Unit – II :Energy meters

UNIT II
•Meters: Energy meters, single phase and 3-phase, Driving torque and
braking torque equations, Errors and testing compensation,
Maximum demand indicator, Power factor meters, Frequency
meters, Electrical resonance and Weston type of synchro scope.
 Induction Type Instruments
Principle of working and construction of induction type meter
• In all induction meters there are two fluxes which are produced by two different alternating
currents on a metallic disc.
• Due to alternating fluxes there is an induced emf, the emf produced at one point (P1 as shown in
the figure) interacts with the alternating current of the other side resulting in the production of
torque.
• Similarly, the emf produced at the point two (P2) interacts with the alternating current at point
one, resulting in the production of torque again but in opposite direction.
• Hence due to these two torques which are in different directions, the metallic disc moves.
This is basic principle of working of an induction type meters.
• Mathematical expression for deflecting torque.
• Let us take flux produced at point one be equal to F1 and the flux and at point two be equal to F2.
• Now the instantaneous values of these two flux can written as:
Induction Type Instruments
• Where, Fm1 and Fm2 are respectively the maximum values of fluxes F1 and
F2, B is phase difference between two fluxes.
The expression for induced emf’s at point one be

at point two.
• Thus we have the expression for eddy currents at point one is

• Where, K is some constant and f is frequency.

Let us draw phasor diagram clearly showing F1, F2, E1, E2, I1 and I2. From
phasor diagram, it clear that I1 and I2 are respectively lagging behind E1 and
E2 by angle A.
• The angle between F1 and F2 is B.
• From the phasor diagram the angle between F2
and I1 is (90-B+A) and the angle between F1 and I2
is (90 + B + A). Thus we write the expression for
deflecting torque as

• Similarly the expression for Td2 is,

• The total torque is Td1 – Td2, on substituting the

value of Td1 and Td2 and simplifying the expression
we get

• Which is known as the general expression for the

deflecting torque in the induction type meters.
 Energy meter - Construction
Energy meter measures the power consumption in kilowatt
hours.
The energy meter has four main parts. They are the
• Driving System
• Moving System
• Braking System
• Registering System
• The detail explanation of their parts is written below.
1. Driving System –The driving system has two electromagnets.
The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the
lower one is called series electromagnet. The core of the
electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination.
• The series electromagnet is excited by the load current flow
through the current coil.
• The coil of the shunt electromagnet is directly connected
with the supply and hence carry the current proportional to
the voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil.
• The central limb of the magnet has the copper band. These
bands are adjustable. The main function of the copper band
is to align the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a
way that it is exactly perpendicular to the supplied voltage.
Energy meter – Construction contd.
2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminum disc mounted on the shaft
of the alloy. The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy
current is induced in the disc because of the change of the magnetic field. The
interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque , the aluminum
disc starts rotating.
3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the
aluminum disc. The aluminum disc induces the eddy current because of their
rotation. The eddy current cut the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet and
hence produces the braking torque.
This braking torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed.
The permanent magnet is adjustable due to which the braking torque is also
adjusted by shifting the magnet to the other radial position.
4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of the registration or
counting mechanism is to record the number of rotations of the aluminum disc
directly proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt hour.
The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the pointers of the different dial for
recording the different readings.
Working of the Energy Meter
• The energy meter has the Aluminum disc whose rotation determines the power
consumption of the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt
electromagnet. The shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the
current coil.
• The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the
current coil produces it because of the current.
• The field induced by the shunt magnet lags the voltage by 90 0. The magnetic field
produced by series magnet is proportional to the load current. These two fluxes induce
two emfs and two epddy currents in the disc. The interaction between one flux and the
eddy current due to other flux will produce torque. Two torques are produced and the
resultant torque exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the disc starts rotating.
• The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The
permanent magnet controls the rotation by producing a braking torque such that for a
constant driving torque steady speed is attained by the disc. The braking torque can be
varied by varying the position og the permanent magnet.
• The registering mechanism registers a number proportional o the number of revolutions
made by the disc during a particular period.
Torque in Energy meter
Let
V – applied voltage across PC
I – load current through CC
∅s = flux produced by series magnet (CC)
∅ – the phase angle of load current

∅p = flux produced by shunt magnet (PC)

Ip – pressure coil current

Δ – the phase angle between supply voltage

and pressure coil flux
f – frequency

∝ – the phase angle of eddy current paths

Z – impedance of eddy current

Eep – eddy EMF induced by PC flux

Iep – eddy current due to Eep
Ees – eddy EMF due to CC flux
Ies – eddy current due to Ees
 Torque in Energy meter contd.
The net driving torque of the disc is expressed as

• where K1 – constant
• Φ1 and Φ2 are the phase angle between the fluxes. For energy meter, we take Φp and Φs.
• β – phase angle between fluxes Φp and ΦS = (Δ – Φ), therefore

• If f, Z and α are constants,

• If N is steady speed, braking torque .

At steady state, the speed of the driving torque is equal to the braking torque

If Δ = 90º, Speed,
• The speed of the rotation is directly proportional to the power.

If Δ = 90º,
Then total number of revolutions

K is known as meter constant, its unit is revolutions per kWh (rev/kWh)

Errors in energy meter
1. Phase and Speed Errors:
The phase errors is introduced because the shunt 0
magnet flux does not
lagging behind the supply voltage by exactly 90 due to some 0
resistance of
the coil and iron losses. The angle less slightly less then 90
In order to remove this error, pressure
0
coil current should be made to lag
the supply voltage by exactly 90 .
This is accomplished by
i) adjusting the position of copper shading band provided on central limb
of the shunt magnet.
ii) Adjustable resistance: The value of lag angle can be increased by
decreasing the resistance.
Speed Error
• Sometimes, the speed of the disc of energy meter is faster or slower ,
when tested on a load, therefore, energy meter register either more or
less energy and errors is introduced.
• In order to remove this error, the redial position of the braking magnet is
adjusted. movement of braking magnet , away from the center of the disc
increase the torque which decreases the speed of the Disc.
Errors in energy meter
2. Frictional Error:
This error is introduce due to friction at the rotor bearing and the register mechanism.
Because this error is unwanted braking torque acts on the moving system and register less
energy then the actual energy passing though it.

3. Creeping error:
The slow but continuous rotation of energy meter , which only pressure coil is excited but no
current flow though the current coil is called creeping. This error may be due to excessive
friction compensation, excessive voltage supply and stray magnetic field etc.

In order to prevent creeping on no load , two holes are drilled in the disc on the opposite side
of the spindle at the same radius, this causes sufficient distortion of the field to prevent
continuous rotation.
4. Temperature Error:
By changing the temperature , the parameter of the coils change slightly which introduce a
small error in meter. however , this error negligible small and there is no need to prevent any
means to eliminate the error.
5. Frequency Error:
Since the energy meter are used normally at fixed frequency, therefore , they are designed and
adjusted to have minimum error declared supply frequency Which is normally 50 Hz in India.
Errors in Single Phase Energy meter
(i) Incorrect magnitude of fluxes.
This may be due to abnormal values of current or voltage. The shunt magnet
flux may be in error due to changes in resistance of coil or due to abnormal
frequencies.
(ii) Incorrect phase angles. There may not be proper relationship between the
various phasors. This may be due to improper lag adjustments, abnormal
frequencies, change in resistance with temperature, etc.
(iii) Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit. In case the magnetic circuit is not
symmetrical, a driving torque is produced which makes the meter creep.
The errors caused by the braking system are:
(i) changes in strength of brake magnet. (ii) changes in disc resistance.
(iii) self-braking effect of series magnet flux, and (iv) abnormal friction of
moving parts.
Various compensations
• Light Load or Friction Compensation.
• Despite every care taken in the design of both the jeweled-pivot bearing, which forms the
lower bearing for the spindle, and of the simple sleeve pin-type bearing at the top of the
spindle, friction errors are liable to be serious, particularly at light loads. In order to ensure
accurate registration at low loads, it is therefore necessary to arrange for small torque,
practically[independent of the load on the meter, which acts in the direction of rotation
and which is nearly as possible equal in magnitude to the friction torque.
• This is usually obtained by means of a small shading loop (or vane) situated between the
center pole of the shunt magnet and the disc and slightly the one side of the center-line of
the pole. This is shown as L2, in Fig. The interaction between the portions of the flux which
are shaded and unshaded by this loop and the currents they induce in the disc results in a
small driving torque whose value can be adjusted by lateral movement of the loop. The
tests for correct adjustment are freedom from serious errors at light loads and the value of
the load necessary to start the meter. Other arrangements of non-symmetrical shading
loops are also used.
• Voltage Compensation.
• A certain amount of variation is permitted in the declared voltage of supply. Therefore,
energy meters must be compensated for this variation. Voltage variations cause errors
owing to two reasons: () The relationship between shunt magnet flux and the supply
voltage is not linear owing to saturation in iron parts: (ii) The shunt magnet flux , produces
a dynamically induced emf in the disc which in turn results in a self-braking torque which is
proportional to square of the supply voltage.
• Compensation for voltage variations is provided by using a saturable magnetic shunt which
diverts a greater proportion of the flux into the other path when the voltage rises. The
compensation can be conveniently provided by increasing the reluctance of the side limbs
of the shunt magnet. This is done by providing holes in the side limbs shown in Fig.
Creeping in Energy Meter
Definition:
• Creeping in energy meter is the phenomenon in which the
aluminum disc rotates continuously when only the voltage is supplied to
the pressure coil, and no current flows through the current coil.
• In other words, the creeping is the kind of error in which the energy meter
consumes a very small amount of energy even when no
load is attached to the meter.
• The creeping increases the speed of the disc even under the light load
condition which increases the meter reading. The over frictional
compensation, vibration, stray magnetic field and the extra voltage
across the potential coil are also responsible for the creeping.
• The creeping error occurs because of the excessive frictional
compensation. The main driving torque is absent at no load. Hence the disc
rotates because of the additional torque provided by the compensating
vane.
 Prevention of Creeping
• The creeping is avoided by drilling the hole in the disc. The holes
are diametrically opposite to each other. The Aluminum disc stops
rotating even when the small edge of the disc come under the pole
of the magnet. The holes will limit the revolution of the disc.
• This action can easily be understood by considering the figure.
• The circular eddy current path of the disc will disturb when the hole
comes under the pole of the magnet. The A’ is the center point of
the magnetic pole which is produced by the current. The force
acting on the disc will move the center point A’ away from the
poles axis A.
• The disc will rotate at no load until the holes reach under the edges
of the magnet. Their movement is opposed by the torque produced
in this condition.
• In some cases, the small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the
disc. The force of attraction occurs between the pole magnets and
the iron piece, which prevent the creeping of the disc.
Problems
Problems
June 2019
Problems June 2019
2-element 3-Phase energy meter
• It is similar to 3-phase power measurement by two-
wattmeter method.
• A 2 element energy meter used for 3-phase 3-wire
system is shown in figure.
• It is provided with two discs one for each element.
• It is essential that the driving torque the two
elements be exactly equal for equal amount of power
passing through each. Thus in addition to normal
compensating devices attached to each element, an
adjustable magnetic shunt is provided on one or both
elements to balance the torque of the two.
• The necessary adjustment is made with the coils
energized from single phase supply. The PCs are
connected in parallel and the CCs in series such a
manner the torques produced by the elements
oppose each other. The magnetic shunts are adjusted
to a position where the two torques are exactly equal
and opposite and therefore there si no rotation of
disc.
• This way the two elements are rendered exactly
similar.
Maximum Demand Indicator
•Definition: The maximum demand indicator measures the maximum
amount of power requires by the consumer at the particular interval
of time. The indicator is designed in such a way so that they measure
the base and peak load but unable to measures the sudden short-
circuit or starting high current of the motor. It is designed for
recording the power over particular periods.
Average Demand Indicator Construction

• The average demand indicator

is inbuilt into the energy meter.
• The energy meter and average
demand indicator together
measures the total power
consumes and the maximum value
of specific power at particular
interval of time.
• The average demand indicator
consists the complex speed dial
mechanism.
Principle of operation
•The pin drive moves the dial forward for small duration (say for half
an hour). The total power consumes at that interval is shown on the
dial. The instrument consists the cam which is controlled by the
timing gears. The cam brings back the pointer at zero position after
expiry of specified time interval.
•The pointer records the total power consumes by the load at that
particular interval of time.
•For the next half an hour, the pin again moved forward. But the
pointer will move forward only when the total power consumed by
the load is more than the previous periods.
•The formula calculates the average maximum demand,
Maximum Demand Indicator
Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power
Factor Meter
Construction:
• The meter has fixed coil which acts as a
current coil. This coil is split into two parts
and carry the current under test. The
magnetic field of the coil is directly
proportional to the current flow through the
coil.
• The meter has two identical pressure coils A
and B. Both the coils are pivoted on the
spindle. The pressure coil A has non-inductive
resistance connected in series with the
circuit, and the coil B has highly inductive coil
connected in series with the circuit.
 Construction and Principle of operation
• The current in the coil A is in phase with the voltage while the current in the coil B lag by the voltage nearly
equal to 90º. The connection of the moving coil is made through silver or gold ligaments which minimize the
controlling torque of the moving system.
• The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and the other is on coil B. The windings are so
arranged that they are opposite in directions. The pointer is in equilibrium when the torques are equal.

𝑇𝐴 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos ∅ sin 𝜃

• Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given as

θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.

Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.

𝑇𝐵 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥cos(90 − ∅) sin(90 + 𝜃)

• The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as V

𝑇𝐵 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin ∅ cos 𝜃

Φ 0
IA
Δ≈ 90
coils will take up apposition where two torques are equal i.e 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵
𝐾𝑉𝐼 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos ∅ sin 𝜃 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin ∅ cos 𝜃
tan ∅ = tan 𝜃 i.e 𝜃 = ∅
• Deflection of instrument is measure of phase angle, hence scale of the instrument IB
I
can be calibrated directly in terms of power factor.
Moving Iron Power Factor Meters
• These instruments may be divided into two categories. according to whether the operation of the instrument
depends upon a rotating magnetic field or a number of alternating fields. Rotating Field Power Factor Meter.
• The essential features of a rotating field type of instrument are shown in Fig.
• A₁, A2, A3 are three fixed coils, with their axes displaced 120° from each other and intersecting on the center line
of the instrument. These three coils are connected respectively in lines 1, 2 and 3 of a three phase supply. Usually
current transformers are used for the purpose.
• P is a fixed coil connected in series with a high resistance across one pair of lines say 2 and 3. There is an iron
cylinder C inside coil P.
• Two sector shaped iron vanes V are fixed to this cylinder. The two vanes are 180° apart in space. The spindle also
carries damping vanes and a pointer. There are no control springs. Coil P and the iron system produce an
alternating flux, which interacts with the fluxes produced by coils A₁. A 2, and A3.
• This causes the moving system to take up an angular position determined by the phase angle of the current.
developed in a similar manner to that of the electrodynamometer type instruments if we consider the cylinder C
and the vanes V. V to be magnetized by current I, in coil P which is in phase with and proportional to the line
voltage of the system. (This is very nearly true as coil P has a large resistance connected in series with it).
• Then if the effects of hysteresis and eddy currents are ignored, the iron cylinder, the vanes and the coil P are
equivalent electromagnetically to a rectangular moving coil pivoted within coils A₁, A₂ and A3. the center line of
the moving coil being coincident with the axis of the iron vanes. Fig. shows the phasor diagram of the instrument.
Now by arguments similar to those used for the electrodynamometer type of instrument, we can write the
expression for total torque acting on the moving system due to currents in coils A₁, A₂ and A 3
 𝑇𝑑 ∝ [𝐼1𝐼𝑝 cos(900 − 𝜑) sin( 900 + 𝜃) + 𝐼2𝐼𝑝 cos(3300 − 𝜑)
• The total deflecting torque

sin( 2100 +
𝜃) + 𝐼3𝐼𝑝 cos(2100 − 𝜑) sin( 3300 + 𝜃)
For steady deflection the total torque must be zero. Also the system is

cos(900 − 𝜑) sin( 900 + 𝜃) + cos(3300 − 𝜑) sin( 2100 + 𝜃)

considered to be balanced ( I1 = I2 = I3)

+ cos(2100 − 𝜑) sin( 3300 + 𝜃) = 0

• Solving the above equation 𝜃 = 𝜑
• Therefore the deflection of the iron vane from the reference axis is a direct
measure of the phase angle between each line current and the
corresponding phase voltage
Frequency meters
Various types: 1. Mechanical resonance type 2. Electrical resonance type
3. Electro dynamo meter type 4. Weston type

1. Mechanical resonance type:

• A vibrating reed frequency meter consists of
a number of thin steel strips called reeds.
• These reeds are placed in a row alongside
and close to an electromagnet.
• The electromagnet consists of thin
laminations and a coil is wound around it as
shown in fig.
• The coil is connected in series with a
resistance across the supply whose
frequency is to be measured.
• All the reeds thus tend to vibrate, but only
the one whose natural frequency is double
that of supply will vibrate appreciably.
Electrical Resonance Type Frequency Meter
• It consist of affixed coil which is
connected across the supply whose
frequency is to be measured.
• It is called magnetizing coil, which is
mounted on a laminated iron core.
• iron core has a cross section tat
varies gradually over the length,
maximum near the magnetizing
coil.
• Moving coil is pivoted over this iron
core with a pointer attached to it.
• The terminals of moving coil are
connected to a suitable capacitor
‘C’.
• There is no provision for controlling
force.
Principle of operation 1
• For a fixed frequency capacitive reactance (2𝜋𝑓𝐶) is constant, but inductive reactance of
moving coil is not constant as it depends on the position, maximum near magnetizing coil
minimum at the other end.
• The value ‘C’ is chosen such that the moving coil occupies a convenient position on the core

• If 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 then 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 torque produced is to reduce 𝑋𝐿 Moving coil moves away
when the frequency is at its normal value (say 50Hz).

from the magnetizing coil to a position where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 and the pointer indicates lower

• If 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 then 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 torque produced is to increase 𝑋𝐿 Moving coil moves
frequency.

the magnetizing coil to a position where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 and pointer indicates higher frequency.
towards

Moving coil inductive, Im lags E Moving coil resistive, Im,E inphase

𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼𝑚 cos(90 + 𝛼) 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼𝑚 cos
90 = 0
Moving coil capacitive, Im leads E
𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼𝑚 cos(90 − 𝛽)
Φ I Φ I Φ I

90 0 900 900

α β
 m
I
E
Weston Frequency Meter
•Definition: The Weston frequency meter is a moving iron
instrument used for measuring the unknown frequency of a signal.
The frequency meter consists one inductive and one resistive coil.
When the frequency of the signal varies from standard frequency, the
current distribution across the coils becomes changes.
•The Weston frequency meter works on the principle that whenever
the frequency of the measurand signal varies, the distribution of
current between the inductive and the resistive circuit of the meter
changes.
•In other words, the change in frequency causes the change in the
inductive impedance of the circuit because of which the variation
occurs in the distribution of current between the parallel paths.
Construction of Weston Frequency Meter
•The meter consists two coils which are placed perpendicular to each
other. The resistor RA is connected in series with the coil A and the
inductor LB is connected in series with the coil B. The inductor L A is
connected in parallel with the coil A and the resistance RB is in
parallel with the coil B.
•The meter has the soft iron pointer and magnetic needle which are
mounted at the center of the coils. The inductor L is connected in
series with the LA and RB. The L reduces the harmonics present in
circuit current. Thereby, reduces the error of the instrument.
Working of Weston Frequency Meter
•The circuit diagram of the Weston frequency meter is shown in
the figure below.
Working of Weston Frequency Meter contd
• When the supply is given to the Weston frequency meter, the current starts flowing into the coil A
and B. The perpendicular magnetic field set up in the coils because of the current. The magnitude of
the field depends on the current passes through the coils.
• The magnetic field of both the coil A and coil B acts on the soft iron and the magnetic needle. The
position of the needle depends on the relative magnitude of the magnetic field acts on it.
• When the supply of normal frequency applies across the meter, the voltage drop of the same
magnitude occurs across the reactance L A and resistance RB. Hence equal current passes through the
coil A and coil B.
• The meter designs such a way that when the normal frequency passes through the coil then the
voltage drops across the LA, LB, RA, and RB remains same. Thus, same magnitude current passes
through the coils. In this situation, the magnetic needle makes an angle of 45° concerning the coils
and the soft iron needle places at the center of the scale.
• When the high frequency passes through the meter, the reactance L A and LB of the coil increases and
the RA and RB remains same. The inductance increase the impedance of the coil A. The impedance
means the opposition offered by the circuit in the flow of current. As the magnitude of current in the
coil A decreases, the field develops because of the coil, A current also decreases.
• The more current flows through the coil B because of the parallel connections with coil A. The
magnetic field develops in the coil B becomes stronger than the coil A. The magnetic needles align
themselves parallel to the axis of the strong magnetic field, and the pointer deflects towards the coil
B or strong magnetic field.
• When the frequency of the measurand signal reduces from the normal value, the opposite action
takes place, and the pointer deflects towards the left.
 Weston type synchro scope
•Operating to alternators in parallel (or)
connecting an alternator in parallel with
grid to med the increased demand is called
parallel operation or synchronization.
•Conditions for parallel operation:
1. Phase sequence or polarities of two
machines must be same.
2. Voltage magnitudes should be same
3. Frequencies must be same.
Synchro scope is used to verify all the above
conditions and determine the correct instant
of closing synchronizing switch.
Construction
• It consists of three limbed transformer. The winding on one of the outer limbs is excited from
busbars and that on the other outer limb by the incoming machine.
• The winding on the central limb is connected to a lamp.
• The windings on the outer limbs produce two fluxes which are forced through the central limb.
The resultant flux through the central limb is equal to the phasor sum of these fluxes. This
resultant flux induces an emf in the winding of the central limb. The two outer limb windings are
so arranged that when the busbar and the incoming machine voltages are in phase, the two
fluxes through the central limb are additive and thus emf induced in the central limb winding is
maximum. Hence under these conditions the lamp glows with maximum brightness. When the
two voltages are 180° out of phase with each other the resultant flux is zero and hence no emf is
induced in the central limb winding. with the result the lamp does not glow at all and is dark.
• If the frequency of the incoming machine is different from that of the busbars, the lamp will be
alternately bright and dark or in other words the lamp flickers. The frequency of flickering is equal
to the difference in frequencies of the busbar and the incoming machine. The correct instant of
synchronizing is when the lamp is flickering at a very slow rate and is at its maximum brightness.
• One of the defects of this simple circuit is that it does not indicate whether the incoming machine
is too fast or too slow.
• This defect can be corrected by introducing an electrodynamometer type instrument into the
circuit shown in Fig.
• The electrodynamometer instrument consists of a fixed coil divided into two parts. The fixed coil is
designed to carry a small current and is connected in series with a resistance across the busbars.
• The moving coil is connected in series with a capacitor across the terminals of the incoming machine. The
instrument is provided with control springs which act as current leads for the moving coil.
• The shadow of the pointer is thrown on an opal glass. When the two voltages are in phase with each
other, currents I₁ and I₂ in fixed and moving coils respectively will be in quadrature with each other [(a)]
and, therefore, there will be no torque on the instrument. The control springs are so arranged that the
pointer is in vertical position under this condition. Also the lamp is at its maximum brightness and the
pointer is silhoueted against the opal glass.
• If the incoming machine voltage V₂ is leading the busbar voltage V, and the incoming machine slightly too
slow, the conditions of the circuit will slowly change from those shown in Fig. (b) to those shown in Fig.
(c). Then the torque will change from KI1I2 cos(90° +Ɵ) to KI1I2 cos (90- Ɵ) i.e., from a negative value
through zero to a positive value.
• And during this period lamp will be bright and the pointer will be seen to move from left hand side of dial
through the vertical position to the right hand side of dial. The dial can thus be marked with directions
Fast and Slow as shown in Fig.
Phantom Loading.
•When the current rating of a meter under test is high a test with
actual loading arrangements would involve a considerable waste of
power in order to avoid this Phantom of "Fictitious” loading is done.
•Phantom loading consists of supplying the pressure circuit from a
circuit of required normal voltage and the current circuit from a
separate low voltage supply. It is possible to circulate the rated
current through the current circuit with a low voltage supply as the
impedance of this circuit is very low With this arrangement the total
power supplied for the test is that due to the small pressure coil
current at normal voltage, plus that due to the current circuit current
supplied at low voltage.
• The total power, therefore required for testing the meter with
Phantom loading is comparatively very small.
Phantom loading circuit diagram
• Current coils of wattmeter and energy meter are connected is series across a low voltage supply and
rated current is passed through them.
• Where as pressure coils are connected across rated voltage through a phase shifting transformer ( for testing
under various power factors).
• This test is conducted for a specified time , the number of revolutions (Rx), time taken (t in Hrs), wattmeter
reading (power consumed in kW) are tabulated.
 Finding % error
𝑅𝑥
•Energy recorded by meter under test =
𝐾𝑥
•Energy computed from the readings of the
indicating instruments = VI cos ϕ x t x10-3 = kW x t
Where Kx is the meter constant and
Rx is the number of revolutions made by the disc of the meter under
test. kW = power in kilowatts as computed by the indicating instruments
and t=𝑅 time in hours
𝑥
( −𝑘𝑊×𝑡)

× 100%
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 × 100]
𝐾𝑥
𝑘𝑊× 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
•% error =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
[% error =
𝑡