2.

1 Road Performance of Motor Vehicles and Vehicle Frame Construction

The basic structure of the vehicle is the frame and it provides a good anchor point for the suspension
system. There are two types of frames; integral frames, or ‘unibody’, and conventional frames. The
rectangular, usually steel frame, supported on springs and attached to the axles, that holds the body and
motor of an automotive vehicle. A conventional frame is basically a ‘one-piece’ frame; or two ‘one-
piece’ frames fastened together. These frames are extremely rigid to keep all the parts of the car in
perfect alignment, which are attached to it. It is constructed of heavy steel and welded or cold riveted
together. Cold riveting keeps the rivets from shrinking after they cool off.

The integral, or unibody, frame is just the opposite. With this type of frame, the body parts are used to
structurally strengthen the entire car, and all of the sections are welded into one piece. Sometimes the
parts of the body and the suspension system are attached and reinforced. Also, some unibody frames
have partial front and rear frames for attaching the engine and suspension members.

 The main functions of a frame in a motor vehicle are

 To support the vehicle's mechanical components and body

 To deal with static and dynamic loads, without undue deflection or distortionThese include:
Weight of the body, passengers, and cargo loads.

 Vertical and torsional twisting transmitted by going over uneven surfaces

 Transverse lateral forces caused by road conditions, side wind, and steering of the vehicle
Torque from the engine and transmission

 Longitudinal tensile forces from starting and acceleration, as well as compression from braking
Sudden impacts from collisions

Typically the material used to construct vehicle chassis and frames include carbon steel for strength or
aluminum alloys to achieve a more lightweight construction. In the case of a separate chassis, the frame
is made up of structural elements called the rails or beams. These are ordinarily made of steel channel
sections, made by folding, rolling, or pressing steel plate.

There are three main designs for these. If the material is folded twice, an open-ended cross-section,
either C-shaped or hat-shaped (U-shaped) results. "Boxed" frames contain chassis rails that are closed,
either by somehow welding them up or by using premanufactured metal tubing.

 C-Shaped Designs

By far the most common, the C-channel rail has been used on nearly every type of vehicle at one time or
another.[citation needed] It is made by taking a flat piece of steel (usually ranging in thickness from 1/8"
to 3/16", but up to 1/2" or more in some heavy-duty trucks[3][4]) and rolling both sides over to form a
C-shaped beam running the length of the vehicle.
  Hat Designs

Hat frames resemble a "U" and may be either right-side-up or inverted with the open area facing down.
They are not commonly used due to weakness and a propensity to rust. However, they can be found on
1936–1954 Chevrolet cars and some Studebakers.

Abandoned for a while, the hat frame regained popularity when companies started welding it to the
bottom of unibody cars, effectively creating a boxed frame.

 Boxed Designs

Originally, boxed frames were made by welding two matching C-rails together to form a rectangular
tube. Modern techniques, however, use a process similar to making C-rails in that a piece of steel is bent
into four sides and then welded where both ends meet.

In the 1960s, the boxed frames of conventional American cars were spot-welded in multiple places
down the seam; when turned into NASCAR "stock car" racers, the box was continuously welded from
end to end for extra strength

 Types of frames

 Ladder frame

Named for its resemblance to a ladder, the ladder frame is one of the oldest, simplest, and most
frequently used under-body, separate chassis/frame designs. It consists of two symmetrical beams, rails,
or channels, running the length of the vehicle, connected by several transverse cross-members.
Originally seen on almost all vehicles, the ladder frame was gradually phased out on cars in favor of
perimeter frames and unitized body construction. It is now seen mainly on large trucks. This design
offers good beam resistance because of its continuous rails from front to rear, but poor resistance to
torsion or warping if simple, perpendicular cross-members are used. The vehicle's overall height will be
greater due to the floor pan sitting above the frame instead of inside it.

 Buckbone tube

A backbone chassis is a type of automotive construction with chassis, that is similar to the body-on-
frame design. Instead of a relatively flat, ladder-like structure with two longitudinal, parallel frame rails,
it consists of a singular central, strong tubular backbone (usually rectangular in cross-section), that
carries the power-train, and connects the front and rear suspension attachment structures. Although
the backbone is frequently drawn upward into, and mostly above the floor of the vehicle, the body is
still placed on or over (sometimes straddling) this structure from above.
  X-frame

This is the design used for the full-size American models of General Motors in the late 1950s and early
1960s in which the rails from alongside the engine seemed to cross in the passenger compartment, each
continuing to the opposite end of the cross member at the extreme rear of the vehicle. It was
specifically chosen to decrease the overall height of the vehicles regardless of the increase in the size of
the transmission and propeller shaft humps since each row had to cover frame rails as well. Several
models had the differential located not by the customary bar between axle and frame, but by a ball joint
atop the differential connected to a socket in a wishbone hinged onto a cross member of the frame.

The X-frame was claimed to improve on previous designs, but it lacked side rails and thus did not
provide adequate side impact and collision protection.[5] This design was replaced by perimeter frames.

 Perimeter frame

Similar to a ladder frame, but the middle sections of the frame rails sit outboard of the front and rear
rails, routed around the passenger footwells, inside the rocker and sill panels. This allowed the floor pan
to be lowered, especially the passenger footwells, lowering the passengers' seating height and thereby
reducing both the roof-line and overall vehicle height, as well as the center of gravity, thus improving
handling and road-holding in passenger cars.

This became the prevalent design for body-on-frame cars in the United States, but not in the rest of the
world, until the unibody gained popularity. For example, Hudson introduced this construction on their
3rd generation Commodore models in 1948. This frame type allowed for annual model changes, and
lower cars, introduced in the 1950s to increase sales – without costly structural changes.

The Ford Panther platform, discontinued in 2011, was one of the last perimeter frame passenger car
platforms in the United States.[1] The fourth to seventh generation Chevrolet Corvette used a perimeter
frame integrated with an internal skeleton that serves as a clamshell.

In addition to a lowered roof, the perimeter frame allows lower seating positions when that is desirable,
and offers better safety in the event of a side impact. However, the design lacks stiffness, because the
transition areas from front to center and center to rear reduce beam and torsional resistance, and is
used in combination with torque boxes and soft suspension settings.

 Platform frame

This is a modification of the perimeter frame, or of the backbone frame, in which the passenger
compartment floor, and sometimes also the luggage compartment floor, have been integrated into the
frame as loadbearing parts, for strength and rigidity. The sheet metal used to assemble the components
needs to be stamped with ridges and hollows to give it strength.
Platform chassis were used on several successful European cars, most notably the Volkswagen Beetle,
where it was called "body-on-pan" construction. Another German example are the Mercedes-Benz
"Ponton" cars of the 1950s and 1960s,[6] where it was called a "frame floor" in English-language
advertisements.

The French Renault 4, of which over eight million were made, also used a platform frame. The frame of
the Citroën 2CV used a very minimal interpretation of a platform chassis under its body.

 Space frame

In a (tubular) space frame chassis, the suspension, engine, and body panels are attached to a three-
dimensional skeletal frame of tubes, and the body panels have limited or no structural function. To
maximize rigidity and minimize weight, the design frequently makes maximum use of triangles, and all
the forces in each strut are either tensile or compressive, never bending, so they can be kept as thin as
possible.

The first true space frame chassis were produced in the 1930s by Buckminster Fuller and William
Bushnell Stout (the Dymaxion and the Stout Scarab) who understood the theory of the true space frame
from either architecture or aircraft design.

The 1951 Jaguar C-Type racing sports car utilized a lightweight, multi-tubular, triangulated frame, over
which an aerodynamic aluminum body was crafted.

In 1994, the Audi A8 was the first mass-market car with an aluminum chassis, made feasible by
integrating an aluminum space-frame into the bodywork. Audi A8 models have since used this
construction method co-developed with Alcoa, and marketed as the Audi Space Frame.[8]

The Italian term Superleggera (meaning 'super-light') was trademarked by Carrozzeria Touring for
lightweight sports-car body construction that only resembles a space-frame chassis. Using a three-
dimensional frame that consists of a cage of narrow tubes that, besides being under the body, run up
the fenders and over the radiator, cowl, and roof, and under the rear window, it resembles a geodesic
structure. A skin is attached to the outside of the frame, often made of aluminum. This body
construction is, however, not stress-bearing, and still requires the addition of a chassis.

2.1.1 Resistance force on motor vehicle

 Resistance

When we drive our cars on the roads, there are various types of resistances that pose a hindrance to the
motion of the vehicle. The engine of a car must provide power and torque higher than the resistive
forces to overcome these and enable the movement of the vehicle. Bearing this simple logic in mind, let
us try to discover, what are the kinds of resistive forces on a car.
  Rolling Resistance

Rolling resistance comes into play during the movement of the vehicle. See, the way to understand it is
that neither the road nor the tyres of the car are rigid. Therefore, there are resistive forces in play due to
friction between the road and the tyres. Also, if the tyre is worn out and the threads are gone, the
surface area with the road increases. This leads to an increase in resistance also. Therefore, the new
tyres have deep threads which provide proper grip and less resistance to the flow of the motion of the
vehicle. Also, if the tyre is deflated, the amount of work done to roll it increases manifold.

This increases the resistance and you must’ve experienced this yourself that when you are running on a
flat tyre, it takes too many efforts from the engine to propel the car forward. Thirdly, the type of surface
of the road also plays an important role in generating resistance to the motion. When you are on a dirt
track, the resistance is very high and you can’t really gain speed. But when the road is properly mettled
and smooth, the resistance to the motion of the vehicle is restricted. This is what refers to as rolling
resistance.

 Air/Drag Resistance

This is a type of resistance that comes into effect when the vehicle is in motion. When the car moves in
any direction, it passes through the molecules of air. Now, we, of course, don’t see it but the
atmosphere around us has air particles suspended everywhere. The motion of the vehicle causes them
to move and they offer resistance to the motion of the car. This also depends on the speed of the car.
The faster you go, the higher the resistance offered by the air in the opposite direction. That is the
reason why vehicles accelerate faster at low speeds but as the speeds increase, there is higher
resistance offered by the air for the car to overcome. It takes a lot more power and time to reach from
100 – 200 kph as compared to 0 – 100 kph.

Air or Drag resistance is the reason and logical explanation. Also, the air resistance depends on the front
area of the vehicle that is directly exposed to the air. When sports cars say that they are
aerodynamically optimized, it means that the design of the vehicle is such that the drag resistance on
the car will be minimum. This is done by reducing the front area of the car as well as shaping the body of
the car so as to create a downforce and not let turbulence build up around the car. That is the rear for
rear spoilers and vents around the cars as well. This is something that every one of you must’ve seen in
sports or performance cars.

 Gradient Resistance

This third kind of resistance is a result of the motion of the vehicle on the slopes. We all must have
experienced this while driving on incline slopes in the mountains. The weight of the car has a
component of force in the backward direction. This force keeps pulling the vehicle back when climbing
the mountains. The magnitude of the force depends on the angle/incline of the slope. The higher the
slope, the higher the resistive force to the motion of the car. The higher of resistive force, the more
power and torque required by the vehicle to overcome these forces. That is the reason why cars go slow
on the mountains.
These are the types of resistances experienced by the vehicle during regular operation. The power and
torque produced by the vehicles are used to overcome these forces and make the car move
forward/backward.

 Power

These are the two terms that you must’ve heard very frequently while describing the output of an
engine. Power refers to the amount of work done by the engine in a particular amount of time. To put it
simply, if the horsepower of the car is higher, that means the car will accelerate faster as the work is
done will be higher. However, if the power output of a car is low, it will accelerate slower. It is important
to notice here that both vehicles will reach the 100 kph speed eventually. It is just that the car with the
higher power output will reach there faster.

 Torque

Torque is another name of force-applied perpendicular to something. This refers to the amount of force
applied to the piston of the car as result of the combustion process. This force is applied on the
crankshaft of the vehicle to which the wheels/drive axle is mounted. This means that during the starting
of the vehicle, a higher amount of force is experienced by the wheels if the torque output is higher.
These toque and power figures are further manipulated by the application of transmission
systems/gears.

Every RPM point of an engine has a particular amount of power and torque output. This means that
there are only two points in the entire RPM range of an engine where power and torque are maximum.
Therefore, the aim of the transmission is to try to keep the vehicle around that region so as to maximize
performance or fuel-efficiency. Mileage and performance aspects of the engine are situated at different
RPMs in the range and the way you drive your car will determine in which region of the RPM range do
you generally find yourselves. For instance, if you always drive fast and RPMs are higher, you will have to
part way with fuel efficiency. However, if you are gentle on the throttle and the RPMs are not high, then
you will achieve the best mileage.

These are various aspects of engines that one must know to get the maximum out of your vehicle. We
hope that you were able to learn something more and new with this article and have a little better
understanding of the machines we all love, the automobiles. If you are interested in learning more
about the technical aspects of automobiles, do read up on our automobile technology segment on the
Car Blog India website.

2.1.2 Tractive force diagram of motor vehicle

 Information needed for a tractive force graph

 Chassis dyno curve, or an engine dyno curve and estimate of drivetrain loss

 Total reduction ratio from motor to wheel in each gear Useful extras:
  Estimate of tire longitudinal mu

 Estimate of Center of Gravity (CoG) location (longitudinal and height), and wheelbase

 Estimate of Area Coefficient of Drag (CdA)

 Estimate of Center of Pressure (CoP) height for drag

 Estimate of Area Coefficient of Lift (ClA) and CoP, if applicable

 Traction is the result of combined normal forces multiplied by tire mu.

 This example assumes rear wheel drive (RWD.)

 All cars experience drag rear load transfer. (Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Milliken, See Critical
Specifications For Balance for a detailed discussion. Acceleration load transfer can be modeled
from flat power, stepwise, or recursive. all models are wrong. Make the model useful.

The relative scale of these factors will depend on your coefficients.

Peak power has the highest potential for accelerative force.

It could also be the curve of a CVT with equal mechanical efficiency to the standard gearbox.

The difference between tractive force and drag is the acceleration force available. I find it easy to
understand as shown, but another approach is to subtract drag from each in-gear curve.

The straight line performance envelope of your car is bounded by the traction limit, the area under the
tractive force curves for each gear, and drag.

 You can use Tractive force to determine

 Overall gearing

 How many speeds your team wants to use

 RPM drops between gears and the optimum speed to run the engine i.e. RPM for upshift and
downshift lights

 What shape your team would like the power band to have in that region Maybe one option or
another is not clearly superior or the gains are marginal.

 Especially compared to the amount of work those can be given a lower priority than other
decisions. I always recommend going after the big advantages that are easy to do followed by
 the big advantages that are hard, but justifiable.those require judgment calls. Don't miss the
small advantages that are easy. Save the small ones that are hard for later. Maybe triage them
out of the plan.

2.2 Vehicle Frame Construction

Vehicle frame – is a rigid structure, which is formed by two longitudinal spars connected by cross
members. The frame of the truck acts as a supporting structure. Distinguish between spar and spinal
frames.

1 – front buffer mounting bracket; 2 – the first cross member; 3 – right side member; 4 – an arm of a
forward support of the engine; 5 – extension spar of the front axle; 6 – two halves of the second cross
member; 7 – an arm of a back support of the engine; 8 – bracket mounting support bearings of the
power unit; 9 – two halves of the third cross member; 10 – the fourth cross member; 11 – extension
insert spar intermediate bridge; 12 – two halves of the fifth cross member with reinforcing scarves; 13 –
extension insert spar rear axle; 14 – the sixth cross member; 15 – brace of the rear cross member; 16 –
reinforcement plate of the rear cross member; 17 – a back cross-beam; 18 – kerchief brace; 19 – a brace
of a brace of a back cross-beam; 20 – left side member; 21 – a back bracket of a forward suspension
bracket; 22 – an arm of fastening of the top ear of the shock-absorber; 23 – an arm of fastening of a
water radiator; 24 – front suspension bracket.

 Spar frame design

The spar frame consists of two stamped longitudinal beams of the channel section – spars connected by
several cross members. This frame was called the spar. The crossbars are usually stamped, they serve
not only to connect the spars to each other and give the whole structure the necessary rigidity, but also
to fasten the various components of the car.

For the manufacture of frame elements, low carbon steel is commonly used. The connection of the side
members and cross members is most often done with rivets. In the necessary places, various brackets
and other parts are mounted to the side members and cross members, also with rivets or bolts, for
installing vehicle units.

Welding in the manufacture of frames is rarely used, since the design of the side members of trucks is
relatively flexible in bending, and in particular torsion, and welds in these conditions are a source of
cracking. The ability of the frame to deform under twisting loads avoids unnecessarily high stresses at
the joints. The truck’s cab is fixed to the frame at three, four points using elastic devices, and
deformation of the frame when the car moves on rough roads does not cause corresponding cab
deformations.

In rare cases, trucks use the so-called spinal frame, which is a steel pipe of large diameter passing along
the car along its longitudinal axis. In the front of the frame is bifurcated, forming two longitudinal spars,
used to install the engine with gearbox. A cardan gear is located inside the pipe. The driving axles of the
car in this case have sprung gearboxes, from which the torque is supplied to the wheels by the swinging
axles.

2.2.1 Vehicle Frame

A car frame, also known as a chassis, is your car’s structural support system. Made of steel or aluminum,
the purpose of a car frame is to:

 Support all mechanical components of the car

 Support the car body, or shape

 Support the weight of the vehicle

 Protect all internal car parts and passengers in the event of a collision

There are two main types of car frames - a unibody design and a body-on-frame design. Unibody frames
are designed to be a part of the car body, meaning that the two parts are attached and work together to
support the entire vehicle. This frame type is most commonly seen in passenger cars.

A vehicle with a body-on-frame design, also known as a ladder frame, has two separate parts that are
not merged together. This means that the body of the car is often bolted down onto the frame. This
frame style is mostly seen in trucks, buses, and SUVs.

Mechanics often refer to the car frame by sectional components, such as:
Core support

Unirail

Strut tower

Firewall

Apron

Floor plan

A, B, & C pillars

Rocker panel

Quarter panel

Rear support

Each section has its own purpose and protects or supports a specific area of the vehicle. Breaking down
the different sections of the frame can help mechanics better identify damage in order to repair it
efficiently and effectively.

4.2.2 Integral body construction

 Integral type:

In the integral or fully integral body shell, the longitudinal and cross members of the chassis were
incorporated into the framework of the load carrying body. With this arrangement, part of the load
previously carried by chassis, is diffused through the body structure. This aspect eliminates heavy chassis
members that ought to carry the full bending load. In the integral construction, the body must be
provided with extensions at the front and reinforcements at the rear. The latter is required to support
the suspension members and bumpers. The body must also be reinforced at the other points. In spite of
all these, the resulting unitary body is found to be lighter.

Application: Integral body construction is widely used in passenger cars and to a limited extent in bus
design.

 Integral vehicle structure :

In the structure, the longitudinal & cross members of the chassis were incorporated into the frame work
of the load carrying body. With this arrangement part of the load previously carried by the chassis, is
diffused through the body structure. This aspect eliminates heavy chasis members that ought to carry
the full bending load. In it, the body must be provided with extensions at the front & reinforcement at
the rear. The latter is required to support/mount the suspension member & bumpers. The body must
also be reinforced at other points. In spite of all these, the resulting unitary body is found to be lighter.

Integral body Construction is widely used in passenger cars & to a limited extent in bus design. Fuel
Consumption is less in integral structure life of body is long. Styling of body can not be change & create
noise than semi integral structure