Quest Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering Research(JECER)

Volume1 ~ Issue1 (2013) pp: 01-09

ISSN(Online) :2321-3795 ISSN (Print):2321-4941
www.questjournals.org
Research Paper

ALTERNATE POWER SOURCE: WIND TURBINE

1
Nathan David, 2Nzewi O.N., 3Onuora K.C., 4Abioye Ayodeji Opeyemi
1
Lecturer and Project Supervisor,Department of Electronic Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
2
(2000/103419) Undergraduate Project,Department of Electronic Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering,University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
3
(2000/103573) Undergraduate Project,Department of Electronic Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering,University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
4
Contributor and Corresponding Editor,Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering,School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,
Modibbo Adama University of Technology (MAUTECH), Yola.

Received 19 September, 2013; Accepted 23 September, 2013; Published online 30 September, 2013
© The author(s) 2013. Published with open access at www.questjournal.org

I. ABSTRACT
Power generation is key to economic prosperity and strength of a nation. Nations need clean,
sustainable, and efficientelectric power generation system. The natural sources of energy available to man are:
the sun, fossil fuels, flowing water and wind. Making the decision on which of the aforementioned sources to
utilize requires careful considerations such as: Availability, Extraction costs and feasibility, Conversion costs,
Efficiency, Sustainability, and Economic implications.The most desirable source would be one that is non-
pollutant, available in abundance, renewable, and can be harnessed at an acceptable cost in both large-scale and
small-scale systems. Of all these natural energy sources, Wind seems to be the most promising as it satisfy these
requirements. Wind energy is one of the most available and exploitable forms of renewable energy. Wind results
due to the rotation of the earth, and the heating and cooling of the earth surface by the Sun. Wind power has
been used for centuries in sailing ships, for pumping water, grinding grain, etc. The worldwide interest in
developing wind power plants is due to the rapidly increasing demand for electrical energy and the consequent
depletion of fossil fuels, namely, oil and coal, whose reserves are limited.The essence of this project is to design
an interface unit that would ensure a steady output voltage irrespective of the variable input voltage resulting
from variation in wind speed.

Keywords:Earth, Electricity, Fossil Fuels, Power Generation, Sun, Water, and Wind.

I. INTRODUCTION
I.1 The Philosophy behind Wind Turbines
As key pointer to economic prosperity and strength of a nation, power generation capabilities can never
be understated. A nations access to a clean, sustainable and efficient (in all ramifications) electric power
generation system goes a long way in determining that nations destiny.
However, being products of nature ourselves it is only natural that our major sources of nature come from nature
itself. The natural sources of energy available to man include; the sun, fossil fuels, flowing water and wind.
Therefore, to make the decision on which of the aforementioned sources to use, a careful process of
consideration has to take place. These considerations include: Availability, Extraction costs and feasibility,
Conversion costs, Efficiency, Sustainability, and Economic implications.
Research efforts for developing alternative sources of energy for electricity generation, has heightened. The
most desirable source would be one that is non-pollutant, available in abundance, and renewable, and can be
harnessed at an acceptable cost in both large-scale and small-scale systems. The most promising source
satisfying all these requirements is wind, a natural energy source.

*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 1 | Page

Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
Wind energy is one of the most available and exploitable forms of renewable energy. Wind blows from a region
of higher atmospheric pressure to one of lower atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure is caused by:
a) the fact that the earth’s surface is not uniformly heated by the sun, and
b) the earth’s rotation
Of the various renewable energy sources, wind energy has emerged as the most viable source of electrical
power, and is economically competitive with the conventional sources. Before the invention of the steam
engine, wind power has been used for centuries in sailing ships, for pumping water, grinding grain, etc.
In the late nineteenth century, as electricity was used to transmit and consume energy, with thermal and hydro
power becoming the favored sources, wind energy fell further into disfavor. Some countries however lacked
adequate fuel and water-power resources which led them to look for alternative ways of generating electricity.
Denmark pioneered the development of windmills for the generation of electricity in the late 19 th century. Since
then, there has been an increasing endeavor to build wind-driven generators for use in isolated communities with
negligible resources (in the form of water power or coal) and at places which cannot be economically connected
to public supply networks. Another reason for the worldwide interest in developing wind power plants is the
rapidly increasing demand for electrical energy and the consequent depletion of fossil fuels, namely, oil and
coal, whose reserves are limited.[1]

I.2 Project Description

The essence of this project is to design an interface unit that would ensure a steady output voltage
irrespective of the input voltage as a result of the wind speed.
The wind (irrespective of the speed) hits the blades of the windmill causing a transfer of kinetic energy from the
air molecules to the blades which in turn results in a rotation of these blades. The blades are coupled to a shaft
which is equally coupled to a gear box and finally the generator. The rotation of the blades causes a resulting
rotation of the shaft. The speed of rotation of this shaft is amplified once it goes into the gear box. The increased
speed from the gear box powers the generator which results in the generation of electricity. The magnitude of
the generated voltage is dependent on the initial kinetic energy during impact with the blades.
However, this variable voltage being an input and a steady voltage being the output is the significance of this
project. The key components here are: [2]
a) The inverter, and
b) The uninterrupted power supply (UPS) device.

I.3 Objective of the Project

Using the simulated wind-powered electricity generator it would be demonstrated that a steady state
output is achieved irrespective of the high or low wind speed from this simulated generator. The load would be
supplied with a constant voltage with the source alternating between the mains and the accumulator. This project
shows the stabilization of fluctuating power from the wind to the load.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Turbines are rotary engines that convert the energy of a moving stream of water, steam, wind or gas
into mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with paddles, propellers, blades, or
buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that the moving fluid or air exerts a tangential force that
turns the wheel and imparts energy to it. This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to
operate a machine, compressor, electric generator, or propeller. Turbines are classified as hydraulic, or water,
turbines, steam turbines, wind turbines or gas turbines. Today turbine-powered generators produce most of the
world's electrical energy. Windmills that generate electricity are known as wind turbines.[3][4][5][6]

II.1 Energy Sources

World Energy Supply, combined resources by which the nations of the world attempt to meet their
energy needs. Energy is the basis of industrial civilization; without energy, modern life would cease to exist.
During the 1970s the world began a painful adjustment to the vulnerability of energy supplies. In the long run,
conserving energy resources may provide the time needed to develop new sources of energy, such as hydrogen
fuel cells, or to further develop alternative energy sources, such as solar energy and wind energy. While this
development occurs, however, the world will continue to be vulnerable to disruptions in the supply of oil,
which, after World War II (1939-1945), became the most favored energy source.
Wood was the first and, for most of human history, the major source of energy. It was readily available,
because extensive forests grew in many parts of the world and the amount of wood needed for heating and
cooking was relatively modest. Certain other energy sources, found only in localized areas, were also used in
ancient times: asphalt, coal, and peat from surface deposits and oil from seepages of underground deposits. This
*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 2 | Page
Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
situation changed when wood began to be used during the middle ages to make charcoal. The charcoal was
heated with metal ore to break up chemical compounds and free the metal. As forests were cut and wood
supplies dwindled at the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century, charcoal was replaced by
coke (produced from coal) in the reduction of ores. Coal, which also began to be used to drive steam engines,
became the dominant energy source as the Industrial Revolution proceeded. Due to the non-renewable nature of
coal and other fossil fuels, alternative sources of energy have been sought after. Some of which are discussed
below.

II.1.1 Solar Energy

Solar energy is generated by harnessing power from the sun. It is a renewable source of energy.
Recurring cost is low since the facility for harnessing power from the sun has little or no moveable parts that
may require periodical servicing. Cost of implementation however is very high. Solar energy does not refer to a
single energy technology but rather covers a diverse set of renewable energy technologies that are powered by
the Sun’s heat. Some solar energy technologies, such as heating with solar panels, utilize sunlight directly. Other
types of solar energy, such as hydroelectric energy and fuels from biomass (wood, crop residues, and dung), rely
on the Sun’s ability to evaporate water and grow plant material, respectively. The common feature of solar
energy technologies is that, unlike oil, gas, coal, and present forms of nuclear power, solar energy is
inexhaustible. Solar energy can be divided into three main groups—heating and cooling applications, electricity
generation, and fuels from biomass.

II.1.2 Hydro-electric Energy

Hydro-electric Energy can be achieved by harnessing power from a reasonable volume of water. The
prime mover in this case is the flow of water. Power derived from the fall of water from a higher to a lower
level, and extracted by means of waterwheels or hydraulic turbines. Waterpower is a natural resource, available
wherever a sufficient volume of steady water flow exists. The development of waterpower today requires
extensive construction, including reservoirs, a dam, bypass canals, and the installation of large turbines and
electric generating equipment. Because the development of hydroelectric power requires a large capital
investment, it is often uneconomical for a region where coal or oil is cheap, even though the cost of fuel for a
steam-powered generating plant is higher than the cost of running a hydroelectric plant. However, increasing
environmental concerns are focusing attention on renewable energy sources. For an electricity generator, the
flowing liquid creates an impact on the blades of a turbine, which in turn generates the appropriate amount of
required electricity. The efficiency of this renewable source of energy is hindered by the seasonal variations of
the level of liquid (in this case, water).

II.1.3 Thermal Energy

Thermal Energy is as a result of the generation of heat. This source of energy entails the movement of
turbines with the flow of agitated fluids. These fluids can be in the form of steam, which is generated by the heat
from the combustion of fossil fuels, natural gas, synthetic gas, biomass, etc. An advanced form of thermal
energy is nuclear energy. A natural form of thermal energy is geothermal energy. Fossil fuels, which include
petroleum, coal, and natural gas, provide most of the energy that powers modern industrial society. The gasoline
that fuels our cars, the coal that powers many electrical plants, and the natural gas that heats our homes are all
fossil fuels.
The majority of fossil fuels are used in the transportation, manufacturing, residential heating, and
electric-power generation industries. Crude petroleum is refined into gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel, which
power the world’s transportation system. Coal is the fuel most commonly burned to generate electric power, and
natural gas is used primarily in commercial and residential buildings for heating water and air, for air
conditioning, and as fuel for stoves and other heating appliances.
Once fossil fuel has been extracted and processed, it can be burned for direct uses, such as to power
cars or heat homes, or it can be combusted for the generation of electrical power.
Fossil fuels are primarily burned to produce energy. This energy is used to power automobiles, trucks,
airplanes, trains, and ships around the world; to fuel industrial manufacturing processes; and to provide heat,
light, air conditioning, and energy for homes and businesses. About two-fifths of all energy consumed in the
United States is used by industry, one-third by homes and businesses, and about one-fourth by transportation. To
provide fuel for transportation, petroleum is refined into gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, and other derivatives used
in most of the world’s automobiles, trucks, trains, aircraft, and ships. In the United States, transportation
accounts for about two-thirds of total petroleum consumption—more than two-thirds of which is burned as
automobile gasoline. Demand for natural gas, historically considered a waste by-product of petroleum and coal
mining, is growing in business and industry because it is a cleaner-burning fuel than petroleum or coal. Natural
*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 3 | Page
Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
gas, which can be piped directly to commercial plants or individual residences and used on demand, is used for
heating and for air conditioning. Residential uses of natural gas also include fuel for stoves and other heating
appliances.
In addition to direct combustion for commercial uses, fossil fuels are also burned to generate most of
the world’s electric power. In 2002 fossil fuel fired power plants produced 64 percent of the world’s electrical
power, down from 71 percent in the late 1970s. In 2002 the world’s remaining electricity supply was generated
primarily by hydroelectric power (17 percent) and nuclear fission (17 percent), with solar, geothermal, and other
sources accounting for a relatively small amount.
The by-product of this conversion process is the emission of smog or radiation (in the case of nuclear)
which is environmentally hazardous. This is not a renewable source of energy.

II.1.4 Wind Energy

One important factor of the wind is its variance is speed. Coupled to a wind-powered electricity
generator, this variance in wind speed would result to a proportional variance in voltage. For a generic wind
turbine, the mechanical power that could be extracted from the wind depends on the rotor speed. The output
from this rotor, when connected to a load, would cause a fluctuation of both current and voltage leading to an
inevitable damage of the device or load. A device would therefore have to act as an interface with the load and
the output of the windmill.[1][3][4]

II.1.5 Merits and Demerits of the Various Energy Sources

The advantages and disadvantages of the various energysources is as summarized in the table 1 below:[2][3]
Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of various energy sources
Source Advantages Disadvantages
 Inexpensive  Requires expensive air pollution
 Easy to recover
Coal
controls (e.g. mercury, sulfur

 Significant contributor to acid rain

dioxide)

 Requires extensive transportation

and global warming

system
 Fuel is inexpensive  Requires larger capital cost because
 Energy generation is the most
Nuclear
of emergency, containment,

 Waste is more compact than any

concentrated source radioactive waste and storage

 Requires resolution of the long-term

systems

 Extensive scientific basis for the

source
high level waste storage issue in

 Easy to transport new fuel  Potential nuclear proliferation issue

cycle most countries

 No greenhouse or acid rain

effects
Hydroelectric  Very inexpensive once dam is  Very limited source since it depends

 Many dams available are currently

built on water elevation

ceasing to exist (not much of a future

 Dam collapse usually leads to loss of

source)

 Dams have affected fish (e.g. salmon

life

 Environmental damage for areas

runs)

flooded (backed up) and downstream

Gas / Oil  Good distribution system for  Very limited availability as shown

 Easy to obtain
current use levels by shortages during winters several

 Better as space heating energy  Could be major contributor to global

years ago

 Expensive for energy generation

source warming

*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 4 | Page

Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
 Large price swings with supply and
demand
 
 
Wind is free if available Limited to windy areas.
Good source for periodic water Limited to small generator size; need


Wind pumping demands of farms as many towers.


used earlier in 1900's Need expensive energy storage (e.g.


Generation and maintenance batteries)
costs have decreased. Wind is Highly climate dependent - wind can
proving to be a reasonable cost- damage equipment during


effective renewable source. windstorms or not turn during still
Well suited to rural areas. summer days.
Solar  Sunlight is free when available  Does require special materials for
mirrors/panels that can affect


environment
Current technology requires large
amounts of land for small amounts


of energy generation
Procurement of solar panels and
other photovoltaic equipment is very
expensive
 
 
Biomass Industry in its infancy Inefficient if small plants are used
Could create jobs because Could be a significant contributor to
smaller plants would be used global warming because fuel has low
heat content
 
 
Refuse Based Fuel can have low cost Inefficient if small plants are used
Fuel Could create jobs because Could be a significant contributor to


smaller plants would be used global warming because fuel has low


Low sulfur dioxide emissions heat content
Fly ash can contain metals as


cadmium and lead
Contain dioxins and furans in air and
ash releases
 

Hydrogen Combines easily with oxygen to Very costly to produce
produce water and energy Takes more energy to produce
hydrogen than energy that could be
recovered.
Fusion  Hydrogen and tritium could be  Breakeven point has not been


used as fuel source reached after ~40 years of expensive
Higher energy output per unit research and commercially available


mass than fission plants not expected for at least 35
Low radiation levels associated years.
with process than fission-based
reactors

III. SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

III.1 Description of the system building blocks

 Control switch (key pad, fan)

The simulated wind turbine was achieved using 4 discrete blocks:[7][8][9][10]

 Inverter
 Display unit (7-segment display) and
 Battery backup unit (battery, charging circuit).
III.1.1 Control Switch
The key pad is where speed of the fan is regulated. It acts as a power change-over switch alternating
from battery to the mains supply. This key pad contains 3 soft button switches fed into the priority encoder
(74LS147) which sends active low signals into the encoder whenever the switch is pressed. Ordinarily, the 1kΩ
resistors act as pull-up resistors, making the decimal input of the encoder high. The active low signal goes to the

*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 5 | Page

Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
priority encoder (74LS147) and is changed from decimal to Binary Coded Decimal (BCD). The output BCD
goes into a hex-inverter (74LS04) whose function is to invert the output of the encoder.

0 0
Vcc1 Vcc1

1 5 1 5
a1
High b1 a1 b1

2 6 2 6
Low
a2 b2 a2 b2

7404
3 7 3 7
a3 b3 a3 b3

74147
4 8 4 8
a4 b4 a4 b4

GND GND
0 0

Figure 1: Key Pad

III.1.2 Display Unit
The inverted BCD signal then goes to a BCD to 7-segment decoder (74LS47) which de-multiplexes the
4 bits into 7 bits. The 7 bits of information is displayed on a 7-segment display.

0
Vcc1

1 5
a1 b1

2 6
a2
7447 b2

3 7
a3 b3

4 8
a4 b4

GND
0

Figure 2: Display Unit

III.1.3 Inverter
The BCD signal is also tapped and channeled to the BCD to decimal decoder (74LS42). Its function is
to change the 4 bits (BCD) to decimal output where the transistor static switching network is designed to
energize the relays.[7][8]
+12V

+12V

+12V

Figure 3: Inverter
III.1.4 Battery Backup Unit
These relays are used to switch the DC to AC inverter over to mains or battery, and used to alter the
speed of the fan which simulates the wind vane. The DC to AC inverter produces 220V AC supply from 12V
battery source.

*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 6 | Page

Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine

+12V
AC

Figure 4: UPS
III.1.5 Fan Control Unit
The fan circuit is switched ‘on’ at different voltages like +5V for low speed, then +9V for high speed.

+12V

12V
+9V FAN

+12V +12V
+5V

+5V

7442

Figure 5: Fan and Relay Units

III.1.6 The power supply unit

AC Mains Step-Down DC Output

Rectifier Filter Regulator
Transformer

Figure 6: Block Diagram of a Power Supply

The power supply is meant to supply up to 247.2mA at 12V. The product of these two values, give the
minimum VA rating of the transformer that will be used. Hence, a 12VA transformer is needed. For maximum
safety, a full-wave bridge rectifier with a continuous current rating of 3A is also needed. The filter capacitor
needed will be large enough to provide acceptably low ripple voltage, with rating sufficient to handle the worst
case combination of no load and high line voltage. Thus, for a 12V RMS transformer, the off-load filter voltage
will be calculated as 12√2 = 19.97V. A filter capacitor that has a working voltage of 35V is needed. A 9V and
5V three terminal regulator IC will be used.

7805 7809

+5V +9V
AC

Figure 7: +9V and +5V Power Supply

V = RMS (VAC – 2VDROP)
= √2 (VAC – 2VDROP)
Where VDROP is the voltage drop across eth diode rectifiers D, and V AC is the transformer step down
voltage.
V = √2 (12 – 2*0.7)
= √2 (12 – 1.4)
*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 7 | Page
Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
= 14.99 ≈ 15.0 volts
This voltage feeds the regulators 7805 and 7809 to produce +5V and +9V respectively. The amount of
ripple voltage is directly proportional to the load current and inversely proportional to the capacitance.
Idct
ΔVR (P – ρ) =
C
In order to contend with a ± 10 % worst case line voltage variation, the ripple voltage was kept below
1.5 V (P – ρ).
III.2 Design Specification

Power Supply
Unit

BCD to 7-
Priority Hex
Segment
Key Pad Encoder Inverter
Decoder
(74LS147) (74LS04)
(74LS47)

220V AC
Load

BCD to Decimal
Fan Circuit Transistor DC to AC
Decoder Relay Units
Switches Inverter

Figure 8: Block Representation of the Wind Turbine with Battery Facility

I. The digital IC’s are all transistor-transistor logic (TTL) 74 series
II. All the IC linear voltage regulators are 78 series positive voltage and must be mounted to aluminum
heat sink.
III. The transformer for the DC to AC inverter must be 12V-0V-12V to 220V step-up transformer with
current rating of about 2000mA
IV. The 7-segment display must be common anode type RS586-526
V. All the freewheeling diode connected across the relay coil must be silicon IN4007
VI. 12V battery of 50AH and 100AH maximum must be provided for the DC to AC inverter unit
VII. Relay of 12V, 10A max and 400Ω coil resistance must be employed
VIII. A regulated DC supply of +9V and +5V must be employed to power the entire control unit.

0 0 0

1 Vcc1 5 1 Vcc1 5 1 Vcc1 5

a1 b1 a1 b1 a1 b1

2 6 2 6 2 6
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2

3 7 3 7 3 7
a3 b3 a3 b3 a3 b3

4 8 4 8 4 8
a4 b4 a4 b4 a4 b4
GND GND GND
0 0 0

7442

AC

Figure 9: Circuit Diagram

IV. CONCLUSION
Wind energy has been harnessed since the 7th century making it a very old energy source. Now with the
ability to convert with increasing efficiency, this free resource of nature, it would be unwise of policy makers
and executors in the energy sector of this nation to overlook the implementation of this system and hence fail to
adopt the system.
After a thorough evaluation of the project, its set objectives were met. These objectives are as follows;
*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 8 | Page
Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
 Alternate Power Source: Wind Turbine
 To bring to the fore, a fast growing energy source that if harnessed would make contributions to the


technological growth of the country.
Keeping to generally accepted standards, design and implement an inverter/battery facility that has


application in wind turbines and other electrical power generation systems.
To develop our abilities to work in multifaceted engineering environments.

IV.1 Cost Analysis

The system design for this project was achieved using locally available components and the total cost
incurred in the procurement of these components summed up to a total of NGN 5,375.00 (which is about $34
USD).
IV.2 Recommendations

 The project could serve a better purpose if executed as an inter-disciplinary collaboration cutting across
The following recommendations were made:

the various departments in the faculty with vested interests in this topic. In this way the students gain

 For the battery facility, a bigger accumulator should be employed to provide longer periods of backup
invaluable experience that would benefit them in the industry.

power.

REFERENCES
[1]. E. H. Lysen, Introduction to Wind Energy, Basic, and Advanced Introduction to Wind Energy with Emphasis on Water Pumping
Windmills, Netherlands: SWD, 1982.
[2]. S. Dunnett, "Small Wind Energy Systems for Battery Charging".ITDG Technical Information Leaflet, KIS Unit.
[3]. H. Piggot, "Wind Power Workshop, Building your own Wind Turbine," Centre for Alternative Technology, 1997.
[4]. P. Gipe, Wind Energy Basics, A Guide to Small and Micro Wind Systems, Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 1999.
[5]. J. Park, The Wind Power Book, USA: Cheshire Books, 1981.
[6]. H. Piggott, "It's a Breeze, A Guide to Choosing Windpower," Centre for Alternative Technology, 1998.
[7]. S. N. Bhadra, Wind Electrical Systems, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
[8]. A. S. David, Wind Turbine Technology, Fundamental Concepts of Wind Turbine Engineering, ASME Press, 1994.
[9]. E. W. Golding, The Generation of Electricity by Wind Power, Trowbridge: Redwood Burn Limited, 1976.
[10]. T. Anderson, A. Doig, D. Rees and S. Khennas, Rural Energy Services - A Handbook for Sustainable Energy Development,
ITDG Publishing, 1999.
[11]. L. A. Kristoferson and V. Bokalders, Renewable Energy Technologies - their application in developing countries, ITDG
Publishing, 1991.
[12]. S. M. Dhor, Applied Electronics and Instrumentation, Tata: McGraw, 1997.
[13]. B. R. Gupta, Electronics and Instrumentation, S. Chand and Company Ltd, 1999.
[14]. M. S. Roden, Electronic Design, Shruff Publishers and Distributors PVT Ltd, 2003.
[15]. J. Millman, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Tata: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
[16]. R. L. Tokheim, Digital Electronics, Tata: McGraw Hill, 2003.
[17]. I. J. Nagralli, Electronics: Analog and Digital, India: Prentice Hall, 1999.

*Corresponding Author: Nathan David 9 | Page

Lecturer and Project Supervisor, Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.