Irrigation Water Agchatt

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200
Water
Management
Summarized by:
Water Management pg. 1

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Index
S.No. Topic Name Page No.
1. Introduction 5
2. Water Resources and Irrigation Development in India 5
3. Command Area Development and Water Management 7
4. Soil Physical Properties Influencing Soil Water Relations 8
5. Water Retention in Soil 13
6. Water Movements in Soil 14
7. Physical Classification of Water 16
8. Soil Moisture Constants 17
9. Measurement of Soil Moisture 19
10. Soil – Plant and Plant – Water Relations 24
11. Evapotranspiration 26
12. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration 30
13. Crop Coefficients 32
14. Duty of Water and Conjunctive Use of Water 34
15. Sprinkler Method of Irrigation 49
16. Drip Method of Irrigation 52
17. Water Use Efficiency of Crops 54
18. Irrigation Efficiencies 56
19. Quality of Irrigation Water 58
20. Water Management Practices in Rice 61
21. Water Management Practices in crops 63

Irrigation – Introduction, Importance, Definition & Objectives

1.1 Irrigation – Definition
It is generally defined as “application of water to soil for the purpose of supplyingthe
moisture essential for normal plant growth and development”. It is the human manipulation of
hydrological cycle to improve crop production and quality and to decrease the economic effects of
drought.
To add water to the soil for supplying moisture essential for normal plant growth and
development
 To provide crop insurance against short duration droughts
 To leach or dilute excessive salts in the crop root zone, thereby providing a favorable
environment in the soil profile for absorption of water and nutrients
 To soften tillage pans
 To cool the soil and atmosphere, thereby making more favorable
microenvironment for plant growth
1.2 Objectives of irrigation

The broad objectives of irrigation are as follows:
a) To increase crop production on sustainable basis where water is a limitation
• To increase national income/national cash-flow
• To increase Labour employment
• To increase standard of living
b) Modification of soil & climatic environment
• For leaching of salts
• For reclamation of sodic soils
• For frost protection
c) To mitigate i.e., lessen the risk of catastrophes caused by drought
• To overcome food shortages
• To protect high value crops/trees
d) To increase population of arid and sparsely populated areas
• For national defense
• For population re-distribution
e) National security i.e., self-sufficiency in food grain production
Water Resources and Irrigation Development in India

2.1 Surface Water Resources
India is blessed with an average annual rainfall of about 1194-mm. As much as 85-90% of the
rainfall is received only in the south- west monsoon season of June to October. It is that during the
four rainy months of June to September the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon carries moisture
amounting to about 770 million ha meters and the Bay of Bengal branch about 340 million ha meters
of water. Of the monsoon moisture, about 25 – 30% precipitates in the form of rainfall. The rainfall
when considered over the geographical area of 329 million ha amounts to 392.8 million ha meters.
This may be rounded off to 400 million ha meters including snowfall whose potential is not yet fully
recorded.
Fig. 2.1. Water resources of India
2.2 Groundwater Resources

Of the annual precipitation of 400 million ha meters, about 215 million ha meters has been
estimated to soak into the ground. As much as 165 million ha meters is retained as soil moisture and
is used by vegetation, thus leaving only 50 million ha meters (12.5%) of the total precipitation for
the country as a whole to reach the ground water table. This value is likely to increase with the
development of water resources i.e., percolation through rivers, streams, and irrigation systems,
which add to recharge. The total water resource availability in the country though remained constant,
the per capita availability of water has been steadily declined from 5300 in 1951 to the present level
of 1700 m3 due to population growth, large scale urbanization & rapid industrialization.

Command Area Development and Water Management

4.1.1 CADWM – Objective
“To bridge the gap between the irrigation potential created and that utilized through increase
in irrigated areas and thereon to increase efficient utilization of irrigation water and improve the
agricultural productivity in the irrigation commands”.
4.2 Reasons for lag in irrigation potential created to that of utilization

a) Deficiencies in design and operational procedures
b) Unlined conveyance systems and uncontrolled and improper water distributionsystems
c) Lack of on-farm development works and land consolidation for better watermanagement
d) Irrigation methods followed are biblical in nature i.e., field to field irrigation with
uncontrolled wild flooding system
e) Irrigation scheduling in most projects is still based on conventional approaches
f) Complete negligence of drainage component in command areas
g) Inappropriate irrigation water pricing policy i.e., pricing based on irrigated acreagerather
than irrigation quantity
h) Changes in cropping pattern assumed at the time of designing the project and that
followed by farmers
i) Cultivation of rice in areas localized for ID crops
j) Absence of feed-back from farmers
k) Lack of coordination between different agencies i.e., extension workers, irrigation
engineers, research scientists and farmers
l) Inadequate infrastructure of extension services
4.3 Functions of CADWM

1. Planning & construction of field channels, drains and farm roads
2. Modernization, maintenance & efficient operation of irrigation systems
3. Development, maintenance & operation of drainage systems
4. Selection, introduction and enforcement of suitable cropping patterns
5. Conjunctive use of surface and ground water resources
6. Introduction of suitable cropping patterns
7. Propagation, demonstration and implementation of improved water management
techniques, education and training of farmers in irrigated agriculture
8. Strengthening of existing agricultural extension activities
9. Planning for timely and adequate supply of various crop production inputs viz.,seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides facilities
10. Creation and development of marketing, processing and warehouse facilities

Soil Physical Properties Influencing Soil Water Relations
5.1 Introduction
Soil water relations deal with those physical properties of soils and water that affect
movement, retention and absorption of water by plants and which must be considered in order to
plan or improve an irrigation system.
5.2 Soil – A three phase disperse system

The soil is a heterogeneous, polyphasic viz., solid, liquid and gaseous, particulate, disperse and
porous system. The solid phase constitutes the soil matrix, the liquid phase consists of soil water,
which always contains dissolved substances so that it should properly be called the soil solution and
the gaseous phase is the soil atmosphere.
Volume composition & sectional view of soil
The solid matrix of the soil includes particles, which vary in chemical and mineralogical
composition as well as in size, shape, and orientation. It also contains amorphous substances,
particularly organic matter, which is attached to the mineral particles and often binds them together
to form aggregate. The gaseous or vapor portion of the soil occupies that part of the spaces between
the soils particles not filled with water. This is an important phase of the soil system, as most plants
require some aeration of the root system, with the exception of aquatic plants such as rice. Irrigation
practice is important in maintaining a reasonable balance between the soil moisture and air.
Finally, soil water and air vary in composition, both in time and space.
5.3 Soil properties influencing soil-water relations

5.3.1 Soil depth
Soil depth refers to the thickness of soil cover over hard rock or hard substratum below which
roots cannot penetrate. The soil depth is directly related to the developmentof root system, water
storage capacity, nutrient supply and feasibility for land leveling and land shaping. Soil Conservation
Division, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, recognizes the following classes for irrigation purposes:
Soil depth classification

Soil depth (cm) Class
Less than 7.5cm Very shallow
7.5 – 22.5 Shallow
22.5 – 45.0 Moderately deep
45.0 – 90.0 Deep
More than 90 Very deep
A shallow soil has limited moisture holding capacity, restricted feed zone and root growth,
therefore would need frequent irrigations with less water depth. Shallowness of soil is further
unfavorable in areas needing land leveling and shaping because it affects soil-water relations besides
nutrient retention & availability. Deep soil on the other hand, has good moisture holding capacity,
larger feeding zone and good possibilities for development of root system. Soil depth is also
important for interpreting water storage capacity.
5.3.2 Soil texture

Soil texture is the most important and fundamental property of the soil that is most intimately
related to soil water relationship. It refers to the relative proportion of mineral particles of various
sizes in a given soil i.e., the proportions of course, medium and fine particles, which are termed sand,
silt and clay, respectively. Various combinations of these fractions are used to classify soil according
to its texture. Using the name of the predominant size fraction designates texture. Three broad and
fundamental groups of soil textural classes are recognized as sandy, loamy and clayey.
Common textural classes encountered in the field
Common
Texture Basic soil textural class
name
Sandy soils Coarse Sands & Loamy sand
Moderately coarse Sandy loam & Fine sandy loam
Loamy soils Medium Very fine sandy loam, Loam, Silt loam & Silt
Moderately fine Sandy clay loam, Silty clay loam & Clay loam
Clayey soils Fine Sandy clay, Silty clay & Clay
The textural class of a soil can be accurately determined in the laboratory by mechanical
analyses. Sand, silt and clay are size groupings of soil particles as shown below
Size groupings of soil particles

Soil texture Size grouping in
diameter
Coarse sand 2.0 – 0.2 mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02 mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm
The soil texture is closely related to:

a) Water holding capacity of the soil
b) Quantity of water to be given at each irrigation i.e., irrigation water depth
c) Irrigation interval and number of irrigations
d) Permeability i.e., ability of the soil to transmit water & air
e) Infiltration rate
For example, coarse textured soils (sandy soils) have low water holding capacity and facilitate
rapid drainage and air movement. Therefore, crops grown on these soils require frequent irrigations
with less irrigation water depth at each irrigation. On the otherhand, fine textured soils (clayey) have
relatively high-water holding capacity, however the permeability for water and air is slow thus
resulting in poor drainage and sometimes the soils get waterlogged.
Soil structure
The structure of a soil refers to the arrangement of the soil particles and the adhesion of
smaller particles to form large ones or aggregate. On the surface, soil structure is associated with the
tilth of the soil.
Soil structure
The dominant shape of aggregates in a horizon determines their structural type, such as
spheroidal (granular or crumbly subtypes), platy; prism like (columnar or prismatic subtypes) and
block like (cube and sub-angular subtypes). On surface the soil structure is associated with tilth of
the soil.
Soil structural types

The soil structure influences primarily:
f) Permeability for air and water
g) Total porosity and in turn water storage capacity in a given volume of soil
h) Root penetration and proliferation
Soils without definite structure may be single grain types, sands or massive types such as
heavy clays. For example, a structure-less soil allows water to percolate either too rapidly or too
slowly. Platy structure restricts the downward movement of water. Crumbly, granular and prismatic
structural types are most desirable for efficient irrigation watermanagement and normal crop
growth.
Effect of structural type on permeability for water
5.3.3 Density of soil solids

There are two ways to express the soil weight – particle density and bulk density.
5.3.4.1 Particle density (p): It is the ratio of a given mass (or weight) of soil solids to that of its
volume. It is usually expressed in terms of g/cm3. Thus if 1 cm3 of soil solids weigh 2.6g, the particle
density measures 2.6 g/cm3. Although considerable range may be observed in the density of
individual soil minerals, the values for most mineral soils usually vary between the narrow limits of
2.6 to 2.75 g/cm3. This soil property is independent of size of the soil particles and the arrangement
of the soil solids.
5.3.4.2 Bulk density (b): It refers to the ratio of a given mass of an oven dried soil to that of its
field volume (i.e., solids + pore spaces). The bulk density is calculated by the following formula:
Bulk density (g

Wds Weight of an oven dried soil (g)
) (ρb) = =
cm3 Vt Total field volume of soil (cm3)
5.3.4 Pore space

Soil total porosity (ƒ) is an index of pore volume in the soil. It is the space in a given volume of
soil that is occupied by air and water or not occupied by the soil solids.
Total porosity value generally lies in the range of 30 to 60% for arable soils. Coarse textured
soils tend to be less porous (35 – 50%) than the fine textured soils (40 – 60%), though the mean size
of individual pores is greater (>0.06mm in diameter) in the former than in the latter. Total porosity
is inclusive of both, capillary (micro pores) and non- capillary porosity (i.e., macro pores). In a
sandy soil, in spite of the relatively low total porosity, the movement of air and water is surprisingly
rapid because of the dominance of the macro pores. Therefore, the size of the individual pore spaces
rather than their combined volume is an important consideration for optimum soil-water relations.
For idealconditions of aeration, permeability, drainage and water distribution, a soil should have
about equal amount of macro and micro pore spaces.

Water Retention in Soil

6.1 Adhesion & Cohesion
Hydrogen bonding accounts for two basic forces responsible for water retention and
movement in soils:
Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and solid surfaces
Cohesion: Attraction of water molecules for each other.
By adhesion some water molecules are held rigidly at the surfaces of soil solids. In turn these tightly
bound water molecules hold by cohesion other water molecules farther away from the solid surfaces.
The adhesive force diminishes rapidly with distance from the solid surface. The cohesion of one
water molecule to another results in water molecules forming temporary clusters that are constantly
changing in size and shape as individual water molecules break free to join up with others. The
cohesion between water molecules also allows the solid to indirectly restrict the freedom of water
for some distance beyond the solid-liquid interface. Thus together, the forces of adhesion and
cohesion make it possible for the soil solids to retain water and control its movement and use.
6.2 Soil moisture tension

The moisture held in the soil against gravity may be described in terms of moisture tension.
Thus, soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and
reflects the force per unit area that must be exerted by plants to remove water from the soil.
Several units have been used to express the force with which water is held in the soil.
6.3 Soil moisture characteristic curves
The graphical representation of the relationship between soil moisture suction or tension and
soil water content is known as soil moisture characteristic curve or water retention curve. The soil
moisture characteristic curves are determined in the laboratory using pressure plate and pressure
membrane apparatus.
Soil moisture characteristic curves for soils varying in texture
The soil moisture characteristic curve is strongly affected by soil texture. The greater the clay
content, in general, the greater the water retention at any particular suction, and the more gradual
the slope of the curve. In a sandy soil, most of the pores are relatively large, and once these large
pores are emptied at a given suction, only a small amount of water remains. In a clay soil, the pore
size distribution is more uniform, and more of the water is adsorbed, so that increasing the suction
causes a more gradual decrease in water content.
Water Movements in Soil

7.1 Infiltration
Infiltration is the entry of fluid from one medium to another. In irrigation practice it is the
term applied to the process of water entry into the soil, generally by downward flow through all or
part of the soil surface is termed as infiltration.
Infiltration rate or infiltrability is defined as the volume of water flowing into the profile per
unit of soil surface area per unit time. It is mathematically expressed as:
O
I= A×T
Were,
I = Infiltration rate (mm or cm/min or h)
O = Volume quantity of water (m3) infiltrating,
A = Area of the soil surface (m2) exposed to infiltration, and
T = Time (min or h).
The infiltration rate is not constant over time. Generally, infiltration rate is high in the initial
stages of infiltration process, particularly where the soil is quite dry, but tends to decrease
monotonically and eventually to approach asymptotically a constant rate, whichis often termed as
basic intake rate or steady state infiltration rate. Whereas, the cumulative infiltration, being the time
integral of the infiltration rate, has curvilinear time dependence, with a gradually decreasing slope.
The infiltration rate ofa soil may be easily measured using a simple device known as a double ring
infiltrometer in-situ.
Seepage
The lateral movement of water through soil pores or small cracks in the soil profile under
unsaturated condition is known as seepage.
7.2 Permeability
It indicates the relative ease with which air and water penetrate or pass through the soil pores.
Permeability of soils is generally classified as rapid, moderate and slow. Thus, the permeability is
rapid in coarse textured soils and slow in fine textured soils.
7.3 Deep percolation

Infiltration is a transitional phenomenon that takes place at the soil surface. Once the water
has infiltrated the soil, the water moves downward into the profile. This post- infiltration water
movement downward with in the soil profile under the influence of both gravity and hydrostatic
pressure is termed as deep percolation. Sandy soils facilitate greater percolation when compared to
clayey soils due to dominance of macro pores.Likewise, the loss of water by percolation in cropped
fields is generally less than that in bare soils.
7.4 Hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is a measure of the soil's ability to transmit water when
submitted to a hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic conductivity is defined by Darcy's law, which, for one-
dimensional vertical flow, can be written as follows:
h1 — h2
V=K
L
Where, V is Darcy's velocity, h1 and h2 are hydraulic heads, and L is the vertical distance in the soil
through which flow takes place. The coefficient of proportionality, K, in the equation is called the
hydraulic conductivity.
Thus, the hydraulic conductivity is defined as the ratio of Darcy's flow velocity atunit
hydraulic gradient. The dimension of K is the same as that for velocity, that is, length per unit of time
(L/T). In a soil having a stable structure the hydraulic conductivity is more or less constant, but as
the soil structure, density and porosity change, there is a change in the hydraulic conductivity. With
variation in soil texture the hydraulic conductivity values are different.
Types of water movement
Movement of water in the soil is complex because of various states and directions in which
water moves and because of the forces that cause it to move. As water is dynamic soil component,
generally three types of water movement within the soil are recognized – saturated flow, unsaturated
flow and water vapor flow. The former two flows involve liquid water in contrast to water vapor
flow. In all cases water flows in response to energy gradients, with water moving from a zone of
higher to one of lower water potential.
7.4.1 Saturated water movement

The condition of the soil when all the macro and micro pores are filled with water the soil is
said to be at saturation, and any water flow under this soil condition is referredto as saturated flow.
The flow of water under saturated conditions is determined by two factors viz., the hydraulic force
driving the water through the soil (hydraulic gradient) and the ease with which the soil pores permit
water movement (hydraulic conductivity). The quantity of water per unit of time O/t that flows
through a column of saturated sol can be expressed by Darcy’s law, as follows:
Where, A is the cross-sectional area of the column through which the water flows, K sat is the saturated hydraulic
conductivity,  is the change in water potential between the ends of the column (for example, Ψ1 — Ψ2, and L is
the length of column). The unitsin which K sat is measured are length/time, typically cm/s or cm/h.
7.4.2 Unsaturated water movement

The soil is said to be under unsaturated condition when the soil macro pores are mostly filled
with air and the micro pores (capillary pores) with water and some air, and any water movement
or flow taking place under this soil condition is referred to as unsaturated flow. Under field
conditions most of the soil water movements occurs only when the soil pores are not completely
saturated with water. However, water movement under these conditions is very sluggish compared
to that when the soil is at saturation. This is because at or near zero tension, the tension at which
saturated flow occurs the hydraulic conductivity is orders of magnitude greater than at tensions of
0.1 bars and above, which characterize unsaturated flow. Unsaturated flow is governed by the
same general principles affecting saturated flow i.e., its direction and rate are related to the
hydraulic conductivity and to a driving force, which in this case is moisture tension gradient or
moisture suction gradient. This gradient is the difference in tension between two adjoining soil
zones. Thus, the water movement will always be from a zone of low tension (high matric potential)
to one of high tension (low matric potential) or from a zone of thick moisture films to where the films
are thin. The force responsible for this tension is the attraction of soil solids for water (i.e., adhesion).
The higher the water contents in the moist zone, the greater is the tension gradient and more rapid
is the flow.
Physical Classification of Water

8.1 Introduction
The water held within the soil pores is referred to as soil moisture. The manner in which it is
held in the soil and to what extent it is translocated into plant system forms a basis of observation of
drying of wet soils and of plants growing on these soils, water may be divided into three categories
viz., gravitational water, capillary water and hygroscopic water.

Physical classification of soil water
8.2 Gravitational water

Water held between 0.0 to 0.33 bars (0 to −33 kPa) soil moisture tension, free andin excess
of field capacity, which moves rapidly down towards the water table under the influence of gravity
is termed as gravitational water. Even though thegravitational water is retained with low energy, it
is of little use to plants, because it is present in the soil for only a short period of time and while in
the soil, it occupies the largerpores i.e., macro pores, thereby reducing soil aeration. Therefore, its
removal from the soil profile through natural drainage is generally regarded as a pre-requisite for
optimum plantgrowth and development.
8.3 Capillary water

As the name suggests capillary water is held in the pores of capillary size i.e., micro pores
around the soil particles by adhesion (attraction of water molecules for soil particles), cohesion
(attraction between water molecules) and surface tension phenomena. It includes available form of
liquid water extracted by growing plants and is held between field capacity (0.33 bars or −33 kPa)
and hygroscopic coefficient (31 bars or −3100 kPa). However, the water within the capillary range is
not equally available i.e., it is readily available starting from 0.33 bars up to a certain point often
referred to as critical soil moisture level (for most crops it varies between 20 to 50% depletion of
available soil moisture) and thereafter up to 15 bars (−1500 kPa) it is slowly available. Further below,
when the soil exerts tensions between 15 bars and 31 bars, the water is held very tightly in thin films
and is practically not available for plant use. The capillary water moves in any direction but always
in the direction of increasing tension and decreasing potential.
Hygroscopic water
The water held tightly in thin films of 4 – 5 milli microns thickness on the surface of soil
colloidal particles at 31 bars tension (−3100 kPa) and above is termed as hygroscopic water (Fig.
8.1). It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in vapor form. Plants cannot absorb such water
because, it is held very tenaciously by the soil particles (i.e., > 31 bars). However, some
microorganisms may utilize it. Unlike capillary water which evaporates easily at atmospheric
temperatures (i.e., it requires very little energy for its removal), hygroscopic water cannot be
separated from the soil unless it is heated at 100°C and above for 24 hours.
Soil Moisture Constants

9.1 Introduction
The water contents expressed under certain standard conditions are commonlyreferred to as
soil moisture constants. They are used as reference points for practical irrigation water management.
Saturation capacity
Saturation capacity refers to the condition of soil at which all the macro and micro pores are
filled with water and the soil is at maximum water retention capacity”. The matric suction at this
condition is essentially zero as the water is in equilibrium with free water. Excess water above
saturation capacity of soil is lost from root zone as gravitational water.
Soil condition at Saturation, Field Capacity and PermanentWilting Point

9.2 Field capacity
The field capacity is “the amount ofwater held in soil after excess water has been drained
away and the rate of downward movement has materially decreased, which usually takes place
within 1 – 3 days after a rain or irrigation in pervious soils having uniform texture and structure. At
field capacity, the soil moisture tension depending on the soil texture ranges from 0.10 to 0.33 bars
(or −10 to −33 kPa). Field capacity is considered as the upper limit of available soil moisture. The
field capacity is greatly influenced by the size of the soil particles (soiltexture), finer the soil particles
higher the water retention due to very large surface area and vice versa. Thus, at field capacity, a m3
of a typical sandy soil will hold about 135 liters of water, a loamy soil about 270 liters and a clay soil
about 400 liters.
9.3 Permanent wilting point
It is the condition of the soil wherein water is held so tightly by the soil particlesthat the
plant roots can no longer obtain enough water at a sufficiently rapid rate to satisfy the transpiration
needs to prevent the leaves from wilting. When this condition is reached the soil is said to be in a
state of permanent wilting point, at which nearly all the plants growing on such soil show wilting
symptoms and do not revive in a dark humid chamber unless water is supplied from an external
source. The soil moisture tension at permanent wilting point is about 15 bars (or −1500 kPa) equal
to a suction or negative pressure of a water column 1.584 x 104 cm (pF = 4.2). Permanent wilting
point is considered as lower limit of available soil moisture. Under field conditions PWP is
determined by growing indicator plants such as sunflower in small containers. In the laboratory
pressure membrane apparatus can be used to determine the moisture contentat 15 bars.
9.4 Available soil moisture

It has been a convention and even now it is a customary to consider “the amount of soil
moisture held between the two cardinal points viz., field capacity (0.33 bars) andpermanent
wilting point (15 bars) as available soil moisture”. Though considerable soil moisture is present
below the permanent wilting point, it is held so tightly by the soil particles that the plant roots are
unable to extract it rapidly enough to prevent wilting. The available soil moisture is expressed as
depth of water per unit of soil and is calculated according the following formula:
(FC — PWP) x ρb x ds
Available Soil Moisture (mm/depth of soil) =
10
Were,
FC = Field capacity moisture (%) on oven dry weight basis
PWP = Permanent wilting point moisture (%) on oven dry weight basisρb =
soil bulk density (g/cm3)
ds = Depth oƒ soil (cm)
ASM = Available soil moisture (mm/m depth of soil)
9.5 Hygroscopic coefficient

It is defined as the amount of water that the soil contains when it is in equilibrium with air at
standard atmosphere i.e., 98% relative humidity and at room temperature. The amount of moisture
absorbed by a dry soil when placed in contactwith an atmosphere saturated with water vapor at
any given temperature, expressed in terms of percentage on an oven dry basis. The matric suction
ofsoil water at this moisture content is nearly about 31 bars.
Measurement of Soil Moisture
10.1 Introduction
The measurement of soil moisture is needed to determine when to irrigate and the amount of
water needed when irrigating, to evaluate evapotranspiration, and to monitor soil matric potential.
The soil moisture is measured in two ways – direct and indirect methods as follows:
10.2 Direct methods

10.2.1 Gravimetric method
The gravimetric method is a direct measurement of soil water content and is therefore the
standard method by which all indirect methods are calibrated. The gravimetric water content, also
called mass water content, is the ratio of the weight loss in drying to the dry weight of the soil sample.
The mass water content can be expressed as mass water percentage by multiplying it with 100.
This method involves collecting soil sample from the field using soil probe or auger from
representative depths in the root zone and then determining its moist and dry weights. The moist
weight is determined by weighing the soil sample as it is at the time of sampling, and the dry
weight is obtainedafter drying the soil sample in an oven at 105°C for 24 hours or more to get a
constant dry weight. The weight loss represents the soil water.
(Wms — Wds) Weight of moist soil — Weight of oven dry soil

θm = x 100 = x 100
Wds Weight of oven dry soil
10.2.2 Volumetric method

The volumetric water content (θv) is defined as the volume of water present in a given volume
(usually 1 m3) of dry soil. When (θv) multiplied by 100 it gives volume water percentage. This
method involves collecting soil sample from the field using core samplerof known volume from
representative depths in the root zone and then determining its moist and dry weights and
calculating the volume wetness by the following relationship:
(Wms — Wds) Vt x
θv = x 100
ρw
Weight of moist soil (Wms) — Weight of oven dry soil (Wds) Volume
θv = x 100
of core (Vt)x Density of water(ρw)
Merits
• Ease of handling
• Low cost
• Minimum technical skill required
• Standard method of soil moisture determination with which other methods arecompared
Demerits
• Time consuming
• Accuracy is subject to weighing and sampling errors
• Destructive soil sampling method
• Laborious
10.2.3 Spirit burning method
Soil moisture from the sample is evaporated by adding alcohol and igniting. Provided the
sample is not too large, the result can be obtained in less than 10 minutes. About 1.0 ml of spirit or
alcohol per g of soil sample at field capacity and 0.5 ml at permanent wilting point is adequate for
evaporating the soil moisture. This method is not recommended for soils with high organic matter
content.
10.2.4 Infrared moisture balance

It consists of a 250-watt infrared lamp, sensitive torsion balance and autotransformer. All
housed in an aluminum cabinet. The radiation emitted by infrared lamp quickly vaporizes the soil
moisture. The instrument is directly calibrated in per cent moisture. It gives fairly reliable moisture
estimates in about 5 minutes.
Fig.10.1. Infrared moisture balance
10.3 Indirect methods

10.3.1. Electrical resistance blocks
Gypsum blocks or electrical resistance blocks, with two electrodes, is placed at a desired soil
depth and allowed to equilibrate. Electrical resistance of the block ismeasured by a meter based on
the principal of Whetstone Bridge. Electrical resistance of the soil decreases with increase in water
content. Soil water content is obtained with calibration curve, for the same block, of electrical
resistance against known soil water content. Resistance blocks read low resistance at field capacity
and high resistance at wilting point.
Merits
• Relatively inexpensive
• Easy to install
• Gives quick readings
• Suitable for irrigation scheduling to crops raised in fine textured soils
Demerits
• Not useful in coarse textured soils
• Resistance blocks readings are sensitive to soil salinity, which may affect readings
• Blocks may get damaged over time (2 – 3 years) and require replacement
10.3.2 Neutron scattering technique

The neutron moisture meter consists of two main components viz., a probe containing a

source of fast neutrons (americium and beryllium) and boron trifluoride (BF3) gas as a detector of
slow neutrons, which is lowered into a hollow access tube pre-inserted into the soil; and a scaler or
rate meter usually battery powered and portable to monitorthe flux of the slow neutrons that are
scattered and attenuated in the soil. The fast neutrons are emitted radially into the soil, where they
encounter and collide elastically with hydrogen nuclei (namely protons). Through repeated
collusions, the neutrons are deflected and “scattered”, and they gradually loose some of their kinetic
energy. As the speed of the initially fast neutrons diminishes, it approaches a speed of 2.7 km/sec,
equivalent to a energy of about 0.03 eV. Neutrons slowed down to such a speed are said to be
thermalized and are called slow neutrons. The slow neutrons thus produced scatter randomly in
the soil, quickly forming a cloud of constant density around the probe. The density of sow neutrons
formed around the probe is nearly proportional to the concentration of hydrogen in the medium
surrounding the probe, and therefore approximately proportional to the volume fraction of water
present in the soil. The slowed or thermalized neutrons are detected by slow neutron detector
containing BF3 gas, which is then transmitted through electric pulses to the scaler and is displayed as
moisture content.
Fig. 10.3. Measurement of soil moisture by neutron probe
Merits
• Less laborious
• Rapid results
• Non-destructive method after initial installation
• Repeated measurements can be made at the same location and depth
• Independent of temperature and pressure
Demerits
• High initial cost of the equipment
• Probe must be calibrated for each soil & access tube
• Difficult to measure the soil moisture in the top 15 cm soil depth due to escape of
neutrons into atmosphere
• Health hazards due to exposure to neutron & gamma radiation

10.3.3 Tensiometer
The tensiometer is an instrument designed to provide a continuous indication of the soil’s
matric suction in situ. The tensiometer consists of a porous ceramic cup, connected through a tube
to a vacuum gauge (or manometer), all parts filled with water. When the cup is placed in the soil
where the suction measurement is to be made, thewater inside the cup comes into hydraulic contact
and tends to equilibrate with soil water through the pores in the ceramic walls. When initially placed
in the soil, the water contained in the tensiometer is generally at atmospheric pressure (essentially,
0 bars tension). Soil water, being generally at sub-atmospheric pressure (or higher tension),
exercises a suction, which draws out a certain amount of water from the rigid and air tight
tensiometer. Consequently, the pressure inside the tensiometer falls below atmospheric pressure.
The sub-pressure is indicated by a vacuum gauge or manometer. A Tensiometer left in the soil for a
period of time tends to track the changes in the soil’s matric suction. As soil moisture is depleted by
drainage or plant uptake, or as it is replenished by rainfall or irrigation, corresponding readings on
the Tensiometer gauge occur.
Fig. 10.4. Measurement of soil moisture tension by Tensiometer
Suction measurements by tensiometer are generally limited to matric suction valuesbelow 1

bar or 100 kPa. However, in practice, under field conditions the sensitivity of most tensiometers is a
maximal tension of about 0.85 bars or 85 kPa.
Merits
• Repeated measurements at the same location
• Nondestructive method
• Suitable for scheduling irrigations to crops raised in coarse textured soils where majority of
ASM is between 0 – 0.8 bars or 0 to 80 kPa or centibars and requiring frequent irrigations
Demerits
• Measurements limited to 0.8 bars suction only
• Maximum depth of insertion is about 5 m only

• Water in the tensiometer must be maintained always at a constant height

• Requires few hours for equilibration after initial installation
10.3.4 Pressure plate & Pressure membrane apparatus

Laboratory measurements of soil water potential are usually made with pressure membrane
and pressure plate apparatus. It consists of ceramic pressure plates or membranes of high air entry
values contained in airtight metallic chambers strong enough to withstand high pressure of 15 bars
or more. The apparatus enables development of soil moisture characteristic curves over a wide range
of matric potential.
Fig. 10.5. Pressure plate and membrane apparatus
The porous plates are first saturated and then soil samples are placed on these plates. Soil
samples are saturated with water and transferred to the metallic chambers. Thechamber is closed
with special wrenches to tighten the nuts and bolts with required torque for sealing it. Pressure is
applied from a compressor and maintained at a desired level. It should be ensured that there is no
leakage from the chamber. Water starts to flow out from saturated soil samples through outlet and
continues to trickle till equilibrium against the applied pressure is achieved. Soil samples are taken
out and oven dried to constant weight for determining moisture content on weight basis. Moisture
content is determined against pressure values varying from −0.1 to −15 bars. The values of moisture
content so obtained at a given applied pressure are used to construct soil moisture characteristic
curves.
Soil – Plant and Plant – Water Relations
11.1 Introduction
To design a successful irrigation system, it is essential to know the plant rooting
characteristics, effective root zone depth, moisture extraction pattern and moisture sensitive periods
of crops.
11.2 Rooting characteristic of plants

The purpose of irrigation is to provide adequate soil moisture in the immediate vicinity of the
plant roots. All plants do not have the similar rooting pattern i.e., rootpenetration and proliferation.
Some plants have relatively shallow root system (for example annual crops), while others develop
several meters under favorable conditions (for example tree crops). It is obvious, therefore, that if
one is to plan an efficient irrigation schedule for providing adequate soil moisture to plant roots, it is
necessary to understand rooting habits of plants.
11.2.1 Soil properties influencing root development

a) Hard pan: Root penetration is seriously affected by presence of a hard pan or compacted layer in
the soil profile. Thus, roots cannot penetrate a hard layer except through cracks. Thus, in shallow
soils, crop roots may be confined to a thin layer of soil irrespective of their normal genetic rooting
pattern in a soil having uniform structure and texture.
b) Soil moisture: Since roots cannot grow in soil that is depleted in moisture down to and below the
permanent wilting point, a layer of dry soil below the surface in the profile can restrict root penetration.
c) Water table: A high water table limits root growth, and a rising water table may kill roots that
have previously grown below the new water level.
d) Toxic substances: Presence of toxic substances in the sub-soil also limits root growth and
development. Saline layers or patches in the soil profile therefore inhibit or prevent root
penetration and proliferation.
11.3 Effective root zone depth

Table 11.1. Design moisture extraction depths for crops grown on very
deep, well drained soils
Rooting depth Crop (s)
Shallow rooted crops
Cauliflower, Cabbage, Onion, Potato, Lettuce, Rice
(60cm)
Moderately deep rooted Carrots, French bean, Garden pea, Chili, Muskmelon,
(90cm) Tobacco, Wheat, Castor, banana, and Groundnut
Cotton, Tomato, Watermelon, Maize, Sorghum,
Deep rooted (120cm)
Sugar beet, Soybeans, Pearl millet
Very deep rooted Lucerne, Citrus, Apple, Guava, Grapevine, Coffee, Tea,
(180cm) Sugarcane, Safflower, Mango, Pomegranate
11.4 Moisture extraction pattern

The moisture extraction pattern refers to the amount of soil moisture expressed as percentage
extracted from different layers in the soil profile. In most plants, the concentration of absorbing roots
is greatest in the upper part of the root zone and near the base of the plant. Hence extraction of
water from the topsoil layers is usually more as compared to lower layers.
In uniform soils that are fully supplied with available soil moisture, plants use water rapidly
from the upper part of the root zone and slowly from the extreme lower part. The basic moisture
extraction curve indicates that for all crop plants growing in a uniform soil with adequate available
water supply exhibits similar moisture-extraction pattern. The usual extraction pattern shows that
about 40% of the soil moisture extracted is contributed from upper quarter of the root zone, 30%
from the second quarter, 20% from the third quarter, and 10% from the bottom quarter. Values for
individual crops may vary within the range of 10%.
Moisture sensitive periods
“Critical growth period is the stage or stages of growth of the crop at which moisturestress
has the greatest effect on quality & quantity of yield. Therefore, any stress during these stages will
irrevocably reduce the yield and provision of adequate water and other management practices at
other growth stages will not compensate the yield lost”.
Table 11.2. Critical growth periods of crops for water supply

Crop Critical growth period for water supply
Rice Primordial development, Heading & Flowering
Sorghum Booting, Blooming, Milky & Dough stages
Ragi Primordial initiation & Flowering
Maize Tasseling, Silking & Pollination
Bajra Heading & Flowering
Wheat Crown root initiation, Shooting & Earing
Groundnut Flowering, Peg penetration & Pod development
Sesame Flowering to Maturity
Sunflower Star formation, Flowering & Seed development
Safflower Rosette, flowering and Seed development
Soybean Flowering & Seed formation
Cotton Flowering & Boll development
Sugarcane Formative & Stem elongation
Tobacco Rapid growth & Topping stage
Chilies Flowering & Fruit development
Potato Tuber initiation to Tuber maturity
Onion Bulb enlargement to Ripening
Tomato Flowering & Fruiting
Citrus Flowering, Fruit set & Fruit enlargement
Banana Adequate soil moisture throughout growth period & fruit
development
Mango Flowering & fruit development
Evapotranspiration
12.1 Evapotranspiration (ET = Evaporation + Transpiration)
Evaporation is a diffusive process by which water from natural surfaces, such as free water
surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation foliage is lost in the form of vapor to the atmosphere.
It is one of the basic components of hydrologic cycle.
Likewise, transpiration is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapor through plant
surfaces, particularly leaves. In this process water is essentially absorbed by the plant roots due to
water potential gradients and it moves upward through the stem and is ultimately lost into the
atmosphere through numerous minute stomata in the plantleaves.
Thus, evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation) and plant
(transpiration) surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water, and is expressed in
depth per unit time. Quantification of evapotranspiration is required in the context of many issues:
1. Management of water resources in agriculture
2. Designing of irrigation projects on sound economic basis
3. Fixing cropping patterns and working out the irrigation requirements of crops
4. Scheduling of irritations
5. Classifying regions climatologically for agriculture
12.2 Factors influencing evapotranspiration
Water losses to the atmosphere are primarily determined by both environmental and plant
factors, besides to a certain extent by management factors. The environmental effect on ET is called
atmospheric demand or evaporative demand of the atmosphere. The following factors influence the
atmospheric demand and in turn the ET of a crop.
12.2.1 Climatic or environmental factors

The meteorological factors, which have a significant bearing on the ET, are as follows:
a) Solar radiation: Solar or thermal energy is necessary to evaporate the water from both soil and
plant surfaces. Thus, of the total solar radiation intercepted by the leaf, only 1to 5% is used for
photosynthesis and 75 to 85% is used for radiating the canopy surface i.e., leaves and for
transpiration. Hence, increased solar radiation increases atmospheric demand and in turn
evapotranspiration.
b) Ambient temperature: increasing the temperature increases the capacity of air to hold water i.e.,
vapor pressure deficit is high, which means a greater atmospheric demand i.e., greater ET.
c) Relative humidity: The greater the water content of air, the higher the air water
potential which means that atmospheric demand decreases resulting in low ET with
increasing relative humidity.
d) Wind: Transpiration occurs when water diffuses through the stomata. A diffusion gradient
barrier builds up around stomata (i.e., leaf) when the air is still. This means that water diffusing
from the wet leaf interiors is almost matched by water buildup outside the leaf, which reduces
the diffusion gradient and thus reduces transpiration. When wind turbulence removes the water
vapor next to the leaf, the difference in water potential inside and immediately outside the
stomatal opening is increased and net water diffusion from the leaf is increased.
e) Soil moisture: The effect of soil water content on evapotranspiration varies with crop and is
conditioned primarily by type of soil and its water holding properties, crop rooting characteristics
and the meteorological conditions determining the level of evapotranspiration.
12.2.2 Plant factors

Plant factors, as well as atmospheric demand; modify the ET rate by affecting the resistance
to water movement from soil to air.
a) Stomatal closure and opening: Most transpiration occur through stomata because of the relative
impermeability of the cuticle, and little transpiration occurs when stomata are closed. As stomata
open wider, more water is lost but the loss increase is less for each unit increase in stomatal
width. Many factors influence stomatal opening andclosing, the major ones under field conditions
being light and moisture level. In most crop plants light causes stomata to open. A low moisture
level in the leaf causes guard cells to lose turgor, resulting in stomatal closure.
b) Stomatal number and size: Most leaves of productive crops have many stomata onboth sides
of their leaves. Stomatal number and size, which are affected by both genotype and environment,
have much less effect on stomatal transpiration than stomatal opening and closing.
c) Leaf area or canopy cover: The higher the leaf surface area, the greater thetranspiration owing
to more transpiring surface. However, the increase in water lossfor each unit increase in the
leaf area index is less. It has been shown that ET crop will not increase with increase in the leaf
area index over that required intercepting 85% of solar radiation.
d) Adaptive mechanisms: Many plants have mechanisms in leaves that favor reduced transpiration
when water becomes limiting. For example, some grass species, like maize & sorghum reduce
their exposed leaf area by leaf rolling. While crops with broad leaves have other mechanisms to
reduce water loss; for example, soybean has a tendency to roll the leaves upside down so the
silvery pubescence on the exposed lower surface can reflect lighter i.e., albedo and reduce energy
load.
e) Rooting depth and proliferation: The availability and extraction of soil moisture by the crop is
highly dependent on rooting depth and proliferation. Deeper rooting increases water availability
and root proliferation increases water extraction from a unit volume of soil before permanent
wilting occurs. Therefore, higher rooting depth & proliferation ensures higher water extraction
hence promotes transpiration.
f) Length of growing season: As the crop duration increases the amount of water needed for
completion of its life cycle increases, hence, the ET crop increases.
12.2.3 Management factors

The following management factors influence the ET crop.

a) Method of irrigation: Different methods imply different rates of water application due to large
variations in the water balance components. The advantages of one method over another are
therefore determined by differences in total irrigation water applied and the effectiveness with
which crop requirements can be met. Irrigation water requirements are generally higher with
surface irrigation methods viz., furrow, border strip, check basin etc. in comparison to overhead
sprinkler, micro sprinkler and drip methods of irrigation.
b) Fertilizers: The use of fertilizers has only a little effect on ET crop, unless crop growth was
previously adversely affected by low soil nutrition delaying full crop canopy cover. Irrigation
imposes a greater demand on fertilizer nutrients. Adequately fertilized soils produce much higher
yields per unit of irrigation water than do poor soils, provided the fertilizer is at the level in the
soil profile where soil water is extracted by the plant. The movement of soluble nutrients and
their availability to the crop is highly dependent on method and frequency of irrigation.
c) Wind breaks: Artificial and vegetative wind breaks Reduce wind velocities downward from it.
This may reduce ET crop by about 5% to 30% under windy, warm, dry conditions depending on
the horizontal downward distance from the wind break. However, in most cases shrubs and trees
are used and, due to transpiration of the vegetative barrier, overall ET crop may be more.
d) Anti-transpirants: The use of anti-transpirants, natural or artificially induced variations in plant
foliage properties and soil conditioners to reduce ET crop are found to be effective, but cheap and
practically suitable materials for field application are yet be identified.
e) Salinity: The ET crop can be affected by soil salinity since the soil water uptake by the plant can
be drastically reduced due to higher osmotic potential of saline water. Reduced water uptake
under saline conditions is shown by symptoms similar to those caused by drought, such as early
wilting, leaf burning, a bluish-green colour in some plants, reduced growth and small leaves. The
same level of soil salinity can cause more damage under high than under low evaporative
conditions. The negative effect of soil salinity can be partly offset by maintaining a higher soil
water regime in the root zone to maintain the optimal ET crop values.
12.3 Consumptive use

The term consumptive use (Cu) is used to designate the sum of losses due to evaporation +
transpiration from the cropped field as well as that water utilized by the plants in its metabolic
activities for building up of the plant tissues. Since the water used in the actual metabolic processes
is insignificant (about 1% of evapotranspiration losses) the term consumptive use is generally taken
equivalent to evapotranspiration. It is expressed similar to ET as depth of water per unit time i.e.,
mm/day or cm/day.
a) Daily consumptive use: It is the total amount of the water used in ET plus water used in
metabolic activities by a crop during a single day or 24-hours period and is expressedin mm/day
or cm/day.
b) Seasonal consumptive use: The total amount of water used by the crop in ET and metabolic
activities for building up of plant tissues during its total growing season. It is expressed as depth
of water in mm or cm per season. Seasonal consumptive use values are needed to evaluate and
determine seasonal irrigation water supplies and irrigated crop acreages.
c) Peak period consumptive use: The average daily water use rates in terms of ET plus that
consumed in metabolic process during the highest consumptive use period (6 – 10 days) of the
season is called peak period consumptive use rate. This is the design rate to be used in planning
an irrigation system. The peak-use consumptive period generally occurs when the crop is starting
to build up its harvestable produce, wherein the canopy area is maximum and capable of
intercepting maximum photosynthetically active radiation and atmospheric demand is high.
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
13.1 What is Reference crop evapotranspiration?
The evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height (0.12m),
actively growing, completely shading the ground with an albedo of 0.23 and not short of water is
called reference crop evapotranspiration and is denoted by ETo.
13.2 Measurement of ETo by different methods

13.2.1 Blaney Criddle Method
The relationship is expressed as follows:
ETo (mm/day) = c[p(0. 46T + 8)]
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month consideredT
= Mean daily temperature on oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual daytime hours obtained for a given month
& latitude
c = Adjustment factor which depend on minimum relative humidity, sunshinehours
and day time wind estimates
Application & Limitations
a) This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover airtemperature
data only.
b) Not recommended for equatorial regions, small islands and coastal areas at high
altitudes and in climates with a wide variability
13.2.2 Thornthwaite method

The relationship is expressed as:
E = 1. 6 (10T/I)a
Where:
E = Monthly potential evapotranspiration (cm) or reference crop ET (i.e., ETo)
T = Mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = A heat index for a given area which is the sum of 12 monthly index values i.

a) This method is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover airtemperature
data only.
b) Not recommended for equatorial regions, small islands and coastal areas at high
altitudes and in climates with a wide variability
13.2.3 Radiation method

ETO (mm/day) = c (W. Rs)
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the period considered Rs
= Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
W = Weighting factor which depends on temperature and altitude
c = Adjustment factor which depends on mean relative humidity and day time wind
conditions
a) Recommended for areas where measured climatic data include air temperature and
sunshine, cloudiness or radiation, but not measured wind and humidity
b) Knowledge of general levels of humidity and wind is required
c) It is reliable than Blaney - Criddle method for equatorial regions, on small islandsand at
high altitudes
13.2.4 Modified Penman method


a) Suitable only where measured data is available on all weather parameters
b) Wide applicability i.e., in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
c) Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo since it accounts for all the weather factors
affecting the crop evapotranspiration
13.2.5 Penman – Monteith method

Allen et.al. (1998) proposed the Penman – Monteith equation. The mathematical
relationship is as follows:
a) Suitable only where measured data is available on all weather parameters
c) Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo since it accounts for all the weather factors
affecting the crop evapotranspiration
13.2.6 Pan evaporation method

The relationship is expressed by:
ETo (mm/day) = Kpan. Epan
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the period considered
Kpan = Pan evaporation in mm/day and represents the mean daily value of the period
considered
Epan = Pan coefficient


a) The method requires measured data only pan evaporation
c) Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo since it integrates the effect of all-weatherfactors
affecting the crop evapotranspiration in to a single entity
Crop Coefficients
14.1 Crop coefficient
Crop coefficient refers to the ratio between crop evapotranspiration and referencecrop
evapotranspiration. It is calculated as follows:

Crop Evapotranspiration
Crop coefficient (Kc) =
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
ETc
=
ETO
Crop coefficient curve is constructed by dividing crop growing period into fourgrowth periods
and placing straight line segments through each of these periods with the lines through the initial
and mid-season periods being horizontal. The four growth stagesof crop growing period are as
follows:
a) Initial period – planting to 10% ground cover
b) Crop development – 10% ground cover to effective cover i.e., flowering
c) Mid-season – Effective cover to start of maturity i.e., senescence of leaves
d) Late season – Start of maturity to harvest.
14.2 Prediction of ETc

Experimentally determined ratios of ETc/ETo, called crop coefficients (Kc), are used to relate
crop evapotranspiration (ETc) to reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) as follows:
ETc = Kc x ETo
Example: Crop – Maize Crop Period – January to April
Water Requirements
15.1 Water requirement
It is defined as the quantity of water regardless of its source, required by a crop or diversified
pattern of crops in a given period of time for its normal growth & development under field conditions
at a given place. In other words, it is the total quantity of water required to mature an adequately
irrigated crop. It is expressed in depth per unit time.
Water requirement, if considered as a demand, it includes the quantity of water needed to
meet the losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during the application of irrigation
water (unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of water required for special operations such
as land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts below the crop root zone, frost control etc.
WR = ET or Cu + Application Losses + Special needs
It can also be expressed in supply terms as WR = IRR + ER + ∆S + Gwc
Where:
IRR = Total depth of irrigation water during crop life
ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
∆S = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the
beginning and end of the crop
Gwc = Groundwater contribution, if any.
Accurate crop water requirement data is essential in irrigated agriculture for:
• Economic appraisal of irrigation projects
• Design and operation of irrigation schemes

• Fixing cropping patterns and irrigated areas
• Irrigation scheduling to crops
• Efficient use of limited water
15.2 Irrigation requirement

It is the total amount of water applied to a cropped field for supplementing effective rainfall,
soil profile and groundwater contribution to meet the crop water requirements foroptimum growth.
In other words, irrigation requirement is exclusive of ER + ∆S + Gwc.
IRR = WR — (ER + ∆S + Gwc
15.3 Net irrigation requirement

It is the amount of irrigation water just required to bring the soil moisture contentin the
effective crop root zone depth to field capacity. Thus, the net irrigation requirement is the difference
in depth or percentage of soil moisture between field capacity and the soil moisture content in the
root zone just before application of the irrigation water. in terms ofdepth, it can be expressed as:
15.4 Gross irrigation requirement
Though there are several irrigation systems and methods of water application to field crops,
none of these methods are cent per cent efficient and it has been found that considerable water is
lost during conveyance, distribution and application. Gross irrigation requirement is the total
amount of water required to bring the crop root zone to field capacity (NIR) inclusive of the water
required offsetting the application losses. Which in other words, NIR + Application & other losses. It
can be calculated as follows:
15.5 Irrigation interval

It is the number of days between two successive irrigations during the period without
precipitation for a given crop and field. It depends on the crop ET rate and on the available water
holding capacity of the soil in the crop root zone depth. Sandy soils require in general more frequent
irrigations as compared to fine textured soils.
15.6 Irrigation period

It refers to the number of days that can be allowed for applying one irrigation to that of the
next in a given design area during the period of highest consumptive use of the season. It is
mathematically expressed as follows:
NIR
Irrigation period (days) =
Peak period consumptive use
It is taken as the basis for designing irrigation system capacity. Irrigation systems are to be
designed in such a way that the irrigation period is not greater than irrigation interval.
Duty of Water and Conjunctive Use of Water
16.1 Duty of water
It is the relationship between the irrigation water and the area of the crop thatmatures
fully with the given amount of water. Duty is expressed as follows:
1. Area per unit rate of flow (ha/Cumec)
2. Depth of water or Delta (ha/depth of water)
3. In terms of stored water (ha/million m3 of stored water)

16.1.1 Base period

The time between first irrigation to a crop at sowing or planting and last irrigationbefore
harvest on a given field.
16.2 Conjunctive Use of water

It is estimated that in India about 11 million ha m of water diverted from reservoirs is lost
through seepage and percolation from canal systems and return flows from irrigation contribute to
ground water recharge. This water can be extracted andconjunctively used for irrigation in part of
command areas to tide over the peak demands and water shortages.
Conjunctive use refers to “management of multiple water resources in a coordinated
operation such that the water yield of the system over a period of time exceeds the sum of yields of
the individual components of the system, resulting from in coordinated operation”.
16.2.1 Systems of conjunctive use

1. Canal water and Groundwater system
2. Rainfall and Irrigation water system
3. Saline water and Fresh water system
16.2.2 Conjunctive use – Advantages

a) Use of ground water helps to reduce peak demands of irrigation, size of canals andhence
construction costs
b) Supplemental supplies from groundwater ensures proper irrigation schedulingraising
multiple crops and early sowing even if rainfall is delayed
c) Increased water resources ensure supply to tail end areas and areas of higherelevation
d) Groundwater exploitation lowers the water table and reduces danger of waterlogging and
consequent wastage of water for leaching salts
e) Surface and subsurface out flows are minimized causing reduction in peak run offand
flood discharge
f) Conjunctive use when integrated with an artificial recharge project, need for liningcanals is
reduced as seepage from canal recharges ground water
g) During periods of peak water demand, irrigation requirement can be met by surfacewater
sources, so power saved can be diverted to other sources
Effective Rainfall
17.1 Introduction
It is defined effective rainfall as “that portion of the total annual or seasonal rainfall
which is useful directly and/or indirectly for meeting the crop water needs in crop production
at the site where it falls but without pumping”.
17.2 Factors influencing Effective Rainfall

Several factors influence the proportion of effective rainfall in the total rainfall received and
these may act singly or collectively and interact with each other. Any factor, which affects infiltration,
run-off or evapotranspiration, affects the value of effective rainfall. The following factors have been
shown to influence the effective rainfall significantly:
a) Rainfall characteristics: Amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall influence surface runoff
and hence its effectiveness. Greater amount of rainfall at high intensities reduces the effective
fraction of the rainfall. Similarly, uneven distribution decreases the extent of effective rainfall. In
India during kharif season from July to September the rainfall intensity, frequency and amount is
high, hence the effectiveness of rainfall is very low. On the other hand, during winter season from
November to April, most of the rainfall is effective due to its low intensity, frequency and amount.
Other meteorological parameters which increase the ET increase the effectiveness of the rainfall.
Higher evaporative demand of the atmosphere encourages greater depletion of moisture in the
soil and therefore the proportion of effective rainfall in the total increases.
b) Land characteristics: The time interval between receipt of rain water and its recession by soaking
into soil is known as opportunity time. Water stays longer on flat and leveled land and this
has longer opportunity time than on slopping land, leading to higher fraction of effective rain than on
undulating lands.
c) Soil characteristics: Higher infiltration and permeability rates increase effectiveness of rainfall.
Fraction of the effective rainfall increases with increasing water holding capacity of the soil. The
proportion of effective rainfall is lower in irrigated than the unirrigated areas where there is often
greater deficiency of soil moisture.
d) Ground water characteristics: The amount of effective rainfall is greater when the water table is
deep than when it is shallow. Upward capillary movement of water decreases the deficit of
moisture and hence the amount of effective rainfall.
e) Management practices: Any management practice influencing runoff, infiltration, permeability or
evapotranspiration also influences the degree of effective rainfall. Bunding, terracing, ploughing,
ridging and mulching reduce runoff and increase effective rainfall.
f) Crop characteristics: Higher crop ET rates create greater depletion of soil moisture. Hence,
effective rainfall is directly proportional to the rate of water uptake by the crop. Degree of ground
cover, root zone depth and growth stage influences the rate of water uptake. Rainfall which
reduces the yield must be regarded as ineffective.
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops – Soil Water Regime Approach

18.1 Criteria for scheduling irrigation
With the advancement of knowledge in the field of soil-plant-atmospheric system several
criteria for scheduling irrigations are now available and are being used by investigators and farmers.
All the available criteria can be broadly classified into the following three categories:

However, criteria most suitable for scheduling irrigations would vary with soils, plants,
climatic and management factors.
18.1.1 Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling

Irrigation scheduling offers several advantages:
a) It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various fields tominimize crop
water stress and maximize yields.
b) It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through fewer irrigations, therebymaking
maximum use of soil moisture storage.
c) It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation (leaching) toa
minimum.
d) It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
e) It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage requirements.
f) It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled leaching.
g) It results in additional returns by using the “saved” water to irrigate non-cash cropsthat
otherwise would not be irrigated during water-short periods.
18.1.2 Soil water regime approach

In this approach the available soil water held between field capacity and permanent wilting
point in the effective crop root zone depth described in several ways is taken as an index or guide for
determining practical irrigation schedules. Alternatively, soil moisture tension, the force with which
the water is held around the soil particles is also sometimes used as a guide for timing irrigations.
Different methods of scheduling irrigation following soil moisture regime approach are as follows:
18.2.2.1 Feel and appearance of soil

This is one of the oldest and simple methods of determining the soil moisture content. It is
done by visual observation and feel of the soil by hand. Theaccuracy of judgement improves with
experience.
Feel and appearance of soil
Guidelines for judging soil moisture by feel & appearance of soil
18.2.2.2 Depletion of the available soil moisture (DASM)

In this method the permissible depletion level of available soil moisture in the effective crop
root zone depth is commonly taken as an index or guide for scheduling irrigations to field crops. In
general, for many crops scheduling irrigations at 20 – 25% DASM in the soil profile was found to be
optimum at moisture sensitive stages. While at other stages irrigations scheduled at 50% DASM were
found optimum.
Optimum DASM levels for various crops

Crop Optimum soil moisture depletion level
Maize 25 – 50% DASM in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Sugarcane 25 – 65% DASM in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Groundnut 25 – 40% DASM in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh
Cotton 65% DASM in Coimbatore, Tamilnadu
Sesame 50% DASM in Parbhani, Maharashtra
Leafy vegetables 20% DASM in Delhi
Tobacco 35% DASM in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh
Wheat 50% DASM in Delhi & Jobner, Rajasthan
18.2.2.3 Soil moisture tension
Soil moisture tension a physical property of film water in soil, as monitored by tensiometers
at a specified depth in the crop root zone could also be used as an index for scheduling irrigations to
field crops.
Tensiometers for irrigation scheduling
Tensiometers are installed in pairs, one in the maximum rooting depth and the other below
this zone. Whenever critical soil moisture tension is reached say for example 0.4 or 0.6 or 0.75 bars
etc. in the upper tensiometer the irrigation is commenced.
Scheduling of Irrigation to Crops – Climatological Approach

19.1.1 Potential evapotranspiration (PET)
Defined as “the amount of water transpired in a unit time by short green crop of uniform
height, completely covering the ground and never short of water”. PET can be estimated by several
techniques viz., lysimetric methods, energy balance, aerodynamic approach, combination of energy
balance and empirical formulae etc., and irrigation’s can be scheduled conveniently based on the
knowledge of PET or water use rates of crops over short time intervals of crop growth.
19.1.1.1 Lysimeter- By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and

controlling the processes that are difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil
water balance equation can be determined with greater accuracy.
19.1.2 Cumulative pan evaporation

Transpiration of a crop is closely related to free water evaporation from an open pan
evaporimeter. Thus, the open pan evaporimeter being simple and as they incorporate the effects of
all climatic parameters into a single entity i.e., pan evaporation could be used as a guide for
scheduling irrigation’s to crops. For example,
 Wheat required 75 to 100 mm CPE at Ludhiana
 Sugarcane required 75 mm CPE in Maharashtra
 Green gram required 180 mm CPE at Ludhiana
 Sunflower required 60 mm CPE at Bangalore
Fig. 19.2. USWB Class A Pan evaporimeter
19.1.3 IW: CPE ratio

It is the ratio between the depth of irrigation water (IW) and cumulative evaporation. A pan
evaporimeter minus the precipitation since the previous irrigation (CPE). An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0
indicates irrigating the crop with water equal to that lost in evaporation from the evaporimeter.
Optimum IW/CPE ratios for scheduling irrigation in important crops

Crop Optimum IW/CPE ratio
Groundnut  0.75 to 1.O IW/CPE ratio depending on crop developmental
stages in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra & West Bengal
Sunflower  0.5 to 1.O IW/CPE ratio depending on crop developmental
stages at Hyderabad & Kanpur
Wheat  1.O IW/CPE ratio at Ludhiana, Kanpur and Bikram Ganj
Bengal gram  0.4 IW/CPE ratio at Ludhiana
Mustard  0.4 IW/CPE ratio at Hissar
Maize  0.75 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio depending on crop developmental
stages at Delhi & Hyderabad
Sugarcane  0.5 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio depending on crop developmental
stages at Lucknow

20.1.1 Relative water content

This concept was proposed by Weatherly (1950). It is the actual water content ofthe leaf
or plant when sampled relative to water at saturation or turgid. It is expressed as relative water
content (RWC) and is calculated as follows:
(Fresh Weight — Dry Weight) (Turgid

RWC =
Weight — Dry Weight)
It depends on the lag between evaporative demand of the atmosphere and the rate of
water absorption by the roots and has been found to be one of the reliable indices of plant
water stress for scheduling irrigation.
Plant water potential
This method measures the energy status of plant water analogous to the tension of film water
in the soil, and serves as a better index of physiological and bio-chemical phenomena occurring in
the plant. Plant or leaf water potential can be precisely measured either by a pressure bomb or
pressure chamber apparatus in situ or by the dye method in the laboratory.
Pressure chamber apparatus
The critical plant water potential values for cotton below which yield reductions are expected
were 1.2 to 1.25 MPa throughout the crop life. While for sunflower they were 1.0,
1.2 and 1.4 MPa at vegetative, pollination and seed formation, respectively.
20.1.2 Canopy temperature

Several studies have shown that plant temperature or canopy temperature adequately
reflects the internal water balance of the plant, and can be used as a potential indicator for scheduling
irrigation to crops. It can be measured by several instruments, which are commercially available viz.,
porometer, infrared thermometer etc.

Infrared thermometer for scheduling irrigations to crops

For maize it is shown that if the canopy temperature rises to more than 0.70C over ambient
temperature during 1330 to 1400 hour’s irrigations need to be scheduled. However, tomato showed
no sensitivity to water stress with respect to temperature variations.
20.1.3 Critical growth stages

The crop plants in their life cycle pass through various phases of growth, some of which are
critical for water supply. The most critical stage of crop growth is the one at which a high degree of
water stress would cause maximum loss in yield. Scheduling of irrigations on the basis of critical
growth stages is simple and easy for the farmers. However, it does not take into account the available
soil water in the crop root zone depth. Excessive irrigations without significant soil/ plant water
deficit could beharmful to crop plants and might reduce their yield under certain situations.
Surface Methods of Irrigation
Surface irrigation method refers to the manner or plan of water application by gravity
flow to the cultivated land wetting either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or part
of the field (furrows, basins, border strips). Most irrigated areas have characteristic land
features and differ from those in other areas. Hence, for efficient application of water
it is important to select such method of irrigation, which fits one’s own land. In doing so
it may be necessary, or desirable, to use more than one method of irrigation in an area
or a given farm.
21.1 Wild flooding

It consists of applying water to the field without any bunds to guide the flow of water wetting
the soil surface completely. Generally, it is practiced only when irrigation water is abundant and
where land levelling is not followed. Sometimes it is also adopted in the initial stages of land
development. This method is most commonly used for irrigation of crops sown by broadcasting
method viz., rice, low value pastures, lawns and millets etc.
Advantages
1. No land levelling & land shaping
2. Low labor and land preparation costs
3. Less skill required by irrigator
Disadvantages
1. Applied water is lost by deep percolation & surface runoff
2. Low irrigation application efficiency
21.2 Controlled flooding

21.3.1 Check basin method
In this method the field is divided into square or rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m 2 guided by
bunds on all the sides. This method is usually practiced in nearly levelled lands; thus, no run-off of
soil or water takes place and wetting depth is more uniform. The field channels supply water to each
basin, during which the basins are filled to desired depth and water is retained until it infiltrates into
the soil. This method is most commonly used for irrigating crops like groundnut, finger millet,
sorghum, vegetable crops etc. Check basins are also used for leaching salts below the crop root zone
depth by percolating water in the reclamation of saline soils.

Check basin method of irrigation
Advantages
1. Water can be applied uniformly.
2. Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops efficiently.
3. Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing bunds
Disadvantages
1. Unless the land is levelled, distribution of water in plot is uneven.
2. Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e., nearly 30% of area.
3. Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment
4. More labor is required for field layout and irrigation
21.3.2 Ring basin method

This method is a modification of check basin method and is suitable for sparselygrown
orchard crops and cucurbits.
Ring basin method of irrigation

In this method a circular bund is constructed around each tree/plant or group of
plants/trees to create a basin for irrigation. These basins are suitably connected toirrigation
conveyance channels is such a way that either each basin is irrigated separatelyor group of basins
by flowing water from one basin to another through inter- connections. Advantages
1. High irrigation application efficiency can be achieved with properly designed system
2. Unskilled labor can be used, as there is no danger of erosion
Disadvantages
1. High labor requirement
2. Bunds restrict use of modern machinery in the field
3. Limited to relatively uniform lands
21.3.3 Border strip method

The cultivated field to be irrigated is divided into a number of long parallel strips, generally 5
to 15 m in width and 75 to 300 m in length separated by small border ridges or low dykes of about
15 cm high, laid out in the direction of the slope.
Border strip method of irrigation

The objective is to advance a sheet of water down the narrow strip of land, allowing it to enter
the soil as the sheet advances. Irrigation water is released into each strip connected directly to
irrigation channel situated at the upstream end of the border strip. After sufficient water has been
applied to one strip, the irrigation stream is turned into another strip. A specific requirement in
border irrigation is that the longitudinal slopemust be uniform, and the transverse slope must be
zero or negligible (< 0.03%). This method is suitable for irrigating a wide variety of close growing
crops such as wheat,barley, groundnut, bajra and berseem.
Advantages
1. Large water streams can be used safely
2. Provides uniform wetting of soil profile
3. Low labor requirement
Disadvantages
1. Requires relatively large water streams for quick advance of water to minimize deep
percolation losses at the upper end of the border strip.
2. Wastage of water by deep percolation in coarse textured soils.
21.3.4 Deep furrow method

In furrow method of irrigation, the flat bed surface is converted into a series of ridges and
furrows running down the slope. The spacing of the furrow is ordinarily determined by the spacing
of row crop. The length of the furrow and slope depends on several factors viz., texture, intake rate
etc.
Furrow method of irrigation

Depending on the soil, crop spacing, farm equipment used etc. spacing betweenfurrows varies
from 60 to 120 cm. Depending on the soil texture furrow length ranges from 20 to 300 m or even
more. To avoid overtopping and scouring problems furrow inflow rates are normally limited to 2 to
15 m3/hr./furrow. This method can be used either with small or large streams of irrigation water
because it can be diverted into any number of furrows. Slope along the furrows may range from 0.2
to 2%. Where the land is too slopy (>5%), the furrows must be constructed on contours. Among the
various surface irrigation methods, there is a relative saving of water in furrow method; hence
efficient use of wateris possible. In case of limited water, alternate furrows may be irrigated without
much adverse effect on the crop yield. This method is commonly used for irrigating crops like potato,
sugarcane, maize, cotton, melons, sugar beets and vegetables like lettuce.
When furrow irrigation is practiced under saline and alkaline conditions, the lateral
movement of soil moisture coupled with evaporation causes salt to accumulate in the ridges
between furrows. If the salt accumulation reaches harmful levels, planting is advocated on the
relatively salt free bottom of the furrows following pre-plant irrigation.
Advantages
1. Fairly high irrigation application efficiency among surface irrigation methods
2. Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy rainfall
3. Low evaporation losses
Disadvantages
1. Not suitable in coarse textured soils with high infiltration rates
2. Possibility of intra-furrow soil erosion
3. Labour intensive

21.3.5 Corrugations
This is a special method of furrow irrigation. Corrugations or rills are shallow furrows running
down the slope from head ditches or laterals, which are sometimes very close to each other.
Corrugation’s method of irrigation

Water moves down through several corrugations simultaneously and soaks laterally through
the soil, wetting the area between the corrugations. This method is used for irrigating close growing
crops, which do not require inter-culture operations and may also be used in conjunction with border
irrigation. Corrugations are often used in fine textured soils that take water slowly and in soils, which
tend to seal over and crust when flooded. The spacing and size of the corrugations vary with soil type,
but in general, the more porous the soil, the more closely spaced the corrugations to permit rapid
wetting between them without excessive deep percolation losses. The length of the corrugations
should be such that upper end of the field has not been over irrigated by the time the lower end has
received sufficient water.

21.3 Sub-irrigation
Sub-irrigation is the method of applying water beneath the soil surface; close to the plant roots
so that either water seeps from the sides of the channels towards the plant roots or through capillary
movement upward. It is usually done by creating an artificial water surface at some pre-determined
depth, about 30 – 75 cm below the ground, depending upon the texture and rooting characteristics
of the crop. Application efficiencies vary from 30-80% depending upon conditions. Water having high
salt content cannot be used. This method is expensive, difficult to maintain and operate, and suitable
only for few crops. Because of high investment required, it has not been widely adopted in India.
Sprinkler Method of Irrigation

22.1 Introduction
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural
rainfall. Water is conveyed under desired pressure (2 to 5 kg/cm2) developed by a pump through a
network of pipes, called mainlines and submains to one or more laterals and is sprayed in to the air
through sprinkler nozzles or perforations so thatit breaks up in to small water drops (0.5 to 4mm in
size) which fall over the land or crop surface in a uniform pattern at a rate (0.06-5000 LPH) less than
the infiltrability of soil. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be
designed to enable auniform application of water.
Sprinkler irrigation system
Sprinkler irrigation systems may be classified as portable, semiportable, semi- permanent or

permanent. They are also classified as set-move, solid-set or continuous move sprinkler systems.

Centre pivot, Linear move and traveler sprinkler irrigationsystems
22.2 Advantages
a) Elimination of field channels and their maintenance, which increase the productionarea
b) Harmful ditch weeds, which have allelopathic effects, do not appear with sprinkler
irrigation.
c) No water losses in conveyance, which amounts to 35% in surface irrigation methods
d) Close control over water application i.e., no runoff losses because water is appliedbelow
or equal to infiltration rate.
e) Convenient for giving light and frequent irrigations.
f) Higher application efficiency over surface methods of irrigation.
g) Sprinklers give a gentle rain that does not clog or compact the soil ensuring betterand
quicker germination of seeds resulting in more plants per unit area
h) Suitable in undulated lands, soils with shallow depth and areas located at higher
elevation than the water source.
i) Feasibility of frequent, short water applications for germination, cooling & frostprotection to
plants, etc.
j) Higher yield and water saving over surface irrigation methods
22.3 Limitations
a) Uneven distribution of water due to high wind velocities particularly during summerseason.
b) Higher evaporation losses when operating under high temperatures.
c) Mechanical difficulties such as sprinklers fail to rotate, nozzles may clog, couplersmay
leak or engine may require repair.
d) Initial investment and recurrent operating costs are much higher than in surfaceirrigation
methods.
e) Moving the portable lines, when the soil is wet results in the destruction of soil
structure
f) Use of saline water for irrigation is not possible since it will be harmful to crops
g) Higher water pressure required hence extra energy cost
22.4 Sprinkler System Components & Layout

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of a pumping unit, pump connector, non-return
valve, water meter, pressure gauge, pressure regulators, mainline & sub- mainlines, laterals, control
valves, hydrants, sprinkler base, sprinkler heads, bends, tees, reducers, end plug, nipples, flanges etc.
The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and provides
adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.

Sprinkler system components

22.5 Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most field crops viz., wheat, lucerne, groundnut, Bengal gram,
green gram, black gram, potato, leafy vegetables, sunflower, barley, bajra, maize, wheat etc. wherein
water can be sprayed over the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for
irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the sprinklers
may damage the crop. Water containing specific ions such as sodium and chlorides in concentration
of more than 3 m eq/liter are not suitable for irrigation by overhead sprinklers.
Sprinkler irrigation in maize and lettuce

Drip Method of Irrigation
23.1 Introduction
Drip irrigation is defined as the precise, slow and frequent application of small quantities of
water to the soil in the form of discrete drops, continuous drops, and tiny streams through emitters
located at selected points along a water delivery lateral line. It differs from sprinkler irrigation by the
fact that only part of the soil surface is wetted.
23.1.1 Surface drip irrigation: The application of water to the soil surface as drops or tiny streams
through emitters with discharges rate for point-source emitters less than 8 L/h for single outlet
emitter and for line-source emitters less than 4 L/h. Often theterms drip and trickle irrigation
are considered synonymous.
Surface drip irrigation in bhindi and mango crop

23.1.2 Subsurface drip irrigation: The application of water below the soil surface through emitters,
with discharge rate generally in the range of 0.6 to 3 L/h. This method of water application is different
from and not to be confused with the method where the rootzone is irrigated by water table control, herein
referred to as subirrigation.
Subsurface drip irrigation in potato

23.2 Advantages
a) Enhanced plant growth, crop yield and premium quality produce
b) Water Saving due to increased beneficial use of available water and higher water
application efficiency
c) Precise and uniform delivery of water to crops due to controlled water application
d) Maintenance of higher soil water potential in the root zone
e) Compact and efficient root system
f) Combined water and fertilizer (fertigation) application minimizes nutrient losses and
improves fertilizer use efficiency and contributes to fertilizer saving in some crops
g) Reduced salinity hazards to crop plants when low quality saline water is used for irrigation
h) Suitable for irrigating high-value crops raised in greenhouses, plastic tunnels, potted plants
and under plastic mulches
i) Lower operating pressures means reduced pumping energy costs
j) Limited weed growth because only a fraction of the soil surface is irrigated
k) Reduced operational and labor costs due to improved weed control and simultaneous
application of water, fertilizers, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and other additives through
the drip irrigation system
l) Feasible to irrigate crops raised in small & irregularly shaped narrow lawns, and on undulated
land terrains
m) Maintenance of dry foliage means improved disease and pest management
n) Suitable to highly permeable & low water holding sandy and desert soils, saline and slowly
permeable alkaline soils, wastelands, slopy lands and rocky hills, road embankments,
abandoned mine areas etc.
o) Improved and continuous cultural operations such as spraying, weeding, thinning and
harvesting of tree and row crops is possible without interrupting the drip irrigation cycle for
any prolonged period of time.
p) Environmental protection and ecological security
23.3 Limitations
a) Sensitivity to emitter clogging
b) Salt accumulation in soil
c) Mechanical damage to system components
d) Lack of microclimate control such as frost protection and evaporative cooling.
e) Operational constraints such as high technical skills, stringent filtration andoperating
pressures etc
23.4 Drip Irrigation System Layout and Components

The drip irrigation system consists of three subsystems viz., control head unit, water carrier
system and water distribution system besides water source & pumping station.
a) Head control unit – Non return valve, Air release valve, Vacuum breaker, Filtration unit,
Fertigation unit, Throttle valve, Pressure gauge, Water meter, Pressure regulator and
Pressure relief valve.
b) Water carrier system – PVC main pipeline, PVC submain pipeline, Control valve,
Flush valve and other fittings
c) Water distribution system – Drip lateral, Emitters, Grommet, Start connecter, Nipple, End cap.
23.5 Suitable crops

Drip irrigation, like other irrigation methods, will not fit every agricultural crop, specific site or
objective. Presently drip irrigation has the greatest potential in the followingcrops:
Fruit crops – Mango, citrus, grapes, guava, pomegranate, banana, papaya,watermelon, Litchi,
Fig, Ber, Amla, Sapota etc.
a) Vegetable crops – Tomato, Brinjal, Bhindi, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Capsicum, Chiliesgourds
etc.
b) Plantation crops – Oil palm, Coconut, Arecanut, Cashewnut, Coffee, Tea etc.
c) Field crops – Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Sugar beet, Castor etc.
d) Tuber & Bulb crops – Potato, Cassava, Onion, Sweet potato, Radish, Colocasia etc.
e) Spices – Turmeric, Ginger, Cardamom etc.
f) Flowers – Roses, Rose, Gerbera, Orchids, Anthurium, Gladiolus, Carnations, Jasmine,
Chrysanthemum, Marigold etc.
Water Use Efficiency of Crops

24.1 Introduction
The term "water use efficiency" originates in the economic concept of productivity.
Productivity measures the amount of any given resource that must be expended to produce one unit
of any good or service.
Crop water use efficiency
Crop water use efficiency is a ratio between marketable crop yield and water usedby the
crop in evapotranspiration.
Y
WUE (Kg/ha. mm) =
ETc
Were,
WUE = Water use efficiency in kg/ha-mmY =
Marketable crop yield in kg/ha ETc = Crop
evapotranspiration in mm
24.2 Field water use efficiency

Field water use efficiency is a ratio between marketable crop yield and field water supply
which includes water used by the plant in metabolic activities, ET and deep percolation losses.
Y
FWUE (Kg/ha. mm) =
WR
Were,
FWUE = Field water use efficiency in kg/ha-mmY =
Crop yield in kg/ha
WR = Water used in metabolic activities, ET and deep percolation losses in mmFactors
affecting water use efficiency
The factors influencing water use efficiency can be classified as follows:
24.2.1 Climatic factors

Weather affects both crop yield and crop evapotranspiration. The amount of solar radiation
determines the rate of photosynthesis and hence the potential yield. Other components of climate
viz., temperature, day length, rainfall etc. influence vital physiological processes and thereby
determine the actual harvested yield. The lower the relative humidity is, the greater will be the ETc.
Therefore, low relative humidity in the atmosphere increases transpiration without any
corresponding increase in dry matter production and will reduce WUE. Light and temperature that
normally affect both transpiration and dry matter production will either increase or decrease WUE
according to which of the two predominates. High wind velocity increase ETc without any concurrent
increase in dry matter production hence decrease WUE.
24.2.2 Crop management factors

a) Time of sowing: Timely sowing ensures optimal temperatures, soil moisture availability and
other soil physical conditions favoring optimal crop growth and development with greater
ability to compete with prevalent weed flora, hence increases WUE.
b) Depth of sowing: Optimal depth of sowing affects seedling emergence, vigor and finally crop
yield, hence improves WUE.
c) Direction of sowing: North south row orientation of crop rows influences the interception and
utilization of incident solar radiation which in turn influences crop yield and improves WUE as
compared to east west direction of row pattern.
d) Plant population: Optimal plant population promotes uniform & rapid developmentof crop
canopy without any competition for growth resources viz., light, nutrients, water, CO2 etc. hence
improves WUE.
e) Fertilization: Fertilization of crops suffering from low nutrition under adequate soil water
availability increases crop yield considerably, with a relatively small increase in crop
evapotranspiration, therefore, markedly improves WUE.
f) Insect pests & diseases: Insect pests and diseases reduce crop yield as well as WUEto varying
degrees depending upon the intensity of infestation, because ETc or water requirement of crop
will not change to a significant level except in cases where premature death of plants occurs.
g) Irrigation method: Field water use efficiency in general is higher with overhead sprinkler, micro
sprinkler and drip methods of irrigation as compared to surface irrigation methods viz., furrow,
border strip, check basin etc. owing to higher crop yield and lower seasonal water application.
h) ET control measures: Use of mulches, anti-transpirants, shelterbelts and elimination of weeds
etc. reduce water losses from cropped field in terms of soil evaporation and transpiration
without any reduction in crop yield, hence markedly improve WUE.
Irrigation Efficiencies
25.1 Water Conveyance Efficiency
It is the ratio between water delivered to the irrigated plot and total quantity delivered from
source.
25.2 Water Distribution Efficiency

It is the ratio between the average numerical deviations in depth of water stored from average
depth stored during irrigation (Y) and the average depth stored during irrigation (d). It is
mathematically expressed as:
25.3 Water Application Efficiency
It is the ratio between quantity of water stored in the root zone and water deliveredto the
plot. It is mathematically expressed as:
The concept of water application efficiency can be applied to a project, a farm or a field to
evaluate the irrigation practices. All the factors, which influence the design of the surface irrigation
system therefore directly, affect the application efficiency. Thus a low Ea implies that much of the
applied water has been lost due to deep percolation or runoff.
25.4 Water Storage Efficiency

It is the ratio between water stored in the root zone and water needed in the root zone prior
to irrigation. It is mathematically expressed as:

25.5 Project Efficiency

It is the ratio between the average depth of water stored in the root zone during irrigation and
water diverted from the reservoir. It is mathematically expressed as:

Quality of Irrigation Water

26.1 Criteria to determine the quality of irrigation water
The criteria for judging the quality of irrigation water are: Total salt concentration as
measured by electrical conductivity, relative proportion of sodium to other cations as expressed by
sodium adsorption ratio, bicarbonate content, boron concentration and soluble sodium percentage.
26.1.1 Total soluble salts
Salinity of water refers to concentration of total soluble salts in it. It is the most important
single criterion of irrigation water quality. The harmful effects increase with increase in total salt
concentration. The concentration of soluble salts in water is indirectly measured by its electrical
conductivity (ECw). The quality of saline waters has been divided into five classes as per USDA
classification
Salinity classes of irrigation water

Electrical conductivity
Salinity class
Micro mhos/cm Milli mhos/cm
C1 – Low < 250 < 0.25
C2 – Medium 25 – 750 0.25 – 0.75
C3 – Medium to high 750 – 2250 0.75 – 2.25
C4 – High 2250 – 5000 2.25 – 5.00
C5 – Very high > 5000 > 5.00
Adverse effects of saline water include salt accumulation, increase in osmotic potential,
decreased water availability to plants, poor germination, patchy crop stand, stunted growth with
smaller, thicker and dark green leaves, leaf necrosis & leaf drop, root death, wilting of plants, nutrient
deficiency symptoms and poor crop yields.
26.1.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

SAR of water indicates the relative proportion of sodium to other cations. It indicates sodium
or alkali hazard.
Na+
SAR =
++ ++
√Ca + Mg 2
The ion concentration is expressed as m/eq per liter. Increase in SAR of water increases the
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil. There is a linear relationship between SAR and ESP
of the soil:
100 (0. 23 + 0. 0042SAR)
ESP =
1 + (0. 23 + 0. 0042SAR)
As per USSSL, the sodicity classes of water are
Sodicity classes of water
Sodium class SAR value
S1 – Low < 10
S2 – Moderate 10 – 18
S3 – High 18 – 26
S4 – Very high > 26
Harmful effects of sodic water include destruction of soil structure, crust formation, poor
seedling emergence, reduction in availability of N, Zn and Fe due to increased soil pH, Na toxicity and
toxicity of B & Mo due to their excessive solubility.
26.1.3 Residual sodium carbonate

Bicarbonate is important primarily in its relation to Ca and Mg. There is a tendency for Ca to
react with bicarbonates and precipitate as calcium carbonate. As Ca and Mg are lost from water, the
proportion of sodium is increased leading to sodium hazard. This hazard is evaluated in terms of
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) as given below:
RSC (m/eq/liter) = (CO–– + HCO–) — (Ca++ + Mg++)
3 3
RSC is expressed in m/eq per liter. Water with RSC more than 2.5 m/eq/L is not suitable for
irrigation. Water with 1.25 to 2.5 m/eq/L is marginally suitable and water with less than 1.25
m/eq/L is safe for use.
26.2 Leaching requirement
Leaching requirement (LR) is that fraction of total crop water requirement which must be
leached down below the crop root zone depth to control salts within the tolerance level (ECe) of the
crop.
ECw
Leaching Requirement (LR) =
5 (ECe) — ECw
Where:
ECw = Salinity of applied water in dS/m
ECe = Threshold level soil salinity of the crop in dS/m
26.3 Management practices for using poor quality water
Whenever, it is inevitable to use water of poor-quality water for crop production appropriate
management practices helps to obtain reasonable yield of crops. Some of the important management
practices are as follows:
a) Application of gypsum: Chemical amendments such as gypsum, when added to water will
increase the calcium concentration in the water, thus reducing the sodium to calcium ratio and
the SAR, thus improving the infiltration rate. Gypsum requirement iscalculated based on relative
concentration of Na, Mg & Ca ions in irrigation water and the solubility of gypsum. To add 1 m
eq/L of calcium, 860 kg of gypsum of 100% purity per ha m of water is necessary.
b) Alternate irrigation strategy: Some crops are susceptible to salinity at germination &
establishment stage, but tolerant at later stage. If susceptible stages are ensuredwith good
quality water, subsequent tolerant stages can be irrigated with poor quality saline water.
c) Fertilizer application: Fertilizers, manures, and soil amendments include many soluble salts in
high concentrations. If placed too close to the germinating seedling or to the growing plant, the
fertilizer may cause or aggravate a salinity or toxicity problem. Care, therefore, should be taken
in placement as well as timing of fertilization. Application of fertilizers in small doses and
frequently improve uptake and reduce damage to the crop plants. In addition, the lower the salt
index of fertilizer,the less danger there is of salt burn and damage to seedlings or young plants.
d) Methods of irrigation: The method of irrigation directly affects both the efficiency of water use
and the way salts accumulate. Poor quality irrigation water is not suitable for use in sprinkler
method of irrigation. Crops sprinkled with waters having excess quantities of specific ions such
as Na and Cl cause leaf burn. High frequency irrigation in small amounts as in drip irrigation
improves water availability and uptake due to micro leaching effect in the wetted zone.
e) Crop tolerance: The crops differ in their tolerance to poor quality waters. Growing tolerant crops
when poor quality water is used for irrigation helps to obtain reasonable crops yields.
f) Method of sowing: Salinity reduces or slows germination and it is often difficult to obtain a
satisfactory stand. Suitable planting practices, bed shapes, and irrigation management can
greatly enhance salt control during the critical germination period. Seeds have to be placed in
the area where salt concentration is less. Salt accumulation is less on the slope of the ridge and
bottom of the ridge. Therefore, placing the seed onthe slope of the ridge, several cm below the
crown, is recommended for successful crop establishment.
Table 26.4. Relative salt tolerance of crops
Field crops: Cotton, Safflower, Sugar beet & Barley
Fruit crops: Date palm & Guava
Tolerant
Vegetables: Turnip & Spinach
Forage crops: Berseem & Rhodes grass
Field crops: Sorghum, Maize, Sunflower, Bajra, mustard,M Rice
&Wheat
Fruit crops: Fig, Grape & Mango
Semi tolerant
Vegetables: Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Carrot &
Potato
Forage crops: Senji & Oats
Field crops: Chick pea, Linseed, Beans, Green gram & Black gram
Fruit crops: Apple, Orange, Almond, Peach, Strawberry, Lemon &
Sensitive
Plum
Vegetables: Radish, Peas & Lady’s finger
g) Drainage: Provide adequate internal drainage. Meet the necessary leaching requirement
depending on crop and EC of water. This is necessary to avoid build of salt in the soil solution to
levels that will limit crop yields. Leaching requirement can be calculated from water test results
and tolerance levels of specific crops.
h) Other management practices
 Over aged seedlings in rice: Transplanting of rice with over aged seedlings at a
closer spacing results in better establishment in salt effected soils than normal aged seedlings.
In case of other crops like finger millet, pearl millet etc., transplanting is better method than
direct sowing of these crops for proper establishment.
 Mulching: Mulching with locally available plant material help in reducing saltproblems by
reducing evaporation and by increasing infiltration.
 Soil management: All soil management practices that improve infiltration rate and
maintain favorable soil structure reduces salinity hazard.
 Crop rotation: Inclusion of crops such as rice in the rotation reduces salinity.
Water Management Practices in Rice

27.1.1 Percolation losses in rice fields
Percolation losses are a function of the local soil and topographic conditions. Therefore, at any
time the amount of rainfall or irrigation water entering the soil becomes greater than its water
holding capacity, losses by downward movement of free water (vertical percolation) will occur.
Percolation is often defined as the movement of water through saturated soils due to gravity,
hydrostatic pressure or both.
Thus, where the soil is heavy and the water table is close to the soil surface, percolation losses
are low, about 1 – 2 mm/day. On the other hand, where the soil is light and the water table is deep,
percolation losses may be high, about 8 – 15 mm/day, or more. About 50 to 60% of applied water to
rice is lost by deep percolation. The percolation losses can be reduced by adopting following
agronomic practices:
1. Growing rice on clayey soils
2. Scrupulous land levelling
3. Thorough puddling
4. Shallow depth of submergence
5. Sub-soil compaction
6. Application of clay, silt, bentonite etc.
27.1.2 Submergence versus saturation

In most areas rice fields are submerged continuously throughout the crop-growing period,
though not always essential. Soil saturation is sufficient for kharif rice, while submergence not
exceeding 5 cm seems to be essential and adequate for rabi rice.
Fig. 27.2. Submerged rice field
27.1.2.1 Advantages of continuous submergence

 Less weed problem
 Fixation of nitrogen by Blue green algae
 Increased availability of nutrients such as P, Fe, Mn, Zn and silicon
 Regulation of soil temperature
 Reduction in labor cost
27.1.2.2 Disadvantages of continuous submergence

 Deep percolation losses of irrigation water
 Surface runoff losses of irrigation water
 Leaching of nutrients particularly nitrogen
 Sulphide injury
 Iron toxicity
27.1.3 Optimum depth of submergence
Crop growth stage Depth of submergence

At transplanting 2 cm
After transplanting for 3 days 5 cm
3 days after transplanting to maximum tillering 2cm
At maximum tillering (midseason drainage) Drain water for 3 days
Maximum tillering to panicle initiation 2 cm
Panicle initiation to 21 days after flowering 5 cm
After 21 days after flowering Drain out water gradually
a) Shallow depth (2 cm) of submergence at transplanting seedling facilitates planting at

correct depth, since more depth of water will lead to deep transplanting resulting in
reduction of tillering
b) After transplanting for 3 days adequate water is necessary to facilitate development of new
roots and to hasten establishment of seedlings
c) After 3 days of transplanting to maximum tillering again shallow depth is favored by the
rice crop because more water depth reduces tillering
d) At maximum tillering in fertile soils i.e., 40 days after transplanting drain thefield for three
days till the soil shows fine cracks. This is known as mid-season drainage. This is essential
because the respiratory function of the roots is highest during this stage and introduction
of air into the soil by draining the field leads tovigorous growth of roots and checks the
development of non-effective tillers thereby reducing the sterility percentage. It also helps
in regulation of nitrogen supply thus controls the production of ineffective tillers.
e) Reproductive growth starts when maximum tiller production is completed and includes
the panicle primordia development, booting, heading and flowering stages. A large
amount of water is consumed in a major part of thereproductive growth period.
Drought at this stage causes severe damage leading to increased panicle sterility, caused
by impeded panicle formation, heading, flowering or fertilization. Excessive water at
booting stage causes decreases in culm strength and increases lodging.

Water Management Practices in Wheat and Maize

28.1.1 Optimum time of first irrigation
The crown root initiation (CRI) stage is the optimum time for first irrigation indwarf wheat –
about 3 weeks after sowing. A delay of 2 – 3 weeks in this irrigation reduces the yield by 500 –
1000kg/ha. Crown roots of wheat generally develop within 2cm below the soil surface. If there is
sufficient moisture at this depth, crown roots will develop normally and irrigation would not be
necessary at this stage. But generally, the top 5 – 6 cm of soil layer gets completely dry by the time
the crown roots start developing. The water and nutrient supplies have then to be met only by the
seminal roots, which are less vigorous and less efficient. Consequently, the growth of the plant,
especially tillering, is much restricted, reducing the grain yield.
Table 28.1 Irrigation scheduling under limited water supply situations
Water available for Irrigation to be given at
I. Adequate water supply
Crown root initiation, Late tillering (tiller completion),
Four irrigations
Flowering and Milk stages
Five irrigations
Late jointing, Flowering and Milk stages
Six irrigations
Flowering, Milk and Dough stages
II. Restricted water supply
One irrigation Crown root initiation
Two irrigations Crown root initiation and Boot (Late jointing)
Three irrigations Crown root initiation, Boot and Milk
28.1.2 Optimum number of irrigations under adequate water supply

If the underground water table is well below the root zone and there is no rainfall during the
growing season, 4 – 6 irrigations depending on the climatic conditions, soil type and the variety may
be needed for getting the highest yield from the dwarf wheats. Irrigation at a soil moisture tension
of 0.5 bars at a depth of 22.5 cm amounted to the same number of irrigations and resulted in similar
grain yields.

28.2 Maize
Surface basin irrigated wheat crop
The maize is one of nature’s most amazing energy-storing plants. From a seed,which weighs
little more than one-hundredth of an ounce, a plant of 7 – 10 feet tall develops in about nine weeks.
Thus, corn has a high-water requirement but is one of the most efficient field crops in producing
higher dry matter per unit amount of water used. The effective root zone depth of the maize crop
varies from 0.9 to 1.5 m.
To obtain good stand and rapid root development, the root zone should be wetted at or soon
after sowing. Taking into account the level of evaporative demand to meet full water requirement
irrigations have to be scheduled at 40% DASM in the germination and seedling & establishment
stages. Whereas during vegetative, tasseling, silking, pollen shed and kernel development stages
irrigations have to be scheduled at 55 to 65% DASM and up to 80% DASM during ripening or
maturation period. Likewise, irrigation at an IW/CPE ratioof 1.0 at critical growth stages and 0.75 –
0.5 at other stages was found to be optimum. The threshold soil moisture tension levels for
scheduling irrigations based on tensiometer readings vary between 30 to 60 centibars at different
growth stages. Higher grain yields of maize were recorded when irrigations were scheduled between
−14 to −20 bars leaf water potential depending on the crop growth stage using pressure bomb or
pressure chamber apparatus. Water quality threshold electrical conductivity values 3.2 dS/m in
sandy soil,
1.8 dS/m in loamy soil and 1.1 dS/m in clay soil, above which yield decreases.
Table 28.2. Irrigation scheduling under limited water supply situations
Water available
Irrigation to be given at
for
Two irrigations Establishment and Flowering
Three irrigations Establishment, Vegetative and Kernel development
Establishment, Vegetative, Flowering and Kernel
Four irrigations
development
Establishment, Vegetative, Flowering, Kernel development
Five irrigations
& Ripening
29.1.1 Physiological factors to be considered for efficient water management

a) A liberal water supply reduces the cane yield and/or sugar yield, while mildwater
stress enhances the yield
b) Excessive watering at tillering should be avoided since it coincides with activeroot
development and hinders nutrient uptake due to poor o2 diffusion
c) Since there is no secondary thickening of the stem in sugarcane the length of thecane
determines the sink available for sugar storage
d) A ‘drying off’ or ‘cut out’ period of 4 – 6 weeks prior to harvest ensures an
optimum sugar yield
e) Restricted water application during the ‘ripeness to flower’ stage helps to controltassels
or arrows
f) Sugarcane has an intrinsic ability to circumvent water shortages and can morethan
make up for the potential yield loss.
29.2 Groundnut
Groundnut is an important oilseed crop and is cultivated in all three a gricultural seasons
viz., Kharif (June to September), rabi (October to January) and summer (January to May) seasons.
Generally, the rabi/summer groundnut is raised under irrigated conditions. However supplemental
or protective irrigations during rainy season in the event of drought significantly improve the pod
yield. The effective root zone depth of the crops varies between 0.5 to 0.9 m. Depending upon the
range of environment, variety and crop duration the seasonal water requirementsvary from 400 to
650 mm.
Irrigation schedule for rabi & summer groundnut

Duration Irrigation Crop ET ET
Crop growth stage
(days) frequency (mm) (mm/day)
RABI SEASON
Sowing to pegging 0 – 30 2 125 4.16
Pegging to pod formation 30 – 55 3 150 6.00
Pod formation to maturity 55 - 90 2 100 2.85
Total season 90 7 375 ---
SUMMER SEASON
Sowing to pegging 0 – 35 3 135 4.00
Pegging to pod formation 35 – 65 6 270 9.00
Pod formation to maturity 65 - 100 4 135 4.00
Total season 100 13 540 ---
Surface basin and sprinkler irrigated groundnut

Water Management Practices in Mango, Banana and Tomato

30.1 Mango
Irrigation scheduling from flowering to fruit ripening stage considering the following factors
contributes to higher yield and improved fruit quality.
a) Climatic conditions
b) Crop age – Young and non-bearing orchards differ from the bearing orchards
c) Root penetration and proliferation
d) Fruit-bud differentiation takes place in terminal mature (8 to 10 months) shoots
e) During fruit-bud differentiation and vegetative phase, requirements are
antagonistic.
f) Fruit quality depends upon moisture content in soil during fruit development and
maturity.
30.2 Banana
Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of India. Banana is a tropical
herbaceous evergreen plant which has no natural dormant phase and hence has a high water demand
throughout the year, especially during high temperatures. With respect to water management the
important characteristics of the banana plant are:
a) A high transpiration potential due to the large broad leaves and high LAI
b) A shallow root system compared with most tree fruit crops
c) A poor quality to withdraw water from soil beneath field capacity
d) A rapid physiological response to soil water deficit
Drip irrigated banana
Irrigation scheduling for bananas involves accurate calculations of the amount of water to be
applied at each irrigation, and the interval between irrigations, for each soil- plant-climate
combination. Scheduling of irrigations between 25% to 50% DASM or 0.75 to
1.0 IW/CPE ratio at different growth stages was found to be optimum for producing higher fruit

yields. Irrigate using tensiometers installed at 30 cm soil depth to maintain 30 – 40 centibars at
different growth stages to maximize fruit yields.
30.3 Tomato
Tomato is the second most important vegetable crop next to potato in India. It is rapidly
growing crop with a growing period of 120 – 150 days. The crop has a fairly deep root system and in
uniform deep soils roots penetrate up to 1.2m. Over 80% of the total water uptake occurs in the first
50 cm. The crop is most sensitive to water deficit during and immediately after transplanting and
during, flowering and fruit development stages.
Surface irrigation by furrow is commonly practiced. Under sprinkler irrigation the occurrence
of fungal diseases and possibly bacterial canker may become a major problem. Further, under
sprinkler, fruit set may be reduced with an increase in fruit rotting. Due to the crop’s specific
demands for a high soil water content achieved without leaf wetting, trickle or drip irrigation has
been successfully applied.
Agricultural Drainage
31.1 Drainage - Definition
Agricultural drainage is the artificial removal and safe disposal of excess watereither from
the land surface or soil profile, more specifically, the removal and safe disposal of excess gravitational
water from the crop root zone to create favorable conditions for crop growth to enhance agricultural
production.
31.2 Benefits of drainage

a) It provides better soil environment for plant growth by creating favorable soilaeration
conditions
b) It improves the soil structure and in turn increases the soil infiltration
c) High infiltration capacity reduces soil erosion.
d) It hastens the warming of the soils and maintains desirable soil temperature, which
accelerates plant growth and bacterial activity
e) It promotes increased leaching of salts and prevents accumulation of salts in thecrop root
zone
f) In well drained soils, less time and less labor are required for tillage operations
31.3 Problems or effects of ill-drainage

a) Limitation of aeration.
b) Accumulation of CO2 and toxic substances like H2S, ferrous sulfide etc. in the croproot
zones
c) Reduced water uptake due to reduced activity of roots as a result of oxygen stress
d) Reduced nutrient uptake
e) Development of soil salinity and alkalinity
f) Anaerobic condition and prevalence of plant diseases
g) Stunted plant growth and development which results in reduced yield
31.4 Types of drainage

Broadly drainage systems are of two types- Surface and Sub-surface.
31.4.1 Surface drainage systems

Safe removal and disposal of excess water primarily from land surface or cropped area by a
network of surface drains or constructed channels and through proper land shaping is known as
surface drainage. There are four general types of surface drainage systems used in flat areas having
a slope of <2% viz., (a) Random drain system (b) Parallel field drain system (c) Parallel open ditch
system and (d) Bedding system
a) Random drain system: This system is usually adopted in areas where the ground surface is
characterized by a series and depression and where small depressions are to be drained off.
Depending upon the possibility the field drains are designed in such a way to connect one depression to
another, and water is safely conveyed to lateral drains. These lateral drains ultimately guide the water to
main outlet drain. The field drains besides occupying the land area are likely to interfere with farm
operations.
b) Parallel field drain system: The parallel field ditch system is used in places where the surface is
uniform and has few noticeable ridges or depressions. In this system the surface of individual
fields is graded in such a way so that the runoff water drains into field drains, which in turn
discharge water into field laterals bordering the field and finally the laterals in turn lead water
into the main outlet ditch through protected over falls. Laterals and mains should be deeper than
field drains to provide free out-fall. Maximum spacing of parallel field drains is about 200 m for
sandy soils andabout 100 m for clay soils. It is the most desirable surface drainage method and
is well suited both for irrigated and rainfed areas.
c) Parallel open ditch system: The parallel open ditch system is similar to parallel field drain system
in all respects except that the drains are replaced by open ditches which are comparatively
deeper and have steeper side slopes than the field drains. Maximum length of grade draining to
ditch should not be > 180 m. The spacing of the ditches depends upon the soil and water table
conditions and may vary from 60 –200m. This system is applicable in soils, which require both
surface and sub-surface drainage.
d) Bedding system: This system is usually adopted in fields with very little slope, usually 0.5% or
less and slowly permeable soils. It is essentially a tillage operation wherein the land is ploughed
into a series of parallel beds separated by dead furrows, which run in the direction of greatest
slope lateral drains are located perpendicular to slope. The ploughing operations are to be
carried out parallel to the furrows. The bed width and length vary between 8 to 30 m and 10
to 300m respectively dependingupon field conditions i.e., land use, slope, soil permeability and
farming operations. While bed height should not exceed 40 cm.
31.4.2 Sub-surface drainage systems
The removal and safe disposal of excess water that has already entered the soil profile is
considered sub-surface drainage. Though several sub-surface systems are available, the most
commonly used and effective ones are Tile drainage and Mole drainage systems.
31.4.2.1 Tile drainage systems

Tile drains removes excess water from the soil through a continuous line of tiles laid at
specified depth and grade. The pipes are made of either concrete or burnt clay. Free water enters

through the tile joints and flows out by gravity, so that the water table is lowered below the root zone
of the plants. The common tile drainage system layoutfollowed is: Random or natural system, Parallel
lines system and cut off or intercepting system.
a) Random system: The random system is used in areas that have scattered wet areas somewhat
isolated from each other. Tile lines are laid more or less at random to drain the wet patches.
b) Herringbone system: The system is applicable in places where the main or sub-main is located in
a narrow depression i.e., in areas that have a concave surface or a narrow depression with the
land sloping to it from both directions. The parallel laterals enter the sub-main from both sides.
It is less economical, because considerable double drainage occurs where the laterals and mains
join.
c) Gridiron and parallel systems: The gridiron and parallel systems are similar to that of
herringbone system except that the laterals enter the main or sub-main from only one side. It is
the most economical arrangement than herringbone system because one main or sub-main
serves as many laterals as possible.
d) Double main system: The double main system is a modification of the gridiron system.It may
be used where the sub-main is in a broad, flat depression, which frequently is a natural
watercourse and sometimes may be wet because of small amounts of seepage water from nearby
slopes.
e) Intercepting system: This system involves the interception of seepage water that flows over
the surface of an impervious sub-soil. The tile line is placed approximately atthe impervious layer
along which the seepage water travels, so that water will be intercepted, and wet condition is
relieved. The tile line should be located in such a way that there is at least 60 cm of soil cover
over the top of the tile.
31.4.2.2 Mole drainage system

Mole drainage is a semi-permanent method of sub-surface drainage, similar to tile drain in
layout and operation. Instead of permanent tiles a continuous circular mole drain (channel) is
prepared below the ground surface in the soil profile at desired depth and spacing using a special
implement known as mole plough. It is adapted to a particular type of soil because the soil stability
is more important in this type of sub-surface drainage.
Drainage coefficient
It is defined as the depth of water (cm) to be removed in 24 hours period from theentire
drainage area. It ranges from 0.6 to 2.5 cm/day and in extreme cases 10 cm/day.
Cropping Systems in Irrigated Agriculture
The cropping intensity in irrigated agriculture ranges from 200 to 400%. Major crops in
different agro-climatic zones vary greatly, depending on their adaptability and irrigation water
availability.
Rice based cropping systems
The profitable rice-based cropping systems followed in different agro-climatic zonesof
Andhra Pradesh are as follows:
a) North Coastal zone
Rice – Green gram/Black gram in irrigated wetlandsRice –
Maize in irrigated uplands
Rice – Rice
Green manure – RiceRice –
Rice – Sesame
Rice – Horse gram in upland areas of East Godavari Rice –
Fodder Jowar in upland areas of East Godavari
b) Krishna Godavari zone
Rice – Rice Rice –
Maize
Green manure – Rice Green
manure – Rice – RiceRice – Castor
Rice – Sunflower Rice –
Groundnut
Rice – Green gram/Black gram
c) Southern zone
Rice – Rice
Rice – Sunflower Rice –
Groundnut Green manure -
RiceRice – Vegetables
Rice – Groundnut – Finger millet
Rice – Finger millet – Groundnut
d) High Altitude Tribal zone
Rice – VegetablesRice –
Horse gram
32.2 Sugarcane based cropping systems

32.2.1 Profitable cropping systems
a) North coastal districts
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Sesame – Paddy Sugarcane
– Sugarcane – Maize – paddy Sugarcane – Sugarcane
– Sunflower – Paddy
b) Southern zone
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Groundnut
c) All zones
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Paddy
d) Godavari zone
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Green gram/Black gram
e) Krishna zone
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Turmeric
32.2.2 Profitable intercropping systems

a) Western part of Chittoor
Sugarcane + Rajmash
sugarcane + Tomato

sugarcane + Bhindi
b) Nellore
Sugarcane + Watermelon
c) Medak
Sugarcane + Potato Sugarcane +
Bengal gram
d) North-coastal districts
Sugarcane + Black gram
Sugarcane + Black gram
32.2 Groundnut based cropping systems

a) North coastal districts
Groundnut + Red gram
Groundnut – Jowar Groundnut –
VegetablesGroundnut – Rice
Groundnut – Horse gram
b) Krishna Godavari Zone
Groundnut – Bhindi Groundnut –
Chilies Groundnut – Red gram
Groundnut – Groundnut
Groundnut – Pulses Groundnut –
Sunflower
c) Southern zone
Sugarcane – Sugarcane – Groundnut
Groundnut – Groundnut
Groundnut – Sunflower / Jowar / Red gram
Groundnut – Castor
Groundnut – Soybean / Sunflower / VegetablesGroundnut /
Horse gram
d) Scarce Rainfall zone
Groundnut – Fodder Jowar
Groundnut – Vegetables / Watermelon

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Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Water Management pg. 1

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Water Management pg. 4

Irrigation – Introduction, Importance, Definition & Objectives

1.2 Objectives of irrigation

Water Resources and Irrigation Development in India

Fig. 2.1. Water resources of India

2.2 Groundwater Resources

Water Management pg. 6

Command Area Development and Water Management

4.2 Reasons for lag in irrigation potential created to that of utilization

4.3 Functions of CADWM

Water Management pg. 7

5.2 Soil – A three phase disperse system

Volume composition & sectional view of soil

5.3 Soil properties influencing soil-water relations

Soil depth classification

5.3.2 Soil texture

Size groupings of soil particles

The soil texture is closely related to:

Soil structural types

Effect of structural type on permeability for water

5.3.3 Density of soil solids

Water Management pg. 11

5.3.4 Pore space

Water Management pg. 12

Water Retention in Soil

6.2 Soil moisture tension

Water Movements in Soil

7.3 Deep percolation

7.4 Hydraulic conductivity

7.4.1 Saturated water movement

7.4.2 Unsaturated water movement

Physical Classification of Water

Water Management pg. 16

Physical classification of soil water

8.2 Gravitational water

8.3 Capillary water

Soil Moisture Constants

saturation capacity of soil is lost from root zone as gravitational water.

Soil condition at Saturation, Field Capacity and PermanentWilting Point

9.4 Available soil moisture

9.5 Hygroscopic coefficient

10.2 Direct methods

(Wms — Wds) Weight of moist soil — Weight of oven dry soil

10.2.2 Volumetric method

10.2.4 Infrared moisture balance

Fig.10.1. Infrared moisture balance

10.3 Indirect methods

10.3.2 Neutron scattering technique

Water Management pg. 21

Fig. 10.3. Measurement of soil moisture by neutron probe

Water Management pg. 22