example2: Calculate the depth below the surface of water at which the pressure due to the weight
of water equals 1atm and density of water, 𝜌𝑤 is 103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3.
Ans: Given: 𝑷 = 𝟏𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑 , 𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐
Asked: 𝒉 =?
Formula: 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅, 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉,
𝑷 𝟏.𝟎𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
Then, 𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑 ×𝟗.𝟖𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝒎
 Pascal’s Principle
 Pascal’s Principle is also known as Pascal’s law
 According to Pascal’s law, “Pressure or intensity of pressure at point in a static fluid will be
equal in all directions”.
 Or, “The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or transmitted
evenly throughout the liquid in all directions”.
𝑭
𝑨𝒔 𝑷 = , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨 (𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍′ 𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘)
𝑨
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷 𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = , 𝑷𝟐 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑭 𝟏 𝑭𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, =
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
Example1: Two pistons of a hydraulic lift have diameters of 60 cm and 5 cm. What is the force
exerted by the larger piston when 50 N is placed on the smaller piston?
Solution
Since, the diameter of the pistons is given, we can calculate the radius of the piston.
𝑫
𝒓=
𝟐
𝟓 𝟐
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏, 𝑨𝟏 = 𝝅 ( ) = 𝝅(𝟐. 𝟓)𝟐
𝟐
𝟔𝟎 𝟐
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏, 𝑨𝟐 = 𝝅 ( ) = 𝝅(𝟑𝟎)𝟐
𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝑭 𝟐
=
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟐 𝟑𝟎 𝟐
𝑭𝟐 = × 𝑭𝟏 = (𝟓𝟎𝑵) × ( ) = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑨𝟏 𝟐. 𝟓
This means, with the force of 50 N, the force of 7200 N can be lifted.
Example2: Car’s weight is 1600N. What is the external force input force F?
Solution: Given: 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎𝟐
𝑨𝒔𝒌𝒆𝒅: 𝑭 =?
𝑾 𝑭
=
𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑩
𝑾 × 𝑨𝑩
𝑭=
𝑨𝑨
𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐
𝑭= = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟎. 𝟒𝒎𝟐
 Applications of Pascal’s Principle

1. Hydraulic Lift: It works based on the principle of equal pressure transmission throughout a
liquid.
2. Hydraulic Brakes
Example: A pressure of 2000Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid column due to a force being
applied on a piston. If the piston the area of 0.1𝑚2, what force is applied?
Ans: 𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
3.1.3. Pressure measurements

 Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured in:
1. Atmosphere (atm)
2. Bar (bar)
3. Millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
4. Torr
𝟏𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒓 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒃𝒂𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓𝑷𝒂
Note that:
 Barometer is an advice used to measure atmospheric pressure at a place.
 In a barometer, there is mercury column in which mercury moves up or down depending on
the atmospheric pressure at a place.
 It is graduated in millimeter and the unit used for measurements from a Barometer is mmHg.
𝟏𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟒𝑷𝒂
𝟏𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
 Pressure measured by a Barometer is also known as Barometric pressure (atmospheric
pressure).
 Absolute pressure and Gauge pressure
 Absolute pressure
 It is a pressure of having no matter inside a space or perfect vacuum.
 The measurement of barometric pressure is example of absolute referenced pressure.
𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒈 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
 Gauge pressure: It is measured in relation to ambient atmospheric pressure.
𝑷𝒈 = 𝑷𝒂 − 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
 Atmospheric pressure: Pressure measured by a Barometer.
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝑷𝒂 − 𝑷𝒈
 Difference between atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is a measure of absolute pressure and is due to the weight of air
molecules above the certain height relative to sea. It is increasing with decreasing altitude and
decreasing with increasing altitude.
 Gauge pressure is additional pressure in a system relative to atmospheric pressure.
LO3.2. Apply Archimedes’ Principle

3.2.1. Buoyant force
 Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by any fluid upon a body placed in it.
 It is an ability of something to float or rise in fluid.
𝑩𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 − 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑭𝑩 = 𝝆𝒈𝑽
Where 𝑭𝑩 is Buoyant force applied on submerged object, 𝝆 is density of fluid, 𝑽 is volume of
displaced fluid, 𝒈 is acceleration of gravity.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 − 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑩𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
3.2.2. Archimedes’ Principle
“The volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in fluid or
to that fraction of volume below the surface for an object partially submerged in liquid”.
Examples
1. A ship that is launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of water it displaces is just equal
to its own weight.
2. A stone sink in the basin full of water, the weight of water displaced by stone is equal to the
weight of the stone.
LO3.3. Analyze fluid dynamics

3.3.1. Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to flow
 It is a resistance of fluid (liquid or gas) to change in shape or movement of neighboring portions
relative to one another.
 Four assumptions of model of ideal fluid flow
1. Steady flow/ laminar flow: the velocity of fluid at each point remains constant in time. The
particles move in straight line.
2. Unsteady flow/ Turbulent flow: Particles unlike straight line in their motion. It is irregular
flow of particle.
3. Incompressible flow: Density of fluid remains constant

4. Irrotational flow: The motion of particles is in circular path but the rotation is not about the
axis. There is no turbulence.
Turbulence: instability or disturbance
5. Non-viscous flow: No fluid friction.
 Equation of continuity for fluids
Equation of continuity states that in the case of steady flow, the amount of fluid flowing past one
point must be the same as the amount of fluid flowing past another, or mass flow rate is constant.
𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Where 𝝆 is density, 𝑨 is cross sectional area, 𝑽 is flow velocity of fluid, 1 and 2 indicate two
different region.
Example1: Suppose water is flowing through the pipe of diameter 1cm with flow velocity of
2 𝑚⁄𝑠. If the pipe widens to a diameter of 3cm, what is the new flow rate?
Ans: 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
The density of water in this pipe is constant and can be canceled from both sides of continuity
equation, we get,
𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝟐 𝒅
We know that, 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓= 𝟐
𝒅 𝟐
Then, , 𝑨 = 𝝅 (𝟐)
𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝟐
The equation of continuity becomes, 𝝅 ( 𝟐𝟏 ) 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝅 ( 𝟐𝟐 ) 𝑽𝟐
𝒅𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝟐
𝝅 cancelled in both sides, we get, 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐
𝟒 𝟒
4 cancelled and we get, 𝒅𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝒅𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑽𝟐 = = ( ) 𝑽𝟏
𝒅𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝟐
𝟐
𝟏𝒄𝒎
𝑽𝟐 = ( ) × 𝟐 𝒎⁄𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒎⁄𝒔
𝟑𝒄𝒎
Example2: suppose that a compressible gas is flowing through a pipe. In a region of the pipe with
a cross sectional area of 0.02𝑚2, it has a flow rate of 4 𝑚⁄𝑠 and density of 2 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 . What is its
density as it flows through another region of the same pipe with cross sectional area of 0.03𝑚2 at
velocity 1 𝑚⁄𝑠?
Ans: continuity equation:
𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝝆𝟐 =
𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎 × 𝟒 𝒎⁄𝒔
𝝆𝟐 = = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟐 × 𝟏 𝒎⁄𝒔
Note that:
1. The volume flow rate (Q) is given by:
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽
Where 𝑸 is volume flow rate, 𝑨 is cross sectional area, and 𝑽 is average velocity.
The IS unit of volume flow rate is 𝒍⁄𝒔 or 𝒎𝒍⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏.
2. Mass flow rate (𝒎̇), is given by:
𝒎̇ = 𝝆𝑨𝑽
 Volume flow rate problem solving
Example: The pipe with radius of 0.1m is used to drain water cylindrical tank with height of 3m
and a diameter of 5m in less than one hour. How fast will the stream of water need to move through
the pipe in 𝑚⁄𝑠 in order to fill of tank?
Ans: Volume of cylinder , 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝒅 𝟓𝒎
𝒓= = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × (𝟐. 𝟓𝒎)𝟐 × 𝟑𝒎 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟗𝒎𝟑
Volume flow rate, 𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽
Asked: To find the average velocity (V) of the pipe,
𝑸
𝑽=
𝑨
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Volume flow rate (Q), 𝑸 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏𝒉 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟓𝟖. 𝟗𝒎𝟑
𝑸= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
Area of drainage pipe (A), 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × (𝒐. 𝟏𝒎)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒎𝟐
𝑸
Average velocity (V), 𝑽 = 𝑨
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔
𝑽= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝒎⁄𝒔 = 𝟓𝟐 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔
𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒎𝟐
Water must be forced through the pipe quick but plausible speed of about half meter per
second to properly drain the tank.
3.3.3. Bernoulli’s principle and its application

 Bernoulli’s principle
“The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of fluid motion,
remains constant”.
 Bernoulli’s principle formula
Bernoulli’s principle formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy of fluid in a container.
𝟏
𝑷 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐
Where 𝑷 is pressure exerted by fluid, 𝑽 is velocity of fluid, 𝝆 is density of fluid, 𝒉 height of
container.
At any point of pipe, the constant is the same,
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
 Bernoulli’s equation at constant depth (h)
𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Example: Calculate the pressure in the hose whose absolute pressure is 1.01 × 105 𝑁⁄𝑚2 if the
speed of water in the hose increases from 1.96 𝑚⁄𝑠 to 25.5 𝑚⁄𝑠. assume the flow is frictionless
and the density is 103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 .
Ans: Pressure at point 2, 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
Density of fluid, 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
Velocity of fluid at point 1, 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒎⁄𝒔
Velocity of fluid at point 2, 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓 𝒎⁄𝒔
Asked: 𝑷𝟏 =?
Bernoulli’s equation:
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆(𝑽𝟐 𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟏
𝑷𝟏 = (𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 ) + ( × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × ((𝟐𝟓. 𝟓)𝟐 − (𝟏. 𝟗𝟔)𝟐 ))
𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
 Application of Bernoulli’s principle

1. Airflight:
 To manufacture the wings of plane, you use Bernoulli’s Principle
 The top of wings is somewhat curved, while the bottom of wing is totally flat
 While in the sky, air travels across both top and bottom concurrently.
 Because both top part and bottom part of plane are designed differently this allows for
the air on bottom to move slower, which creates more pressure on bottom and allows
for the air on the top to move faster which creates less pressure.
 This is what creates lift which allows planes to fly.
2. Lift: As you see on airplane, the wing moves up and down a little bit as it flies through the
air.
3. Baseball
4. Draft
5. Sailing
 Other applications of fluid dynamics
 Streamline flow around a moving airplane wing
 Newton’s third law about the airstream.
LU4. APPLY THERMODYNAMICS
LO4.1: Describe measurement of temperature of a body

4.1.1. Key terms
 Heat: is a form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with different
temperatures.
It flows from high temperature system to lower temperature system.
 Temperature: It is a physical quantity that express hotness and coldness of the object.
It is expressed in several scales including Fahrenheit, Celsius, kelvin.
 Internal energy: It is also known as intrinsic energy.
 It is defined as the total energy of closed system.
 It is the sum of potential energy of system and system’s kinetic energy.
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics: it states that if two systems A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with third system C, then A is
also in thermal equilibrium with C.
This statement may seem obvious, because all three system have the same temperature, but it
is basic to thermodynamics.
4.1.2. Temperature measurement

1. Thermocouple: Two different metals or alloys connected at the end to form simple electrical
circuit (current loop).
Temperature different between two ends of the circuit produces a voltage called electromotive
force (emf) that is proportional to the temperature difference.
2. Liquid-in-glass thermometer: consist of mercury as a liquid filled in glass tube.
On the body of glass tube, carbureted marks are provided which facilitates the reading of
temperature.
3. Digital thermometer: use mercury to measure temperature. They show the number. It
calculates and give number.
4. Infrared thermometer: It is thermometer which infers temperature from portion of thermal
radiation sometimes called black-body radiation emitted by object being measured. It does not
need contact.
 Calibration of thermometer
The thermometers should be calibrated regularly to make sure the readings are correct. The ice-
point method is most widely used method to calibrate a thermometer.
Calibration of thermometer using ice-point method
1. Fill a large container with crushed ice. Add clean tap water until the container is full. Stir the
mixture well.
2. Put the thermometer stem or probe into the ice water. Make sure the sensing area is under water.
Wait 30 seconds or until the reading stays steady.
3. Adjust the thermometer so it reads 32℉ (0℃). Hold the calibration nut securely with a wrench
or other tool and rotate the head of thermometer until it reads 32℉ (0℃).
 Measuring a body’s temperature
To measure body’s temperature, depends on the types of thermometer. You can use thermometer
needs contact (liquid-in-glass thermometer, digital thermometer), or do not require contact
(Infrared thermometer).
For those need contact
The probe of thermometer can be placed in mouth, rectum, or armpit.
 Mouth
 Place the probe under the tongue and close the mouth.
 Hold the thermometer tightly in place using lips
 Leave thermometer in the mouth for 3 minutes or until the device beeps
 Rectum
 This method is for infants and small children
 Insert the probe in anal canal
 Remove thermometer after 3 minutes or device beeps
 Armpit
 Place thermometer in the armpit
 Press the arm against the body
 Wait for 5 minutes before leading
For those do not need contact
 Hold sensing area (NCIT) perpendicular to forehead
 The distance between (NCIT) and forehead is specific to each NCIT
 Do not touch the sensing area of NCIT and keep sensor clean and dry
4.1.3. Conversion of temperature scales (Celsius, kelvin, and Fahrenheit)
 These common temperature scales are Celsius, kelvin, and Fahrenheit.
 Each scale has its uses, so it has likely you will encounter them and need to convert between
them.
 The formula to convert these scales are follow:
Conversion Formula
Celsius to Fahrenheit 𝟗
℉ = (℃) + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
Kelvin to Fahrenheit 𝟗
℉ = (𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑) + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓
Fahrenheit to Kelvin 𝟓
𝑲 = (℉ − 𝟑𝟐) + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝟗
Fahrenheit to Celsius 𝟓
℃ = (℉ − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗
Celsius to Kelvin 𝑲 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
Kelvin to Celsius ℃ = 𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
Note: When you are counting the temperature in:

1. Celsius, you start from zero (0℃)
2. Fahrenheit, you start from 32℉

3. Kelvin, you start from 273𝐾
i.e. 0℃ = 32℉ = 273𝐾
Exercises:
1) Convert 100℃ and 0℃ into ℉ and 𝐾
2) Convert 98.6℉ into ℃
LO 4.2. Apply heat measurement, transfer and effects on a body

4.2.1. Thermal properties of matter
 Thermal conductivity (K)
 The thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat is transferred by conduction through a unit
cross-section area of material when the temperature gradient exists perpendicular to the area.
𝑸. 𝒅
𝑲=
𝑨∆𝑻
Where 𝐾 is thermal conductivity, 𝑄 is amount of heat transferred, 𝑑 is distance between two
isothermal planes, 𝐴 is area of surface, ∆𝑇 is difference in temperature.
 The SI unit of thermal conductivity is 𝑾⁄𝒎𝒌
 Thermal diffusivity (𝜶)
 Thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided by density and specific heat capacity
at constant pressure.
 It measures the ability of material to conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store
thermal energy.
 High diffusivity means heat transfer rapidly.
𝑲
𝜶=
𝝆𝑪𝒑
Where 𝜶 is thermal diffusivity, 𝑲 is thermal conductivity, 𝑪𝒑 is specific heat, 𝝆 is density.
 The SI unit of thermal diffusivity is 𝒎𝟐 ⁄𝒔
 Specific heat (𝑪𝒑 )
 Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of substance
by one Celsius degree.
𝑸
𝑪𝒑 =
𝒎∆𝑻
Where 𝑪𝒑 is specific heat, 𝑸 is heat energy, 𝒎 is mass, ∆𝑻 is change in temperature
 The SI unit of specific heat is 𝑱⁄𝒈℃ or 𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲
 Melting point
 Melting point is temperature at which solid and liquid forms of pure substance can exist in
equilibrium.
 Simply, melting point is maximum temperature required to change solid state to liquid state.
 Boiling point
 Boiling point is a temperature at which pressure exerted by surrounding up on a liquid is
equaled by the pressure exerted by the vapor of liquid.
 Simply, boiling point is maximum temperature required to change the liquid state to gaseous
state.
4.2.2. Heat quantities
 Heat loss or gain due to temperature change

 Principal of heat exchange
This principal of heat exchange states that the heat energy lost by hot object is always equal to heat
gained by cold object provided that system of both the objects is isolated.
𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒎𝟏 𝑪𝟏 (𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 ) = 𝒎𝟐 𝑪𝟐 (𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )
 Latent heat
 Latent heat: is energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in physical state
(phase) that occurs without changing its temperature.
 It is normally expressed as the amount of heat per mole or unit mass of substance undergoing
a change of state.
 It is a heat required to convert a solid into liquid or vapor or a liquid to vapor without change
of temperature.
 Transition of physical states
 Melting: change from solid state to liquid state.

 Freezing: change from liquid state to solid state.
 Condensation: change from gas state to liquid state.
 Evaporation: change from liquid state to gas state.
 Sublimation: change from solid state to gas state.
 Deposition: change from gas state to solid state.

 Heat of fusion: Amount of heat required to convert one-unit amount of substance from solid
to liquid phase.
𝑸
∆𝑯𝒇 =
𝒎
Where ∆𝑯𝒇 is heat of fusion, 𝒎 is mass, 𝑸 is heat.
 Heat of vaporization: Amount of heat needed to turn 1𝑔 of liquid into vapor without a rise
in temperature of liquid.
𝑸
∆𝑯𝒗 =
𝒎
 Heat of sublimation: Heat absorbed by one gram or unit mass of substance in process of
changing at constant temperature and pressure from solid to gaseous state.
 It is heat required to change one mole of substance from solid state to gaseous state at a given
combination of temperature and pressure.
∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 = ∆𝑯𝒇 + ∆𝑯𝒗
 Thermal equilibrium
 It is a state of system in which all parts are at the same temperature
 Thermal equilibrium exists when two objects in thermal contact no longer affect each other’s
temperature.
4.2.3. Modes of heat transfer
1. Conduction: Heat or energy is transferred by direct contact like when any heated object you
touch with your hand; the conduction process takes place.
Note: When we heat iron at one side, other side automatically gets heated because the molecules
present in it travels to another side and heated that area too. So, conduction is equal to direct
contact.
 Fourier’s law
Fourier’s law states that the negative gradient of temperature and the time rate of heat transfer is
proportional to the area at right angles of that gradient through which the heat flows.
𝒒 = −𝒌𝛁𝑻
Where 𝒒 is local heat flux density in 𝑾. 𝒎𝟐 , 𝒌 is conductivity of material in 𝑾. 𝒎−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏, 𝛁𝑻 is
temperature gradient in 𝑲. 𝒎−𝟏
 Coefficient of thermal conductivity
 The coefficient of thermal conductivity of material is the quantity of heat that conducts per unit
time through a cube of material when its opposite faces are kept at temperature difference of
one degree.
𝑸𝑳
𝑲=
𝑨∆𝑻
Where 𝑸 is heat transferred through material in 𝑱⁄𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑾 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔), 𝑲 is thermal conductivity

in 𝑾⁄𝒎. 𝑲, 𝑳 is distance between two isothermal planes, 𝑨 is area of surface in 𝒎𝟐 , ∆𝑻 is
difference in temperature
 Its SI unit is 𝑱⁄𝒔. 𝒄𝒎. ℃ 𝑜𝑟 𝑾⁄𝒎. 𝑲
 Thermal resistance
 Thermal resistance is a ratio of temperature difference between two faces of material to the
rate of heat flow per unit area.
∆𝑿
𝑹𝒐 =
𝑲𝑨
Where 𝑹𝒐 is absolute thermal resistance in 𝑲⁄𝑾 across the thickness of sample, ∆𝑿 is
thickness in m of sample, 𝑲 is thermal conductivity in 𝑾⁄𝒎. 𝑲, 𝑨 is cross-sectional area in
𝒎𝟐 perpendicular to the path of heat flow.
 Conductors: Materials that permit electrons to flow freely from the particle. They allow for
charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.
Examples: metals, aqueous solutions of salts, graphite, and human body.
 Insulators: Materials that impede the free flow of electrons from the atom and molecule to
molecule.
Examples: plastics, Styrofoam, paper, rubber, glass, dry woods.
2. Convection: Process by which heat is transferred by movement of a heated fluid such as air or
water.
Example: Boiling water: Burner heats water at bottom. Hot water rises and cooler water moves
down to replace it.
 Convection current: It is the result of differential heating.

 Lighter (less denser), warm materials rise while heavier (more denser) , cool materials sink.
 Newton’s law of cooling
“The rate of cooling of body is directly proportional to difference in temperatures of the body (T)
and surrounding ( 𝑻𝟎 )”.
𝑸 = 𝒉. 𝑨(𝑻𝒕 − 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒗 )
Where 𝑸 is rate of heat transfer out of the body, 𝒉 is heat transfer coefficient, 𝑨 is heat transfer of
surface area, 𝑻𝒕 is time dependent temperature, 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒗 is temperature of environment.
 Theory of wind formation
 Wind is the air in motion.
 Wind forms when the sun heat one part of atmosphere differently than other part.
 This causes expansion of warmer air, making less pressure where it is warm than where it is
cooler.
 Air always moves from higher pressure to lower pressure and this movement of air is wind.
 During the day, the sun heats air above the land more quickly than air above water. Warm air
above the land expands and rises. Cooler air from the ocean moves toward the land to take
place of the rising air and makes “sea breeze”.
3. Thermal radiation: It is a process by which energy in form of electromagnetic radiation is

emitted by heated surface in all direction and travels directly to is point of absorption at the speed
of light.
 Emissivity: It is the ratio of energy radiated from material’s surface to that radiated from
perfect emitter, known as black body, at the same temperature and wave length and under the
same viewing condition.
 View factor: Degree to which heat carried by radiation can be passed between two surfaces.
 Black body: It is a surface that absorbs all radiant energy falling on it.
 Black body radiation: refers to the spectrum of light emitted by any heated object.
 Stefan Boltzmann law: It is also known as Stefan’s law.
It states that “the total energy radiator per unit surface area of black body in unit time is directly
proportional to the fourth power of black body’s thermodynamic temperature, T (also called
absolute temperature)”.
𝑷 = 𝒆𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
Where 𝑷 is power radiated (Watts, W), 𝒆 is emissivity (no unit), 𝝈 is Stefan’s Boltzmann
constant, 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾𝒎−𝟐 𝑲−𝟐, 𝑨 is surface area (𝒎𝟐 ), 𝑻 is temperature (kelvin, K).
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑻 𝑬
𝒆= =
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑻 𝑬𝟎
Note: Emissivity, 𝒆 for ideal radiator is equal to 1.
4.2.4. Heat effects

1. Chemical effect
 Since heat is a form of energy, it plays a major role in chemical changes.
 In some cases, chemical reactions need heat to begin and also heat determines the speed at
which reactions occur.
Example: When we cook food, we light the wood and it catches fire and the food particles
become soft because of heat energy.
 These are all chemical changes taking place due to heat.
2. Change of physical states
 When you heat ice cubes, they become water and water further heating changes into vapor.
 So, solid becomes liquid and liquid becomes gas when heat is added.
 The revers takes place when heat is removed.
3. Expansion and contraction
 When heat is added to surface, the molecules gain energy and vibrate and force other molecules
apart. As result, expansion takes place.
 Inversely, when heat is removed to substance, the molecules loss energy and molecules attract
each other and as result, contraction tales place.
Note: Expansion is greater for liquids than for solids and maximum in case of gases.
 There are three types of expansion:
1. Linear expansion
2. Areal expansion
3. Volume expansion
1. Linear expansion
 Linear expansion is the change in length due to heat.
 Linear expansion formula is given as:
∆𝑳
= 𝜶𝑳 ∆𝑻
𝑳𝟎
Where 𝑳𝟎 is original length, 𝑳 is expanded length, 𝜶𝑳 is length expansion coefficient, ∆𝑳 is change
in length, ∆𝑻 is change in temperature.
2. Areal expansion
 Areal expansion is the change in area due to temperature change.
 Areal expansion formula is given as,
∆𝑨
= 𝜶𝑨 ∆𝑻
𝑨𝟎
Where 𝑨 is expanded area, 𝑨𝟎 is original area, ∆𝑨 is change in area, ∆𝑻 is change in temperature,
𝜶𝑨 is area expansion coefficient.
Note that; 𝜶𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝑳
3. Volume expansion
 Volume expansion is the change in volume due to temperature
 Volume expansion formula is given as,
∆𝑽
= 𝜶𝑽 ∆𝑻
𝑽𝟎
Where 𝑽𝟎 is original volume, 𝑽 is expanded volume, ∆𝑽 is change in volume, ∆𝑻 is change in
temperature, 𝜶𝑽 is volume expansion coefficient.
Note that, 𝜶𝑽 = 𝟐𝜶𝑨 = 𝟑𝜶𝑳
Example1. A rod of length 5m heated to 40℃. If the length increases to 7m after some time, find
the expansion coefficient. Room temperature is 30℃.
Ans: Given; Initial length, 𝑳𝟎 = 𝟓𝒎, Expanded length, 𝑳 = 𝟕𝒎,
Change in length, ∆𝑳 = 𝟕𝒎 − 𝟓𝒎 = 𝟐𝒎,
Temperature difference, ∆𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎℃ − 𝟑𝟎℃ = 𝟏𝟎℃
Absolute temperature, 𝑻 = (𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑)𝑲 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝑲
Asked: 𝜶𝑳 =?
∆𝑳
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂: = 𝜶𝑳 ∆𝑻
𝑳𝟎
∆𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝜶𝑳 =
∆𝑻𝑳𝟎
𝟐𝒎
𝜶𝑳 = = 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑲−𝟏
𝟓𝒎 × 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝑲
Example2: A sheet of steel at 20℃ has size as shown in the figure below. If the coefficient of
linear expansion for steel is 10−5 ⁄℃, then what is the change in the area at 60℃?
Ans: Given:
Length of steel, 𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
Width of steel, 𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
Initial area of steel, 𝑨𝟎 = 𝒍 × 𝒘 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 × 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐
Coefficient of linear expansion, 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ⁄℃
Coefficient of area expansion, 𝜶𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ⁄℃
Change in temperature, ∆𝑻 = 𝟔𝟎℃ − 𝟐𝟎℃ = 𝟒𝟎℃
Asked: Change in area of steel at 𝟔𝟎℃, ∆𝑨 =?
∆𝑨
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏: = 𝜶𝑨 ∆𝑻
𝑨𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, ∆𝑨 = 𝜶𝑨 𝑨𝟎 ∆𝑻
−𝟓 ⁄
∆𝑨 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 ℃ × 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎℃
∆𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝒄𝒎𝟐
Example 3: A bronze plate with coefficient of linear expansion, ᾳL=18×10-6/oC has size shown in
figure below. If the plate heated at 80oC, then what is the increase in area. /7marks
Ans: Data: Length of bronze: 40m

Width of bronze: 20m
Initial area of bronze (Ao)=L×W
𝑨𝒐 = 𝐋 × 𝐖
𝑨𝒐 = 𝟒𝟎𝐦 × 𝟐𝟎𝐦 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝟐
Coefficient of linear expansion of bronze, 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏
Coefficient of area expansion of bronze, 𝜶𝑨 = 𝟐 × 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏
Change in temperature, ∆𝑻 = 𝟖𝟎℃ − 𝟎℃ = 𝟖𝟎℃
Asked: Increase of area for bronze, ∆𝑨 =?
∆𝑨
Equation of area expansion: 𝑨 = 𝜶𝑨 ∆𝑻 ↔ ∆𝑨 = 𝜶𝑨 𝑨𝒐 ∆𝑻
𝒐
∆𝑨 = 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ℃−𝟏 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎℃ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐
Example 4: A glass container with volume of 4liters filled with water, then heated until the
increase in temperature is 20℃, some water spilled. The coefficient of linear expansion for glass
is 9 × 10−6 ⁄℃, the coefficient of volume expansion for water is 2.1 × 10−4 ⁄℃. Determine the
volume of spilled water.
Ans: Given: 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟒𝒍, ∆𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎℃, 𝜶𝑳 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔⁄℃,
𝜶𝑽 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟑𝜶𝑳 = 𝟑 × 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ⁄℃ = 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔⁄℃
𝜶𝑽 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒⁄℃
Asked: Volume of spilled water=?
Equation for volume expansion,
∆𝑽
= 𝜶𝑽 ∆𝑻
𝑽𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, ∆𝑽 = 𝜶𝑽 𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻
Change in volume of glass container:
∆𝑽 = 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔⁄℃ × 𝟒𝒍 × 𝟐𝟎℃ = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒍
Change in volume of water:
∆𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒⁄℃ × 𝟒𝒍 × 𝟐𝟎℃ = 𝟏𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟖𝒍
The change in volume of water is greater than the glass container, so some water spilled.
The volume of spilled water is 𝟎, 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟖𝒍 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟒𝒍 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒍
Example 5: A plate of iron has shown in figure below. If the temperature is raised to 100℃ and
the coefficient of linear expansion of iron is 1.1 × 10−7 ⁄℃, then what is final area of plate?
Ans: Given: Length of plate, 𝒍 = 𝟐𝒎, Width of plate, 𝒘 = 𝟐𝒎

Initial area of plate, 𝑨𝟎 = 𝒍 × 𝒘 = 𝟐𝒎 × 𝟐𝒎 = 𝟒𝒎𝟐
∆𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ − 𝟐𝟎℃ = 𝟖𝟎℃
Coefficient of linear expansion, 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕⁄℃
Coefficient of area expansion, 𝜶𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕⁄℃ = 𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕⁄℃
Asked: Final area of plate, 𝑨 =?
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚: 𝑨 = ∆𝑨 + 𝑨𝟎
∆𝑨
= 𝜶𝑨 ∆𝑻
𝑨𝒐
∆𝑨 = 𝜶𝑨 𝑨𝒐 ∆𝑻
−𝟕 ⁄
∆𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 ℃ × 𝟒𝒎 × 𝟖𝟎℃ = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐
𝟐
Final area of plate, 𝑨 = 𝟒𝒎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐

Example 6: A steel container (Coefficient of linear expansion=10−5⁄℃) with volume of 6liters
filled with acetone (the coefficient of volume expansion=1.5 × 10−3⁄℃). If the container and
acetone are heated from 0℃ to 40℃, what is the volume of spilled acetone?
Ans: 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟔𝒍, ∆𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎℃ − 𝟎℃ = 𝟒𝟎℃
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel, 𝜶𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ⁄℃
Coefficient of volume expansion of steel container, 𝜶𝑽 = 𝟑𝜶𝑳 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ⁄℃
Coefficient of volume expansion of acetone, 𝜶𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ⁄℃

Asked: Volume of spilled water=?
Equation of expansion of volume;
∆𝑽
= 𝜶𝑽 ∆𝑻
𝑽𝟎
∆𝑽 = 𝜶𝑽 𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑻
Change in volume of steel container,
∆𝑽 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ⁄℃ × 𝟔𝒍 × 𝟒𝟎℃ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝒍
Change in volume of acetone,
∆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ⁄℃ × 𝟔𝒍 × 𝟒𝟎℃ = 𝟑𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒍
The change in volume of acetone is greater than that of steel container, so some acetone spills.
The volume of acetone spilled= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒍 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟖𝒍 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒍
LO4.3. Apply gas laws

4.3.1. Physical properties of gases
1. Low density
 Gases contain scattered molecules that are dispersed across volume and are therefore less dense
than in their solid or liquid states.
 Their low density gives fluidity, which allows gas particle to move rapidly and randomly past
to one another, expanding or contracting with no fixed positions.
2. Indefinite shape or volume
 Gases have no definite shape or volume.
 The random movement of gas molecules allows them to expand or contract to assume that the
volume of container holding them.
 Therefore, a gas’s volume refers to the space of container in which its molecules have range to
move.
 This property results in gases occupying more space than they would in their liquid or solid
state.
 Gases also contract and expand by predictable amount depending upon changes in temperature
and pressure.
 The freedom of gas molecules causes them to take the shape of any container in which they
are placed. Filling container’s volume.
3. compressibility and expandability
 Low density of gases makes them compressible since their molecules can be positioned far
apart from one another.
 This allows them to move freely to fit into the gaps of space between them.
 Just as the gases are compressible, they are also expandable.
4. Pressure
 Gas molecules are constant motion.
 They exert pressure or force per unity area on the interior surface of container.
 The pressure varies according to the movement of gas confined to a given container’s volume,
the temperature and volume.
4.3.2. Force and energy of a gas system
 Intermolecular force
 It is the forces of interaction between atoms, molecules and ions when they are placed closer
to each other.
 For gas, the intermolecular forces are extremely weak.
 They are negligible and the constituent particles are free to move. As a result, gases occupy
any space available to them.
 Molecular kinetic energy
 It is energy produced when molecules are in motion.
 It is given by:
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
Where 𝑲 is molecular kinetic energy, 𝒎 is mass of molecule particle, 𝒗 is velocity of molecule.
4.3.3. Gas laws

1. Boyle-Marriot law
 Boyle’s law states the relation between volume and pressure at constant temperature and mass.
 Statement: “Under constant temperature, when pressure of gas increases, its volume
decreases”.
 In other words, according to Boyle’s law, volume is inversely proportional to pressure when
temperature and number of molecules are constant.
𝟏 𝒌𝟏
𝑷𝜶 ↔ 𝑷=
𝑽 𝑽
Where 𝒌𝟏 is proportionality constant, 𝑽 is volume, 𝑷 is pressure.
 On rearranging,
𝒌𝟏 = 𝑷𝑽
 If a fixed mass of gas undergoes an expansion at constant temperature, then the final volume
and pressure shall be 𝑷𝟐 and 𝑽𝟐 . The initial pressure and volume here are 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑽𝟏 .
 Then, according to Boyle’s law;
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒌𝟏 )
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟏
2. Charles law
 He describes the effect of temperature on volume of gaseous substance at constant pressure.
 Statement: “At constant pressure and for constant mass, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature”.
𝑽
𝑽𝜶𝑻 ↔ 𝑽 = 𝒌𝟐 𝑻 ↔ 𝒌𝟐 =
𝑻
 If a fixed mass of gas undergoes expansion, final volume and final temperature are 𝑽𝟐 and 𝑻𝟐
respectively. Initial volume and initial pressure are 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑻𝟏 respectively.
 According to Charles;
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒌𝟐 )
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟏
3. Gay-Lussac law
 This law describes the effect of temperature on pressure at constant volume and mass of gas.
 Statement: “At constant volume and mass of gas, the pressure of that gas is directly
proportional to the temperature”.
𝑷
𝑷𝜶𝑻 ↔ 𝑷 = 𝒌𝟑 𝑻 ↔ 𝒌𝟑 =
𝑻
 If a fixed mass of gas undergoes expansion, the final pressure and final temperature are 𝑷𝟐 and
𝑻𝟐 respectively. Initial pressure and initial temperature are 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑻𝟏 respectively.
 According to Gay-Lussac;
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒌𝟑 )
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑻𝟏
4. Avogadro’s law
 This law describes the number of molecules on volume of gas at constant pressure and
temperature.
 Statement: “At constant pressure and temperature, the volume of any gases is directly
proportional to the number of molecules of that gas”.
𝑽
𝑽𝜶𝒏 ↔ 𝑽 = 𝒌𝟒 𝒏 ↔ 𝒌𝟒 =
𝒏
Where 𝒏 is number of molecule of gas.
Note:
 The number of molecules in mole of any gas is known as Avogadro’s constant and is equal
to 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
 At standard temperature and pressure (STP), (1bar or 105 𝑃𝑎 and 273K),
𝒎
𝒏=
𝑴
 According to Avogadro’s equation,
𝒎
𝑽 = 𝒌𝟒
𝑴
𝒎
𝑴 = 𝒌𝟒
𝑽
𝒎
= 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝝆) 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴 = 𝒌𝟒 𝝆
𝑽
𝑴
𝒌𝟒 =
𝝆
Where 𝑴 is Molar mass.
For expansion of gas at constant pressure and temperature.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒌𝟒 )
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝑴𝟏 𝑴𝟐
= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒌𝟒 )
𝝆𝟏 𝝆𝟐
 Combined gas law
 Describes relationship between P, V, and T at constant mass of gas.
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
5. Equation of state of Ideal gas
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
Where 𝑷 is pressure in Pascal (Pa) of gas, 𝑽 is volume of gas 𝒎𝟑 , 𝒏 is number of moles of gas in
𝒎𝒐𝒍, 𝑻 is temperature in kelvin, K, 𝑹 is universal gas constant (𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑲).
Example: A jar whose volume is exactly 1liter which contains 1mole of air at temperature 20℃,
assuming the air behaves as an ideal gas. So what is the pressure inside the jar in Pa?
Ans: Data: 𝑽 = 𝟏𝒍 = 𝟏𝒅𝒎𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟑 , 𝒏 = 𝟏𝒎𝒐𝒍, 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎℃ = (𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑)𝑲 = 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝑲
Asked: P=?
Ideal gas law: 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑷=
𝑽
𝟏𝒎𝒐𝒍 × 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑱⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑲 × 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝑲
𝑷= = 𝟐𝟒𝟑𝟕𝟐𝟒𝟗𝑷𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑷𝒂
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟑
LO4.4. Apply thermodynamic processes on a system

4.4.1. Key concept
 Thermodynamic: study of relations between heat, work, temperature and energy.
 There are three (3) types of thermodynamic system:
1. Open system: system exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
Examples: stove, automobile engine, human body, etc.
2. Closed system: system exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter.
Examples: cup of water with lid on it.
3. Isolated system: Systems do not exchange either matter nor energy with its surroundings.
Examples: closed thermos bottle, combustion of glucose in bomb calorimeter, Universe, etc.
 Surroundings: Things and conditions around a person or thing.
 Boundary: Something that indicates or fixes a limit or extent.
4.4.2. First law of thermodynamics

“The energy can neither be converted nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction, it is always
conserved or the sum total energy of universe is conserved”.
 Let consider a system,
Internal energy: 𝑼𝟏
Heat absorbed: 𝒒
Work done on a system: 𝑾

Change in internal energy: 𝑼𝟐
𝑼𝟐 = 𝑼𝟏 + 𝒒 + 𝑾
𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 = 𝒒 + 𝑾
∆𝑼 = 𝒒 + 𝑾
𝑾𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑾 = −𝑷∆𝑽
So, the above question can be written as:
∆𝑼 = 𝒒 − 𝑷∆𝑽
Where 𝒒 is heat, 𝑷 is pressure, 𝑽 is volume.
 Internal energy: is total amount of kinetic energy and potential energy of all particles in system.
𝑼 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬
 Energy: ability of body to do a work.
4.4.2. Thermodynamic processes
 The state of a given thermodynamic system can be expressed by various parameters such as
pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), and internal energy (U).
 Work of a given thermodynamic system is given by:
𝑾 = ∫ 𝑷𝒅𝑽
 The state of system can be changed by different processes. In thermodynamics, types of
processes include (thermodynamic processes are):
1. Adiabatic process
 The process in which heat transfer is zero (Q=0)
 No heat is exchanged with system in an adiabatic process (Q=0).
𝒌
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒌 ↔ 𝑷=
𝑽
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑾 = ∫ 𝑷𝒅𝑽

𝒅𝑽
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑖𝑛 𝑊 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡; 𝑾 = 𝒌∫
𝑽
From 1st law of thermodynamic, 𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾 ↔ ∆𝑼 = −𝑾 𝑎𝑠 𝑸 = 𝟎
 Thus, the internal energy will increase if work done is negative and vice versa.
2. Isothermal process
 Process in which temperature (T) is kept constant, ∆𝑻 = 𝟎
 Temperature of system remains constant in an isothermal process.
 We know that,
𝑾 = ∫ 𝑷𝒅𝑽
𝒏𝑹𝑻
From the gas law, 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 ↔ 𝑷= 𝑽
Replace P in value of W, we get,
𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝒅𝑽
𝑾=∫ 𝒅𝑽 ↔ 𝑾 = ∫ 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑽 𝑽
𝑽𝟐
𝒅𝑽
𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 ∫
𝑽𝟏 𝑽
𝑽𝟐
𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏
 Since the internal energy is temperature-dependent, ∆𝑼 = 𝟎 because temperature is constant
and thus from 1st law of thermodynamics (𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾), we will get 𝑸 = 𝑾
3. Isobaric process
 Process in which pressure, P is kept constant (∆𝑷 = 𝟎)
 Since pressure, P is constant in this process, the volume of system changes.
𝑾 = 𝑷(𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊 )
 If ∆𝑽 is positive, 𝑾 is positive.
 If ∆𝑽 is negative, 𝑾 is negative.
4. Isochoric process
 Process in which volume, V is kept constant (∆𝑽 = 𝟎).
 Therefore, the system do not any work (since ∆𝑽 = 𝟎, 𝑷∆𝑽 or 𝑾 is zero).
Exercises
1. A 0,5 moles of gas at temperature 300K expands isothermally from an initial volume of 2l to 6l.
a) What is the work done by the gas?
b) Estimate the heat added to the gas?
c) What is the final pressure of gas? (the volume of gas constant, 𝑅 = 8.314 𝐽⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 )
Ans: Data 𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍, 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕), 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟔𝒍, 𝑽𝒊 = 𝟐𝒍
Asked: 𝒂)𝑾 =? , 𝒃)𝑸 =? , 𝒄)𝑷𝒇 =?
𝑽 𝟔
a) 𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍 × 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲 × 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝑱
𝒊
𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝒌𝑱
b) From 1stlaw of thermodynamic,
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∆𝑼 = 𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑸 = 𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝒌𝑱
c) For isothermal process,
𝑷𝒇 𝑽𝒇 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝒇 =
𝑽𝒇
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍 × 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑲 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲
𝑷𝒇 = = 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑷𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟓𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑
2. A gas has a volume 0f 0.02𝑚3 at pressure of 2 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and a temperature of 27℃. It is heated
at constant pressure until its volume increases to 0.03𝑚3 . Calculate the:
i) External work done
ii) New temperature of the gas.
iii) Increase in internal energy of the gas if its mass is 16g, its molar heat capacity at constant
volume is 0.8𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 and the molar mass is 32g.
Ans: Data:
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 , 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟑 , 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂, 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 ,

𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕℃ = (𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑)𝑲 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲, 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟔𝒈, 𝑴𝒎 = 𝟑𝟐𝒈
i) External work done
𝑾 = 𝑷∆𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂(𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 ) = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱
ii) From,
𝑽𝟏 𝑽 𝟐
=,
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑
=,
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑻𝟐
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝑲
iii) Increase in internal energy,
∆𝑼 = 𝒏𝑪𝑽 ∆𝑻
𝒎 𝟏𝟔𝒈
𝒏= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑴𝒎 𝟑𝟐 𝒈⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍
∆𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 (𝟒𝟓𝟎𝑲 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲) = 𝟔𝟎𝑱
3. An ideal gas at 17℃ has a pressure 0f 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 is compressed (i) isothermal, (ii)
adiabatically, until its volume is halved.
Calculate in each case the final temperature and pressure of the gas. Assume that 𝐶𝑃 =
2100𝑗𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 and 𝐶𝑉 = 1500𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1.
LU5. EXAMINE CURRENT FLOW EFFECTS IN DC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

LO5.1: Describe a simple electric circuit.
5.1.1. Simple DC electric circuit
 Simple DC electric circuit is a circuit that contains the three basic components needed for an
electric circuit to function.
 Three basic components are
1. Source of voltage
2. Conductor
3. Resistor
 Electric current is movement of electrons or ions through an electrical conductor or space.
 It is measured in Ampere (A).
 Electrical resistance is the electrical quantity that measures how device or material reduces
the electric current flow through it.
 It is a ratio between the voltage applied to the current flowing through it.
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
 It is measured in Ohms (𝜴)
 Voltage is difference in electric potential between two points.
 It is measured in Volt (V)
5.1.2. Measuring instruments used in simple DC electric circuit
1. Ammeter: Instrument used to measure current in circuit.
2. Voltmeter: Instrument used to measure potential difference or voltage between two points in
electrical circuit.
3. Ohmmeter: Electrical instrument used to measure resistance.
4. Multimeter: Electrical instrument used to measure more than one parameters like potential
difference, current, resistance, frequency, capacitance, etc.
5.1.3. Combination of resistors
 In series
Let 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟑 ,…., 𝑹𝒏 be the individual resistance which are connected in series, 𝑽 is applied
voltage and 𝑰 is current passing in the circuit.
 The current flow, I in this circuit is the same.

i.e. 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑰𝒏
 The voltage in each resistor is different. Then, total voltage, V is given by:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏
 According to Ohm’s law, 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝟏 = 𝐈𝑹𝟏 𝑽𝟑 = 𝐈𝑹𝟑
𝑽𝟐 = 𝐈𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝒏 = 𝐈𝑹𝒏
 Then, 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 becomes
𝑰𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝑹𝒏
𝑰𝑹𝑻 = 𝐈(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏 )
𝐈
𝑹𝑻 = (𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏 )
𝑰
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
(𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔)
2. In parallel
Let 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟑 ,…., 𝑹𝒏 be the individual resistance which are connected in parallel, 𝑽 is applied
voltage and 𝑰 is current passing through the circuit.
 The voltage across to each resistor is the same in parallel connection.

i.e. 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝑽𝒏
 The current across to each resistor in parallel connection is different.
i.e. 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏 where 𝑰𝑻 is total current.
𝑽
 According to Ohm’s law, 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑹
𝑻
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟑 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝒏 =
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
Then, 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏 will be,
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + + + ⋯+
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑽( + + +⋯+ )
𝟏 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ( + + +⋯+ )
𝑹𝑻 𝑽 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
(𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍)
3. In mixed
 Sometimes, the circuit may be neither pure series nor pure parallel, but a combination of series
and parallel may come across as shown in the following figure:
 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 are connected in parallel.

Let 𝑹𝑨 be total resistance connected in parallel. Then,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑨 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 After finding 𝑹𝑨 , 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 is replaced by 𝑹𝑨
 𝑹𝒂 and 𝑹𝟑 are connected in series. Then, total resistance will be, 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝟐

Example1. Three resistances 4𝛺, 8𝛺 and 12𝛺 are connected in series across a generator, which
maintains a potential of 200𝑉.
a) Draw this circuit.
b) What is the resistance of circuit?
c) What is the value of current?
Ans:
a)
b) 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = (𝟒 + 𝟖 + 𝟏𝟐)𝜴 = 𝟐𝟒𝜴
c)
𝑽𝑻
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑹𝑻 ↔ 𝑰=
𝑹𝑻
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑽
𝑰= = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝑨
𝟐𝟒𝜴
Example2: A circuit has 20𝑉 battery across resistance 𝑅1 = 10𝛺,
a) How many currents will flow in the circuit?
b) How much resistance 𝑅2 should be added in series with 𝑅1 to reduce the current to one fourth?
Ans:
a)
𝑽 𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = = = 𝟐𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝜴
b)
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐𝑨
𝟏 𝟐𝑨
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨
𝟒 𝟒
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑽
𝑰𝟐 =
𝑹𝑻
𝟐𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 =
𝟏𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟎. 𝟓(𝟏𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐 ) = 𝟐𝟎
𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟓
𝟎. 𝟓𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟓
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝜴
Example3: Three resistances of 15𝛺, 25𝛺 and 35𝛺 are connected in parallel across a 24𝑉 battery.
Calculate the current supplied by battery.
Ans: Data: 𝑹𝟏 = 15𝛺, 𝑅2 = 25𝛺, 𝑅3 = 35𝛺 connected in parallel.
Asked: 𝐼 =?
𝑽
Formula: 𝑰 = 𝑹
𝑻
In parallel circuit;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟓
𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟑
𝑹𝑻
𝟏
𝑹𝑻 = ↔ 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟗𝜴
𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟑
𝟐𝟒𝑽
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑰= = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝑨
𝟕. 𝟑𝟗𝜴
Example4: Find equivalent resistance and current supplied by the battery of a given circuit.
Ans: Asked: 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =? And 𝑰 =?

 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 are connected in parallel.
Let 𝑹𝑨 be total resistance to this connection.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝜴 × 𝟏𝟎𝜴 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝜴𝟐
𝑹𝑨 = = = = 𝟓𝜴
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝜴 + 𝟏𝟎𝜴 𝟐𝟎𝜴
 𝑹𝟒 and 𝑹𝟓 are connected in parallel and let 𝑹𝑩 be total resistance for this connection.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓
𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝟓𝜴 × 𝟓𝜴 𝟐𝟓𝜴𝟐
𝑹𝑩 = = = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝜴
𝑹𝟒 +𝑹𝟓 𝟓𝜴 + 𝟓𝜴 𝟏𝟎𝜴
 Then, 𝑹𝑨 , 𝑹𝟑 and 𝑹𝑩 are connected in series
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟓𝜴 + 𝟐. 𝟓𝜴 + 𝟐, 𝟓𝜴 = 𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝑽
Current supplied by battery, 𝑰 = 𝑹
𝒆𝒒
𝟐𝟎𝑽
𝑰= = 𝟐𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝜴
Example5: Calculate equivalent resistance and current supplied by battery for the following
circuit.
5.1.4. Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that “the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the voltage across two points”.
𝑰𝜶𝑽 ↔ 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Where 𝑹: Resistance is constant
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (𝜴)
Example: An accidental short circuit to 240𝑉 supply is caused by the connection of component
of 8.5𝑚𝛺 across the supply terminals. What will be the short circuit current?
Ans:
By Ohm’s law, 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑽 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝑰= = = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑨
𝑹 𝟖. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝜴
Short circuit current is 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝑨 (𝒌𝑨: Kiloampere)
 Voltage-Current characteristic of resistor

 Ohmic resistors
 I-V graph for Ohmic resistor is straight line.
 The curve passes through the origin, which means that for zero potential difference, we have
zero current.
 The current is directly proportional to potential difference. The proportionality constant is
resistance.
Eg: Resistors made of Margarine
 Non- Ohmic resistors

 I-V graph for non-Ohmic material is a straight non-linear curve.
 The curve does not pass through the origin.
 Current is not proportional to the voltage.
Eg: Junction chide or electrolyte.
5.1.5. Electric cells

 Electric cell is electrical power supply.
 It converts stored chemical energy into electrical potential energy, allowing positive charges
to flow from positive terminal to negative terminal one through external circuit.
 Electromotive force, emf: energy supplied by battery or cell per Coulomb (Q) of charge passing
through it.
𝑬 𝑬
𝒆𝒎𝒇 = 𝒐𝒓 𝒆 =
𝑸 𝑸
Where 𝒆 is electromotive force (V), 𝑬 is energy (J), 𝑸 is charge (Coulomb, C)
 emf formula can also be written as,
𝒆 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒆 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓
Where 𝒆 is electromotive force (V), 𝑰 is current (A), 𝑹 is load resistance (Ω), 𝒓 is internal
resistance of cell (Ω).
𝒆 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
Example: Find the terminal potential difference of cell when it is connected to a 9𝛺 load with cell
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 2𝑉 and internal resistance 1𝛺.
Ans: Data: 𝒆 = 𝟐𝑽, 𝒓𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝟗𝜴, 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏𝜴
Asked: 𝑽 =?
𝑽
𝑨𝒔, 𝑰=
𝑹
𝑹 = 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 + 𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑹 = 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒕 + 𝒓𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝟏𝜴 + 𝟗𝜴 = 𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝟐𝑽
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑰 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝒆 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑽 = 𝒆 − 𝑰𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟐𝑽 − (𝟎. 𝟐𝑨 × 𝟏𝜴) = 𝟐𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝑽
 Cells network
 Cells in series connection
Let 𝒆𝟏 , 𝒆𝟐 , 𝒆𝟑 , … , 𝒆𝒏 be emf of individual cell and 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 , 𝒓𝟑 , … , 𝒓𝒏 be internal resistance of

individual cell.
𝒆𝑻 = 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐 + 𝒆 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒆𝒏
𝒓𝑻 = 𝒓𝟏 , +𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒓𝒏
 Cell in parallel connection
𝒆𝑻 𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝒆 𝟑 𝒆𝒏
= + + + ⋯+
𝒓𝑻 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟑 𝒓𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝒓𝑻 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟑 𝒓𝒏
𝑨𝒏𝒅, 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
Example: Two cells of 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒1 , and 𝑒2 and resistance, 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 respectively are connected in
series across a resistor, 𝑅 = 7𝛺.
What is the current, I in this circuit?

Ans:
𝒆𝑻
𝑰=
𝒓𝑻
𝒆𝑻 = 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐 = 𝟖𝑽 + 𝟐𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽
𝒓𝑻 = 𝑹 + 𝒓𝟏 , +𝒓𝟐 = 𝟕𝜴 + 𝟐𝜴 + 𝟏𝜴 = 𝟏𝟎𝜴
𝟏𝟎𝑽
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝑰= = 𝟏𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝜴
LO5.2. Determine electric current, resistance and voltage in DC electric circuit
5.2.1. Key concepts
 Junction: Point at which at least three circuit paths meet
 Branch: It is a path connecting two junctions.
 Path: It is a continuous and closed loop. Path consists of conductors or wires and battery.
 Voltage supply: Voltage obtained from power source for operation of a circuit or device.
 Voltage drop: Reduction in an electrical circuit between the source and the load.
 Voltage gain: Difference between output signal voltage level in decibels and input signal
voltage level in decibels.
5.2.2 Kirchhoff’s laws
1st law of Kirchhoff: It is also known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
“The current flowing into a node (or junction) must be equal to the current flowing out of it”.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
Or, “The algebraic sum of currents meeting at electric junction in network is equal to zero”.
Assuming that currents entering in junction be positive and current out the junction be negative.
𝑰 + (−𝑰𝟏 ) + (−𝑰𝟐 ) + (−𝑰𝟑 ) = 𝟎
2 law of Kirchhoff: It is also known as Kirchhoff’s law of voltage (KLV).
nd
“In any closed mesh or path, the algebraic sum of the products of current and resistance in each of
the conductor plus the algebraic sum of the emf’s in that path is equals to zero”.
 We sign positive sign to voltage rise. i.e. if we start from the negative terminal of the battery
to its positive terminal.
 We sign negative sign to voltage drop. i.e. if we start from the positive terminal of the battery
to its negative terminal.
 Consider a closed mesh ABCDA as shown in the following figure.
 Starting from point A and traveling through B to C to D to A.

 Signs or different voltage sources and voltage drops are as flows
 Let 𝑰𝟏 , 𝑰𝟐 , 𝑰𝟑 , and 𝑰𝟒 are assumed direction through A-B, B-C, C-D, and D-A.
 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 is a rise in voltage, so, positive.
 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟐 is a voltage drop, so negative.
 𝑰𝟒 𝑹𝟑 is a voltage drop, so negative.
 𝒆𝟏 is a decrease in potential, so negative.
 𝒆𝟐 is a rise in potential, so positive.
Now, apply KLV to mesh ABCDA
𝑰 𝟏 𝑹 𝟏 − 𝒆𝟏 − 𝑰 𝟑 𝑹 𝟐 + 𝒆𝟐 − 𝑰 𝟒 𝑹 𝟑 = 𝟎
𝑶𝒓 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 − 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 𝑹𝟑 = 𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐
Example: Using Kirchhoff’s laws calculate the current in each branch of the circuit shown in the
following figure.
Ans: Using 1st law of Kirchhoff (or KLC)
∑ 𝑰𝒊𝒏 = ∑ 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝟏)
Using KLV (2nd law)
∑𝑽 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
∑𝑽 = 𝟎
𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑽 + 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑𝑰𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝑰𝟐
𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑
For 𝑳𝟏 : +𝟐𝟒 − 𝟑𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
Then, 𝟑𝑰𝟏 + 𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 (𝟐)
For 𝑳𝟏 : +𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
Then, 𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 (𝟑)
Solve the system of three equations;
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 (𝟏)
{ 𝟑𝑰𝟏 + 𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 (𝟐)
𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 (𝟑)
Replace equation (1) in equation (2), we get,
𝟐𝟒 = 𝟑(𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 ) + 𝟒𝑰𝟐
𝟐𝟒 = 𝟑𝑰𝟐 + 𝟑𝑰𝟑 + 𝟒𝑰𝟐
𝟐𝟒 = 𝟕𝑰𝟐 + 𝟑𝑰𝟑
𝟕𝑰𝟐 + 𝟑𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐𝟒 (𝟒)
Solve equations (3) and (4),
𝟒𝑰 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 (𝟑)
{ 𝟐
𝟕𝑰𝟐 + 𝟑𝑰𝟑 = 𝟐𝟒 (𝟒)
Multiply 4 on the equation (4), we get,
𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
{
𝟐𝟖𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟗𝟔
𝟑𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟗𝟔
𝟗𝟔
𝑰𝟐 = ↔ 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟑𝑨
𝟑𝟐
𝑨𝒔 𝟒𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎
𝟒𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝑰𝟑
𝟏
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰 𝟐
𝟑
𝟏
𝑰𝟑 = × 𝟑𝑨 ↔ 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝑨
𝟑
𝑨𝒔 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟑𝑨 + 𝟏𝑨 = 𝟒𝑨 ↔ 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟒𝑨
LO5.3. Determine electric energy, work and power in DC electric circuit

5.3.1. Law of conservation of energy
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed only converted from one form of energy to another”.
𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Electric power: Type of kinetic energy caused by moving electric charges.
 It is energy derided as a result of movement of electrically charged particle.
 Electric power: Amount of energy produced per second.
 It is the rate at which electric energy is transferred.

 It is commonly expressed in megawatts (MW).
5.3.2. Calculations of energy and power in DC electric circuit

 Electrical energy: It is capacity to do work and unit of work or energy in Joule (J).
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑾) × 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
𝟏𝑾 = 𝟏 𝑱⁄𝒔
From this equation, we can find power.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑬)
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)
 Electrical power
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 × 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 (𝟏)
𝑽
We know that 𝑰 = 𝑹 (𝟐), Ohm’s law
Replace (2) in (1),
𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽.
𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
Again, 𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰, 𝑷 = 𝑹𝑰. 𝑰
𝑷 = 𝑹𝑰𝟐
𝑽𝟐
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑷= 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑹𝑰𝟐
𝑹
Where R is resistance
Example1: A 100𝑊 bulb normally takes 0.833𝐴 and 200𝑊 bulb takes 1.666𝐴 from the 120𝑉
power li ne. If these two bulbs were connected in series across a 240𝑉 power line prove that the
current would be 1.111𝐴 in both bulbs assuming the resistance remain constant.
Ans: We know that bulbs are connected in series and
𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝒐𝒓 𝑷 =
𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑹=
𝑷
At normal conditions,
(𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽)𝟐
 Resistance of 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 bulb, 𝑹𝟏 = = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝜴
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑱⁄𝒔
(𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽)𝟐
 Resistance of 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑾 bulb, 𝑹𝟏 = = 𝟕𝟐𝜴
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑱⁄𝒔
 Total resistance in circuit, 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝜴 + 𝟕𝟐𝜴 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝜴
 Current in circuit,
𝑽𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅
𝑰=
𝑹𝑻
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝑰= = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑨
𝟐𝟏𝟔𝜴
The current in the circuit is 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑨, hence proved.
Example2: A 220𝑉 − 5𝐴 electrical lamp is used for 30𝑚𝑖𝑛. How much energy does it
require?
Ans: Data: Voltage, 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽, current, 𝑰 = 𝟓𝑨,
time, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏 = (𝟑𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎)𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
Electric power, 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽 × 𝟓𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔
Then, 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 × 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑬= 𝑷×𝒕
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔 × 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒔 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑱
Example3: A 220𝑉 − 60𝑊 solder is used for 4𝑚𝑖𝑛. How much energy does it require?
Ans: 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟎𝑾 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔
Time 𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏 = (𝟒𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎)𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
Voltage, 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽
Asked: Electrical energy, 𝑬 =?
𝑬
𝑷=
𝒕
𝑬= 𝑷×𝒕
𝑬 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒔 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑱
Example4: The energy used by the iron for 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 is 33𝑘𝐽, at a voltage of 220𝑉. How large the
current is in the iron?
Ans: Data:
Time interval, 𝒕 = 𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟔𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
Energy, 𝑬 = 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑱 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
Voltage, 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝒗
Asked: Current, 𝑰 =?
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
Power, 𝑷 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝑷= = 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔
𝟔𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑷
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 ↔ 𝑰=
𝑽
𝑷 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑱⁄𝒔
𝑰= = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑨
𝑽 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽
5.3.3. Effects associated with electric current in a circuit
1. Heating effect or Joule’s effect
 The electrons moving in conductor cause the conductor to heat up.
 The amount of heat generated depends up on:
1. The amount of current flowing
2. Dimensions of the conductors
3. Type of conductor material used.

 Practical applications of heating effect on electric current are:
1. Radiant heating which heat rooms
2. Circuit protection fuses and MCB𝑠 which cut of supply when an over current flows
2. Magnetic effect
 Whenever current flows in a conductor a magnetic field is set up around the conductor like an
extension of the insulation more about this later
 Increasing current increases the magnetic field.
 Switching the current off causes the magnetic field to collapse
 Practical applications of magnetic effect are:
1. Electrical motors which rotate because of magnetic flux generated by electrical supply
2. Door climes and buzzers which ding dong or buzz because of the magnetic flux generated
by the electrical supply
3. Chemical effect
 When an electric current flows through a conducting liquid, the liquid separate into its chemical
parts a process called electrolysis.
 Alternatively, if two metals are placed in conducting liquid they react chemically and produce
voltage.
 Practical applications of chemical effect are:
1. Processes such as electroplating which is used to silver plate spots trophies and cutlery.
2. Motor car batteries which store electrical energy.
LU6. APPLY GEOMETRIC INSTRUMENT

LO6.1. Describe types of optical instruments
 Optical instruments are all instruments used to aid vision.
 They are devices which process light wave to enhance an image for more clear view.
6.1.1. Single lens optical instruments
1. Human eyes
 Eye is biological instrument used to see objects at different distances.
 It uses a convex lens system to form small, inverted, and real image of an object in front of
it.
 Functions of the parts of the eye

 The cornea: It is made out of a fairly dense, jelly like material which provides protection for
the eye, and seals in the aqueous humour. It also provides most of the power of the eye (59
Dioptres), having about 46 Dioptres. So it provides most of the bending of light rays.
 The aqueous humour: This is a waterly liquid that helps to keep the cornea in a rounded
shape, similar to that of a lens.
 The iris: This controls the amount of light entering the eye.
 The lens: This is used to focus an image on the retina. It controls the bending of light rays by
change of its shape, a process called accommodation, which is done by the ciliary muscles.
 The ciliary muscles: These control the thickness of the lens during focusing.
 The retina: This is the light sensitive part of the eye and it is where images are formed.
 The vitreous humour: This is a jerry like substance that helps the eye to keep its round shape.
 The yellow spot: This is a small area on the retina where the sharpest image, that is, the finest
detail can be seen.
 The optic nerve: This is the nerve that transmits images received by the retina to the brain for
interpretation.
2. Magnifying glass
 Magnifying glass is convex lens that is used to produce a magnified image of an object.
 A magnifying glass forms a virtual, upright, magnified image of an object placed between
the lens and its principal focus.
3. Single lens camera

 Camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view
through the lens and see exactly what we will be captured.
 It uses the convex lens to form a small, inverted, real image on the film at the back.
 The lens focuses light from the object onto a light sensitive film. It is moved to and fro so that
a sharp image is formed on the film.
 The diaphragm is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film. It controls the aperture
(diameter) of a hole through which light passes.
 The aperture controls the depth of field of the lens camera.
 The shutter controls the exposure time of the film. It opens and closes quickly to let a small
amount of light into the camera.
 The exposure time affects the sharpness of the image. When the exposure time is short, the
image is clear (sharp) but when it is long the image becomes blurred.
 The film: This is where the image is formed. It is kept in darkness until the shutter is opened.
It is coated with light sensitive chemicals which are changed by the different shades and
colours in the image.

6.1.2. Multi-lens optical instruments
 Multiple lenses are devices like telescopes and microscopes which use multiple lenses to
create images.
1. Telescope
 It is an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or combination of both to observe
distant objects.
 It is also defined as various devices used to observe distant object by emission, absorption, or
reflection of electromagnetic radiation.
2. Projector
 It consists of illumination system and projection lens.
 Illumination system consists of lamp, concave reflector and the condenser.
 Illuminant is either a carbon electric arc or quartz lamp to give small but very high intensity
source of light in order to make image brighter.
LO6.2. Determine the magnification of optical instruments
6.2.1. Magnification of microscope
 Magnification of microscope in normal adjustment
 Consider an object of height h placed at a given distance from the lens.

 Let 𝜷 be the angle subtended by the image I to the lens.
𝒉𝒊
 From the figure, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 = 𝑫
 Assuming that rays are paraxial and that the eye is very close to the lens.
 It implies that 𝜷 is very small and tan 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 ≈ 𝜷.
𝒉𝒊
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝜷 = (𝟏)
𝑫
 Now suppose that the object is viewed at the near point by the un aided eye and that it subtends
an angle of 𝜶 at the eye.
𝒉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 =
𝑫
 For small 𝜶, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 ≈ 𝜶
𝒉
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝜶 = (𝟐)
𝑫
 It follows that the magnifying power (angular magnification) M is given by
𝒉𝒊
𝒉𝒊
𝑴= 𝑫 ↔ 𝑴=
𝒉 𝒉
𝑫
𝒉
 But 𝒉𝒊= linear magnification produced by a lens or magnifying glass,
𝒗
𝑴 = −𝟏
𝒇
𝒗
Hence the magnifying power, 𝑴 = 𝒇 − 𝟏
 Since the image is at the near point (least distance of district vision), the image distance v is
equal to −𝑫, (negative for a virtual image).
−𝑫
𝑴= −𝟏
𝒇
 This gives the maximum magnifying power of a simple microscope.
 Note that:
 In calculations, the value of the magnifying power is negative.
 The negative sign can always be neglected since magnification cannot be negative.
 Magnifying power of a simple microscope when it is not in normal

adjustment
𝜷
 Angular magnification, 𝑴 = 𝜶
𝒉
 From the figure, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 = 𝒇
 For 𝜷 small, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 ≈ 𝜷.
𝒉
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝜷=
𝒇
𝒉
 From the figure, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = 𝑫
 For small 𝜶, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 ≈ 𝜶
𝒉
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝜶=
𝑫
 It follows that, angular magnification,
𝒉
𝒇 𝑫 𝑫
𝑴= = ↔ 𝑴=
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇
𝑫
Where 𝒇 is focal length, 𝑫 is distinct vision
 This is the minimum magnifying power of the simple microscope.
Example1: A magnifying glass has a focal length of 5cm. Find the angular magnification and the
position of an object if the image is formed at the position of least distinct vision of 25cm.
Ans:
Since the image is formed at the position of least distinct vision, the magnifying glass is in
normal adjustment. 𝒇 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑫
𝑴= +𝟏
𝒇
𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑴= +𝟏=𝟔
𝟓𝒄𝒎
Thus, the maximum angular magnification is 𝟔
But since angular magnification for a magnifying glass = linear magnification
As the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision from the lens then: 𝒗 =– 𝑫
𝒗 𝟐𝟓
𝑰𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝟔 = =
𝒖 𝒖
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, 𝟔𝒖 = 𝟐𝟓
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒖 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝒄𝒎
6.2.2. Magnification of telescope
 Magnification of telescope in normal adjustment
 In normal adjustment, the magnifying power (angular magnification) of an astronomical

telescope is given by:
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒚𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑴=
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝜷
𝑴= (𝟏)
𝜶
Where 𝜷 is angle subtended by final image at eye, 𝜶 is angle subtended by object at objective.
𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒊
𝜷= (𝟐) 𝜶= (𝟑)
𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝒐
Where 𝒉𝒊 is image height, 𝒇𝒆 is eye focal length, 𝒇𝒐 objective focal length.
 Then, replace (2), and (3) into (1), we get,
𝒉𝒊
𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐
𝑴= = ↔ 𝑴=
𝒉𝒊 𝒇𝒆 𝒇𝒆
𝒇𝒐
 Note that
 From the above expression, M is high when eye piece focal length, 𝒇𝒆 is short and the
objective focal length, 𝒇𝒐 is long. This explains the fact why the objective lens of long
focal length and the eye piece lens of short focal length are used during the construction
of the astronomical telescope.
 For a telescope in normal adjustment, the separation( 𝑳 ) of the objective and the eye
piece is:
𝑳 = 𝒇𝒆 + 𝒇𝒐
Example: An astronomical telescope has an objective lens of focal length 120 cm and an eye piece
of focal length 5 cm. If the telescope is in normal adjustment, what is;
(i) The angular magnification (magnifying power)
(ii) The separation of the two lenses?
Ans: 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒇𝒆 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎
Asked: 𝒊) 𝑴 =? 𝒊𝒊) 𝑳 =?
𝒇
Formula: 𝑖) 𝑀 = 𝒇𝒐 𝒊𝒊) 𝑳 = 𝒇𝒆 + 𝒇𝒐
𝒆
𝒇 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
i) 𝑀 = 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎
= 𝟐𝟒
𝒆
ii) 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 + 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
 Magnification of telescope not in normal adjustment
𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 ≈ 𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 ≈ 𝜷 =
𝒇𝒐 𝑫
𝜷
𝑴=
𝜶
𝒉𝟐
𝒉𝟐 𝒇𝒐
𝑴= 𝑫 ↔ 𝑴= ×
𝒉𝟏 𝑫 𝒉𝟏
𝒇𝒐
𝒇𝒐 𝒉𝟐
𝑴= ( )
𝑫 𝒉𝟏
𝒉 𝒗
But 𝒉𝟐 =linear magnification due to eye piece, 𝒎𝒆 = 𝒇𝒆 − 𝟏
𝟏 𝒆
𝒇𝒐 𝒗𝒆
𝑴 = ( − 𝟏) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒆 = 𝑫
𝑫 𝒇𝒆
𝒇𝒐 𝑫 𝒇𝒐 𝑫 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑴= ( − 𝟏) = × − = − = (𝟏 − )
𝑫 𝒇𝒆 𝑫 𝒇𝒆 𝑫 𝒇𝒆 𝑫 𝒇𝒆 𝑫
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑴 = (𝟏 − )
𝒇𝒆 𝑫
 As the final image is virtual, in calculation, 𝑫 is negative, and note that separation of the
lenses, 𝑳 is
𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒖𝒆
Example: Magnification produced by astronomical telescope for normal adjustment is 10 and
length of telescope is 1.1𝑚. Calculate the magnification when the image is formed at least distance
of distinct vision, 𝐷 equals to 25𝑐𝑚? (𝐷 = 25𝑐𝑚)
Ans:
Magnification for normal adjustment, 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎
Length of telescope, 𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
Distinct vision, 𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝒇
We know that, 𝒎 = 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎
𝒆
𝒇𝒐
= 𝟏𝟎 ↔ 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒇𝒆 (𝟏)
𝒇𝒆
𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (𝟐)
Replace (1) into (2), we get,
𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝒇𝒆 + 𝒇𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝒇𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 ↔ 𝒇𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒇𝒆 ↔ 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Then, magnification when image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎).
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
𝑴 = (𝟏 + )
𝒇𝒆 𝑫
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝑴= (𝟏 + ) = 𝟏𝟒
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟓
6.2.3. Use of optical instruments
1. Uses of microscopes
 Microscopes used to observe smallest object that are at cellular level.
 Microscope allows scientists to see the shape of cell, its nucleus, mitochondria, and other
organelles.
2. Use of telescope
 It is used to form magnified images of distinct objects.
LO6.3. Correct optical aberrations

1. Spherical aberration
 This arises in lenses of large aperture when a wide beam of light incident on the lens, not all
rays are brought to one focus.
 As a result, the image of object becomes distorted.
 The defect is due to the fact that the focal length of lens for rays far from the principal axis are
less than for rays closer to property of spherical surface and as result, they converge to a point
closer to the lens.
 Lens cannot focus a single color of light
Correction: This defect can be minimized (reduced) by surrounding the lens with an aperture disc
having a hole in the middle so that rays fall on the lens at a point closer to its principal axis.
 Simply use mirror or lens with different shape.
2. Chromatic aberration
 It occurs when white light from object falls on a lens and splits it into its component colors.
 These colors separate and converge to different foci, and this results into an image with colored
edges.
 Simply, lens do not focus the various color at single point.

Correction: Chromatic aberration can be minimized by using an achromatic lens called an
achromatic doublet.
Figure 1: An Achromatic doublet
3. Astigmatism aberration
 This is the defect that occurs if the curvature of the cornea varies in different directions so that
rays in different planes from an object are focused in different positions by the eye and the
image is distorted.
 A person suffering from astigmatism sees one set of lines more sharply than others.
Correction: This defect is corrected by wearing corrected lenses. These help to bend the incoming
rays to correct for irregular refraction.
Exercises
1. Find the angular magnification produced by a simple microscope of focal length 5cm when used
not in normal adjustment.
2. Explain why angular magnification of a simple microscope is high for a lens of short local
length.
3. Why the image formed by magnifying glass is free from chromatic aberration.
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With modern physics, 13th edition. New York: Addison Wesley, Pearson
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Hall. New Jersey.
- Meriam, James, L.; Kraige, L. G. (2012). Engineering Mechanics7th edition. John Wiley and
Sons. Inc.
- Bansal, Rajeev (2006), Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics. CRC Press.
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Physics 2

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MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTERS, Level IV

LU1. DESCRIBE LAWS OF MOTION AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

LO1.Describe the concept of the force

1.1.2. Fundamental forces and their characteristics

1.1.3. Internal and external forces

LO1.2. Interpret Newton’s laws

1.2.2. Second Newton’s law

Ans: ∑ 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑭𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 + 𝑭𝑮

LO1.3. Apply Newton's laws

 Kinetic friction/Dynamic friction

Difference between static and kinetic friction force

1.3.2. Motion of suspended object

u: exhaust velocity, V: Rocket velocity.

 Rocket velocity, V is given by:

LU2. APPLY STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

LO2.1: Apply conditions of static equilibrium

2.1.1. Moment of the force

2..1.4. Determination of center of gravity

LO 2.2: Describe examples of rigid objects in static equilibrium

2.2.1. The seesaw revisited

2.2.3. Standing on horizontal beam.

i. Calculate the angle Ɵ.

Apply the condition of equilibrium,

ii) To answer this question, we apply the conditions for equilibrium.

LO2.3. Apply elastic properties of solids

1. Proportional limit: It is a region in stress-strain curve that obey Hook’s law.

LU3. ANALYZE FLUID MECHANICS

LO3.1. Describe pressure and its variation with depth.

3.1.2. Variation of pressure with depth

 Pressure exerted on the bottom by weight of fluid

Solution: Given: 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎𝟐

 Applications of Pascal’s Principle

3.1.3. Pressure measurements

LO3.2. Apply Archimedes’ Principle

LO3.3. Analyze fluid dynamics

3. Incompressible flow: Density of fluid remains constant

3.3.3. Bernoulli’s principle and its application

 Application of Bernoulli’s principle

LU4. APPLY THERMODYNAMICS

LO4.1: Describe measurement of temperature of a body

4.1.2. Temperature measurement

Note: When you are counting the temperature in:

2. Fahrenheit, you start from 32℉

LO 4.2. Apply heat measurement, transfer and effects on a body

Where 𝑪𝒑 is specific heat, 𝑸 is heat energy, 𝒎 is mass, ∆𝑻 is change in temperature

 The SI unit of specific heat is 𝑱⁄𝒈℃ or 𝑱⁄𝒌𝒈𝑲

4.2.2. Heat quantities

 Heat loss or gain due to temperature change

𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒎𝟏 𝑪𝟏 (𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 ) = 𝒎𝟐 𝑪𝟐 (𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )

 Melting: change from solid state to liquid state.

 Deposition: change from gas state to solid state.

4.2.3. Modes of heat transfer

Where 𝑸 is heat transferred through material in 𝑱⁄𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑾 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔), 𝑲 is thermal conductivity

 Convection current: It is the result of differential heating.

3. Thermal radiation: It is a process by which energy in form of electromagnetic radiation is

4.2.4. Heat effects

Ans: Data: Length of bronze: 40m

Ans: Given: Length of plate, 𝒍 = 𝟐𝒎, Width of plate, 𝒘 = 𝟐𝒎

Final area of plate, 𝑨 = 𝟒𝒎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐