1130065

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ISCXXX10.1177/10534512221130065Intervention in School and ClinicLane et al.

Special Series: Science of Reading in Special Education Teacher Preparation

Intervention in School and Clinic 2023, Vol. 59(1) 9­–19
© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2022
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DOI: 10.1177/10534512221130065
https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512221130065
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Phonics 101: Preparing Teachers to Provide Effective

Intervention in Word Reading Skills

Holly B. Lane, PhD1 , Valentina A. Contesse, PhD1,

and Caitlin Gallingane, PhD1

Abstract
Students with learning disabilities in word-level reading typically require explicit, systematic, and intensive phonics
intervention. Teachers’ capacity to provide effective intervention depends largely on their depth of understanding of
language and their proficiency with evidence-based instructional methods. This article outlines the key knowledge and skills
needed to implement effective phonics intervention and provides suggestions for methods that teacher educators can use
to develop candidates’ knowledge and skills.

Keywords
education/training/preparation, teacher(s), reading, intervention(s), literacy

Teaching children to read is a fundamental mission of ele- Explicit instruction generally begins with modeling and
mentary school. Teaching reading requires teacher knowl- demonstration (i.e., I do), followed by guided practice (i.e.,
edge about language and literacy development and effective We do), and then independent practice (i.e., You do).
instructional methods (Castles et al., 2018). Those charged Effective phonics instruction is also systematic in its intro-
with supporting students with disabilities and other strug- duction of concepts (Ehri, 2020). For students with LD in
gling beginning readers require an even deeper understand- word-level reading, effective intervention is also intensive
ing of reading development, along with methods for (Mellard et al., 2010; Wanzek et al., 2019). Effective pho-
effective reading intervention. Learning disability (LD) is nics instruction and intervention also include ample oppor-
the most common category of disability among students tunities to respond (MacSuga-Gage & Gage, 2015),
receiving special education services (Irwin et al., 2021); behavior-specific praise (Royer et al., 2019), and immediate
approximately 85% of students identified with LD have a corrective feedback (Archer & Hughes, 2011). The focus of
primary disability in reading (DePaoli et al., 2015), and this article is on practices teacher educators can use during
problems with word-level reading are the most common coursework and field experiences to develop teacher candi-
type of reading difficulty (Fletcher et al., 2018). To develop dates’ expertise in phonics instruction and intervention.
the word reading skills of students with or at risk of LD in
word-level reading, all reading teachers in the primary
grades (Foorman et al., 2016) and reading interventionists
Developing Teacher Expertise
in the upper grades (Vaughn et al., 2022) need expertise in Expertise as a teacher of phonics requires both deep knowl-
effective instruction in foundational reading skills. edge and proficient skills (Ehri & Flugman, 2018). That
Phonics is the primary means by which most children expertise can be developed through carefully designed
learn grapheme-phoneme correspondences, develop the
capacity for phoneme blending and segmentation, and 1
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
acquire and apply decoding and encoding skills. Experts
Corresponding Author:
agree that effective phonics instruction is explicit, which Holly B. Lane, University of Florida Literacy Institute, University of
means the introduction of concepts is clear and unambigu- Florida, 0810 Norman Hall, PO Box 117050, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
ous (Archer & Hughes, 2011; McLeskey et al., 2017). Email: [email protected]
10 Intervention in School and Clinic 59(1)

coursework that (a) develops a deep understanding of what also includes guidance for evaluating course content related
needs to be taught and why and (b) uses engaging strategies to assessment and explicit and systematic instruction. These
to increase teacher candidates’ content knowledge (Brownell elements of the CEEDAR Innovation Configuration can be
& Leko, 2014). Effective preparation also includes prac- used to design a new program or to evaluate and refine an
tice-based approaches to support teacher candidates’ inte- existing program.
gration of content and pedagogy, such as coursework
combined with well-structured practice, coaching, and
Coursework
opportunities to receive support during implementation
(Moats, 2014). Coursework-aligned practice opportunities In addition to background knowledge about reading, teach-
can include both microteaching and field-based practice. ing, and learning, teacher candidates benefit from explicit
The following sections will address features of educator instruction and practice in evidence-based reading interven-
preparation programs that can produce teachers with exper- tion practices that support students through the phases of
tise in effective phonics instruction. word reading development (see Table 2). These will include
specific practices designed to teach the following: (a) alpha-
bet recognition, (b) letter formation, (c) grapheme–phoneme
Overall Program Design correspondences, (d) articulatory gestures, (e) phoneme
Several resources are available to support teacher educators blending and segmentation, (f) decoding, and (g) encoding.
as they design or refine programs to promote effective pho- These will include explicit instruction to develop students’
nics instruction. The U.S. Department of Education’s accuracy and automaticity in each skill area, as well as
Institute of Education Sciences (IES) published a practice ample opportunities for applying skills in connected text.
guide called Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Decisions about how and when this content is delivered
Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade within coursework will depend on the structure of the
(Foorman et al., 2016). To develop this guide, a panel of teacher preparation program and the number of reading-
experts reviewed the research on early instruction in foun- focused course credits built into the program. Ideally, this
dational reading skills, and they generated recommenda- content would be spread out across at least two courses to
tions based on their findings. Two of those recommendations allow for the development of in-depth background knowl-
were found to be supported by strong evidence from edge; however, this content could be presented as an intro-
research. A third recommendation was found to be sup- ductory course in reading, with later coursework that
ported by moderate evidence from research: focuses on implementation. Although all reading teachers
benefit from this content, including even more in-depth
1. Develop awareness of the segments of sounds in content and more extensive field experiences can build the
speech and how they link to letters. expertise necessary for teaching students with LD. The
2. Teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, International Dyslexia Association’s (2018) Knowledge
and write and recognize words. and Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading provides
3. Ensure that each student reads connected text every a more detailed set of competencies for reading interven-
day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and tion teachers, and Piasta and Hudson (2022) detail the
comprehension. knowledge specific to teaching phonemic awareness and
phonics.
By incorporating each of these recommendations into
coursework and field experiences, teacher preparation pro- Content delivery. To promote teacher candidates’ engagement
grams can support teacher candidates’ implementation of and acquisition of specific concepts, teacher educators can
evidence-based practices. apply the principles of effective explicit instruction in their
Table 1 provides a scope and sequence of essential con- own teaching. Modeling of instructional practices during
tent for the preparation of teachers to support students with reading coursework helps candidates recognize features of
LD in word-level reading (Moats, 2014). Using this scope effective teaching (Brock & Carter, 2017). These modeling
and sequence to design a matrix of learning objectives, opportunities can be presented through live demonstrations
competencies, courses, and field experiences can help or video exemplars (Dieker et al., 2009). For example, the
ensure that all key content is addressed and that teacher can- instructor could demonstrate the introduction of a new graph-
didates learn content and apply it in a logical sequence. The eme-phoneme correspondence, including (a) providing an
CEEDAR Center’s Reading K–5 Innovation Configuration explicit explanation of the phonics concept (e.g., key word,
(Lane, 2014) provides a tool to guide the review of reading articulatory gesture, placement, example words), (b) present-
syllabi in teacher preparation programs. In the area of foun- ing teacher modeling examples decoding words with the con-
dational reading skills, the primary topics included in this cept, and (c) guiding students through practice reading and
tool are (a) phonological and phonemic awareness, (b) pho- spelling words using the new concept. A video exemplar
nics, (c) word study, and (d) text reading fluency. The tool could provide a model of a teacher guiding students through
Lane et al. 11

Table 1. Scope and Sequence for Preparing Teachers to Teach Phonics.

Background Knowledge for Teaching Foundational Reading Skills
This content can be taught in introductory-level courses.
Theories of reading and reading development
• The simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Tunmer, 2018)
• Connectionist theory (Adams, 1990)
• Phases of word reading development and orthographic mapping (Ehri, 2005, 2014)
• Automaticity theory (Samuels, 1994)
Structure of language
• Phonology and phonetics:
○ The role of phonological processing in word reading
○ The role of speech sound production (articulatory gestures) in phonemic awareness
○ The production of blendable sounds
• Orthography, morphology, and etymology:
○ Common orthographic patterns
○ English as an opaque orthography
○ The role of morphology and etymology in English spellings
Cognitive psychology and learning science
• Perception and attention
• The role of working memory
• The role of background knowledge
• The role of practice, various types of practice (e.g., blocked, interleaved, distributed)
Effective Instruction for Developing Word-Level Skills in Beginning Readers
This content can be taught in an elementary reading methods course and applied in a practicum experience tutoring a beginning reader.
• Administering and interpreting screening and progress monitoring assessments
• Elements of explicit and systematic instruction
○ Explicit: clear, direct, unambiguous, modeling, guided practice, independent practice, checks for understanding
○ Systematic: logical progression from simple to more complex concepts
• Providing ample opportunities to respond
• Providing student feedback
○ Behavior-specific praise: specific reinforcement of correct responses
○ Corrective feedback: immediate error correction that elicits a correct response
• Developing alphabet knowledge
• Developing phonemic awareness
• Teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondences
• Teaching decoding and encoding skills
• Applying skills in connected text
Effective Intervention for Students with LDs in Word-Level Reading Skills
This content can be taught in a special education methods course and applied in a practicum experience tutoring a student with LD in word-level
reading skills.
• The nature and needs of students with LDs
• Administering and interpreting diagnostic assessments
• Individualizing instruction based on assessment data
• Incorporating multisensory methods (i.e., use of articulatory gestures to strengthen phonemic awareness)
• Increasing instructional intensity (e.g., dosage, duration, group size)

Note. LD = learning disability.

word work with manipulative letters, including both encod- with a demonstration of effective implementation as well as a
ing and decoding practice with a new phonics concept. discussion of common mistakes novices may make as they
Elkonin boxes are a popular and effective tool for support- use the practice and how to avoid those mistakes. This initial
ing the development of phonemic awareness (Elkonin, 1973) instruction can include supportive methods, such as guided
as well as encoding and decoding skills (Joseph, 2002). In a notes to accompany the class lecture (Konrad et al., 2009).
lesson about using this evidence-based practice, instruction See Figure 1 for an example of guided notes. This explana-
can begin with a clear explanation of the rationale and the tion with demonstration could be followed by hands-on
research that supports it. This can be followed guided practice and independent practice (Darling-Hammond
12 Intervention in School and Clinic 59(1)

Table 2. Ehri’s Phases of Word Recognition Development and Their Instructional Implications.

Phase Student abilities Focus of instruction

Pre-alphabetic • knows few, if any, letters • focus on phonological awareness, alphabet
• lacks phonemic awareness knowledge, and grapheme-phoneme
• guesses based on pictures or other non- correspondences
text clues • directs their attention to letter-sound relation
• begin practice decoding and encoding VC and CVC
words
Partial alphabetic • knows most letter shapes • reinforce letter-sound knowledge and phonemic
• limited phonemic awareness awareness, with an emphasis on using all the
• knows some grapheme-phoneme letters in each word
correspondences • promote the use of invented spellings to focus
• cannot decode non-words attention on individual letter sounds
• ample practice reading words
Full alphabetic • knows all letter shapes • focus on segmenting and blending phonemes and
• strong phoneme blending and on getting children to attend to every grapheme
segmentation skills individually
• knows many grapheme-phoneme • focus on the recognition of the various chunks
correspondences within words
• letter-by-letter decoding • ample practice reading words and connected text
Consolidated alphabetic • strong knowledge of grapheme-phoneme • continued focus on attending to chunks within
correspondences words
• decodes syllables or other chunks within • focus on breaking apart multisyllabic words
words • focus on attending to morphemes to support
• can proficiently decode unfamiliar words decoding and understanding of words
• ample practice reading words and connected text

Note. See Ehri (2005, 2020).

& Richardson, 2009). Guided practice could incorporate For a class activity that develops their basic literacy knowl-
instructor-selected words, while for independent practice, edge and skills, teacher candidates could develop sequences of
teacher candidates can select their own examples. words (i.e., word chains) for decoding and encoding practice
with manipulative letters and then implement this instructional
Application exercises and microteaching. An ongoing series method with a partner. To ensure this class activity serves as an
of application exercises and microteaching can be woven explicit and systematic practice-based opportunity, the instruc-
throughout courses to provide opportunities for candidates tor would first provide modeling and examples (i.e., I do) and
to practice skills and rehearse implementation in an envi- then support teacher candidates as they generate word chains
ronment of support and scaffolding from peers and their and practice word work with a partner (i.e., We do). Teacher
instructor. Application exercises can focus on developing candidates would then apply this practice independently (i.e.,
skills related to concepts presented in class, such as inter- You do) during a tutoring field experience.
preting assessment data, planning decoding and encoding An instructor could use this same type of class activity to
practice activities, and analyzing decodable books for develop candidates’ advanced literacy knowledge and skills
alignment with a phonics scope and sequence. Microte- by providing a word work modeling example that highlights
aching assignments allow teacher candidates to practice the use of targeted scaffolding, behavior-specific praise,
specific instructional methods in controlled conditions and corrective feedback (i.e., I do). This could be followed
(Benedict et al., 2016). Such assignments compel candi- by structured video observation of these practices being
dates to practice instructional delivery of activities by con- implemented by a special education teacher with a student
sidering features of effective instruction and applying with LD, while candidates practice identifying each inci-
them to mock teaching opportunities, usually with peers dence of scaffolding, praise, and feedback (i.e., We do).
acting as their “students.” For phonics instruction, microte- These practice opportunities would support candidates’
aching opportunities could include practice with the initial independent use of these evidence-based practices (i.e., You
introduction of a grapheme-phoneme correspondence or do) while working with students with more intensive needs.
using manipulative letters for word-work practice (Pullen Table 3 provides additional examples for developing both
& Lane, 2016). basic and advanced level knowledge and skills.
Lane et al. 13

Figure 1. Example of guided notes to accompany course lecture.

Note. Sun, jar, and fish images © Holly Lane and Valentina Contesse.
14 Intervention in School and Clinic 59(1)

Table 3. Examples of Explicit and Systematic Practice-Based Opportunities.

Basic literacy knowledge & skills Advanced literacy knowledge & skills
Teaching blendable sounds and articulatory gestures
I do: Instructor modeling of the most common sounds I do: Instructor modeling of more advanced information about
for each of the 26 letters in the alphabet, including blendable sounds, including the place and manner of articulation
categories of sounds (stop, continuous, voiced, unvoiced) of each of the 44 phonemes in English
We do: Teacher candidates practice blendable sounds in We do: Teacher candidates practice advanced blendable sounds in
class with instructor guidance and feedback class with instructor guidance and feedback
You do: Teacher candidates submit blendable sounds You do: Teacher candidates submit advanced blendable sounds
video video
Introducing new grapheme-phoneme correspondences
I do: Instructor modeling or video examples of how to I do: Teacher candidates learn additional components to
explicitly introduce students to new grapheme-phoneme include for explicit introduction to new grapheme-phoneme
correspondences (key word, grapheme placement, correspondences (e.g., providing word decoding practice, reading
example words, articulatory gesture, word decoding decodable sentences that target new concept)
practice) We do: Teacher candidates practice planning and delivering a new
We do: Teacher candidates practice introducing a new concept introduction, using a structured lesson template
grapheme-phoneme correspondence in class, using You do: Teacher candidates plan and introduce new grapheme-
provided lesson plan and materials phoneme correspondences, using a structured lesson template,
You do: Teacher candidates introduce grapheme- during tutoring sessions
phoneme correspondences, using provided lesson plan
and materials, during tutoring sessions
Using Elkonin boxes to support phoneme segmentation and encoding
I do: Instructor modeling of the steps for using Elkonin I do: Instructor modeling of Elkonin boxes to support intensive
boxes with students (count sounds, draw boxes, insert intervention with two-syllable words (tap syllables, count sounds
letters in boxes) in first syllable, draw boxes, insert letters in boxes, repeat)
We do: Teacher candidates practice segmenting words We do: Teacher candidates practice using Elkonin boxes to
into phonemes; practice steps for using Elkonin boxes support intensive intervention needs
with a partner You do: Teacher candidates identify uses for Elkonin boxes during
You do: Teacher candidates use Elkonin boxes for tutoring sessions (e.g., introducing/reviewing new concept)
sentence dictation during tutoring sessions

Microteaching experiences are most effective when they These deliberate practice opportunities can be provided to
include targeted observation and feedback, along with candidates through the application and microteaching
opportunities for the teacher candidates to reflect on their assignments previously described or through field experi-
practice. Microteaching experiences can occur during face- ences with carefully designed performance feedback.
to-face activities, or they can be recorded for time-stamped Effective teacher preparation programs include carefully
video feedback. Feedback can be provided by peers or by developed field experiences that are “extensive, integrated
the instructor. well with coursework, developmental in nature, and super-
vised carefully” (Brownell et al., 2005, p. 244). Field expe-
riences allow teacher candidates to have multiple
Field Experiences opportunities to practice implementing evidence-based
Teacher candidates should be prepared to generalize teach- instructional practices in authentic settings (Darling-
ing skills across time and settings after completing teacher Hammond & Sykes, 2003). In addition to whole-class
preparation programs (Scheeler, 2008; Vaughn et al., 2000). instruction with typically developing learners, structured
As all learners, teachers acquire and maintain new behaviors one-on-one teaching opportunities (e.g., reading tutoring)
best when they receive systematic instruction, have multiple support candidates’ implementation of evidence-based
opportunities to practice (Ericsson et al., 1993), and receive practices for struggling readers (Al Otaiba et al., 2012). As
feedback that is immediate, positive, corrective, and specific teacher candidates hone their expertise, they can advance
(Scheeler et al., 2004). Similarly, teacher candidates benefit their skills through opportunities to plan and implement
from explicit and systematic practice opportunities that intensive, individualized tutoring for students with LD in
allow them to gradually build expertise. For teacher candi- word-level reading (Contesse et al., 2020).
dates to develop knowledge and skills as reading teachers
and interventionists, they need practice-based opportunities Supportive lesson structure. Providing a lesson structure can
that closely align with coursework (Brownell et al., 2019). support teacher candidates in developing effective phonics
Lane et al. 15

Figure 2. Example of teacher candidate’s plan for explicit concept introduction.

lessons. Following a predictable routine makes planning word reading and passage-reading fluency. Based on the
simple and ensures key elements are included. The follow- results of the word-reading assessment, the teacher candi-
ing 4-part sequence of activities is an example of a support- date will determine how to proceed with the remainder of
ive lesson structure. the lesson. If the student can read at least 90% of the words
correctly, the student will reread the text to build automatic-
Step 1: Skill and concept review. In this step of the lesson, the ity. If the student reads 70% to 80% of the words correctly,
teacher candidate plans activities to support the review of the teacher candidate will teach a brief review lesson to
previously taught skills. To develop phonemic awareness, build the student’s accuracy. If the student reads with 60%
the teacher candidate plans words for blending and segmen- accuracy or below, the teacher candidate will reteach the
tation practice. To develop automaticity with grapheme- concept rather than introduce a new concept in Step 3.
phoneme correspondences, the teacher candidate plans a
visual drill (i.e., the teacher presents graphemes visually, Step 3: New concept introduction. In this step, the teacher
students say phonemes) and an auditory drill (i.e., the candidate plans the language to use for an explicit introduc-
teacher says phonemes, students write graphemes). To build tion of new grapheme-phoneme correspondence. The intro-
accuracy and automaticity in decoding, the teacher candi- duction includes a presentation of the grapheme, a keyword,
date builds a word chain to use in a blending drill, where and information about where the grapheme can occur in a
one grapheme at a time is changed to create a new word for word. It also includes an explanation of the articulatory ges-
the student to decode (e.g., cat > sat > sit > sip > slip). ture, or how the phoneme is produced in the mouth. The
teacher candidate will also plan a list of words in which the
Step 2: Measuring progress. In this step, the teacher candi- grapheme-phoneme correspondence can be applied, includ-
date practices assessment and data-based decision-making. ing words for modeling and guided practice. See Figure 2
This can begin by monitoring student progress on previ- for an example. This step can also include planning a word
ously taught skills and concepts, including accuracy in chain for additional practice encoding and decoding using
16 Intervention in School and Clinic 59(1)

manipulative letters. Finally, this step can include introduc- Performance feedback may focus on the general prin-
tion and practice of new irregular words. ciples of effective instruction, such as the number of
opportunities to respond, or on specific instructional
Step 4: Connected text. To plan the final step, the teacher practices, such as the use of manipulative letters and word
candidate uses a decodable text that provides the student chains. Observation-generated performance feedback for
with ample opportunities to practice the new grapheme- a phonics lesson observation can target a very specific
phoneme correspondence in context. In addition, the teacher teaching practice. For example, “You effectively alter-
candidate plans a sentence to be dictated, so the student can nated between decoding and encoding prompts during the
practice spelling words with the new grapheme-phoneme word work practice.” Or, feedback can incorporate mul-
correspondence, as well as any new irregular words. tiple elements of instruction at once, such as the follow-
The use of a lesson structure like this one can vary based ing: “You did an excellent job providing immediate and
on the stage of development of the teacher candidate and on specific corrective feedback after the student’s error dur-
the needs of the student. For an early tutoring field experi- ing the visual drill, including modeling the blendable
ence, planning and implementation of this lesson can incor- sound for /sh/ and discussing the articulatory gesture.
porate extensive support for the teacher candidate and be Great job presenting the student with another opportunity
implemented with a student with less complex needs. The to provide the correct response and then following this
ideal field placement at this stage would be tutoring a begin- correct response with behavior-specific praise.” Detailed
ning reader, perhaps a first-grade student who is unable to checklists that specify desired teacher behaviors can help
keep up with the class in reading. The teacher candidate can make expectations clear for teacher candidates while
be supported by having portions of the lesson planned for guiding the instructor’s development of data-based per-
them, leaving only some segments to plan for themselves. formance feedback.
The focus in this scenario is the implementation of evi-
dence-based practices.
For a later field experience, the more advanced teacher
Conclusion
candidate will be able to plan more of the lesson indepen- Building expertise in effective phonics instruction and
dently and meet the needs of a student with more complex intervention requires teacher candidates to (a) develop a
needs. An ideal field placement for this experience could be deep understanding of language structures and reading
tutoring a third or fourth grader with LD, whose reading acquisition and (b) practice applying that knowledge during
skills are at a kindergarten or first-grade level. This would be the implementation of evidence-based instructional meth-
a longer, more intensive tutoring session, with abundant ods. Carefully designed coursework can develop the neces-
opportunities for student responses. The focus of this experi- sary content knowledge. Through a combination of
ence would be on individualization, data-based instructional modeling, application exercises and microteaching, and
decision-making, and problem-solving. Table 4 provides a field-based practice opportunities with supervision and per-
summary of the lesson steps, along with examples of differ- formance feedback, teacher candidates can gradually (i.e., I
entiation of activities for teacher candidates during early (i.e., do, We do, You do) and systematically master important
basic) versus later (i.e., advanced) field experiences. evidence-based practices for teaching foundational reading
skills.
Introductory teacher preparation courses can incorporate
Observations and Performance Feedback the essential background knowledge about the reading pro-
Teacher candidates’ learning is greatly enhanced by super- cess and reading acquisition, language structures, and cog-
vision and feedback during field experiences (Schles & nitive psychology. Early methods coursework can develop
Robertson, 2019). The use of observation-generated perfor- essential knowledge about evidence-based methods of read-
mance feedback during field experiences helps increase ing instruction. Applying this basic pedagogical content
teacher candidates’ use of evidence-based instructional knowledge while supporting beginning readers provides
practices (Scheeler et al., 2004). Observation checklists teacher candidates with initial practice opportunities. Later,
allow teacher educators to provide targeted, observation- more advanced methods coursework can develop the more
generated feedback that is objective and data-driven. High- specialized pedagogical content knowledge needed for
quality performance feedback can be generated by reading intervention. Candidates can then practice applying
conducting live, direct observations in the field or through this specialized knowledge during the planning and imple-
video observations. Video-based observations provide the mentation of intensive, individualized intervention for stu-
added benefits of (a) allowing the teacher candidate to view dents with LD in word-level reading. The key to developing
and evaluate their own practices and (b) allowing for time- expertise is acquiring deep knowledge and applying that
stamped feedback from the instructor. knowledge through deliberate practice.
Lane et al. 17

Table 4. Example of Supportive Structure for Phonics Lesson Planning.

Why? How? Basic field experience Advanced field experience

Step 1: Skill and concept review
Warm up for lesson and • Phonemic Awareness Warm-Up: 5 min 10 min
review of previously taught phoneme blending and segmentation
skills and concepts • Visual Drill: review of isolated Word chain for blending Word chain for blending
grapheme-phoneme correspondences drill targets one drill targets various
• Auditory Drill: review of isolated previously taught previously
grapheme-phoneme correspondences concept taught concepts
• Blending Drill: practice decoding
words to build automaticity
Step 2: Measuring progress and gaining fluency
Practice reading familiar text • Assess accuracy: percent of words 5 min 10 min
to build automaticity and read correctly
assess daily progress • Assess automaticity: number of Criteria for data-based Candidate develops criteria
correct words per minute (CWPM) decisions are provided for data-based decisions
•• Data-based decision: reread text,
brief review lesson, or reteach lesson
Step 3: New skills and concepts
Teaching grapheme-phoneme • Introduce new grapheme: 10 min 20 min
correspondences and explanation, articulatory gesture,
irregular words practice
• Word work: decode and encode Introduction language is Candidate develops
regular words using manipulative provided introduction language
letters
• Irregular words: practice reading and
spelling irregular words
Step 4: Connected text
Application of skills and • Reading: student reads a decodable 10 min 20 min
concepts text with coaching from tutor
• Writing: tutor dictates a sentence Decodable text is Candidate selects decodable
with regular words that include provided text
taught grapheme-phoneme
correspondences and irregular words
that have been practiced

Note. CWPM = correct words per minute.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests Al Otaiba, S., Lake, V. E., Greulich, L., Folsom, J. S., & Guidry,
L. (2012). Preparing beginning reading teachers: An experi-
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
mental comparison of initial early literacy field experiences.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
Reading and Writing, 25, 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/
article.
s11145-010-9250-2
Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Explicit instruction:
Funding Effective and efficient teaching. Guilford.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, Benedict, A., Holdheide, L., Brownell, M., & Marshall Foley,
authorship, and/or publication of this article. A. (2016). Learning to teach: Practice-based preparation
in teacher education (Special Issues Brief). Center on Great
ORCID iD Teachers and Leaders.
Brock, M. E., & Carter, E. W. (2017). A meta-analysis of educator
Holly B. Lane https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2663-8806
training to improve implementation of interventions for stu-
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