Business Communication & Networking

B.
Com IV SEMESTER BUSINESS COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING
Network:
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and / or receiving data generated
by other nodes on the network.
Gateways:
It is a hardware device that acts as a gate between two networks. It may be a router, firewall,
server or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network. It protects
nodes within network.
Router:
It is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A network is connected to at least
two networks (two LAN’s or MAN’s) i.e router is connected between two different class
IP (internet protocol) addresses.
Multiple Access:
Multiple access techniques permit multiple access to a channel. A channel represents a
system resource assigned to a given mobile user that enables the user to establish
communication with other users in the network.
Depending on the channel type, specific multiple access technique can be used for
communication. The channel types and the associated multiple access techniques are
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access),
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Network Applications:
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices.
• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP.
• Information sharing by using Web or Internet.
• Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages.
• IP phones.
• Video conferences.
• Parallel computing.
• Instant messaging
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Prof. N. H. Patil
B.Com IV SEMESTER BUSINESS COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING
Network Topology:
Network topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the computers, cables,
and other components within a data communications network are interconnected, both
physically and logically.
Two most basic topologies are point-to-point and multipoint.
• A point to-point topology usually connects two mainframe computers for high-speed
digital information.
• A multipoint topology connects three or more stations through a single transmission
medium and some examples are star, bus, ring, mesh and hybrid.
Types of Topologies:
Star topology:
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network
passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The
hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts
as a repeater for the data flow.
Advantages:
• Easily expanded without disruption to the network.
• Cable failure affects only a single user.
• Easy to trouble shoot and isolate problems.
Disadvantages:
• Requires more cable.
• A central connecting device allows for a single point of failure.
• More difficult to implement.
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Bus topology:
Bus networks use a single cable, (the backbone) functions as a shared communication
medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to
communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire
that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the
message. The two ends of the transmission line never touch to form a complete loop
Advantages:
• Cheap and easy to implement.
• Require less cable.
• Does not use any specialized network equipment.
Disadvantages:
• Network disruption when computers are added or removed.
• A break in the cable will prevent all system from accessing the network.
• Difficult to trouble shoot.
Ring topology:
In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockwise" or "counter clockwise"). All the stations are interconnected in tandem (series)
to form a closed loop or circle. Each computer acts like a repeater and the ring topology is
similar to bus or star topologies.
Advantages:
• Cable faults are easily located and makes trouble shooting easier.
• Networks are moderately easy to install.
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Disadvantages:
• Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.
• A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.
Mesh topology:
In mesh topology each computer on the network connects to every other, creating a point-
to-point connection between every device on the network. A mesh network can take any
of several possible paths from source to destination. A mesh network in which every device
connects to every other is called a full mesh. A disadvantage is that, a mesh network with
n nodes must have n(n-1)/2 links and each node must have n-1 I/O ports (links).
Advantages:
• Provides redundant paths between devices.
• The network can be expanded without disruption to current uses.
Disadvantages:
• Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.
• Complicated implementation.
Tree Topology:
It is also known as Hierarchical Topology. This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of Bus topology. This topology divides the network into
multiple levels/layers of network. If the root goes down, then the entire network suffers
even though it is not the single point of failure.
Advantages:
• Expansion of network is possible and easy.
• Networks are divided into segments, that can be easily maintained.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
• If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.
Disadvantages:
• Relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole network is crippled.
• If more nodes and segments are added then maintenance becomes difficult.
• Heavy traffic causes the network and make it slow.
Hybrid topology:
This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining two or more of the
traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Main aim is being able to
share the advantages of different topologies.
Network Classification:
Network can be classified as
• PAN – Personal Area Network
• LAN - Local Area Network
• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
• WAN - Wide Area Network
Personal Area Network (PAN): A Personal Area
Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very
personal to a user. This may include Bluetooth enabled
devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has
connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include
wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth
enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
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Local Area Network (LAN):
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings. LANs use a network operating system to provide two-way
communications at bit rates in the range of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. LAN has connectivity
range from 10 meters to 1000 meters.
Advantages of LAN:
• Share resources efficiently.
• Individual workstation might survive network failure if it doesn’t rely upon others.
• Component evolution independent of system evolution.
• Support heterogeneous hardware/software.
• Access to other LANs and WANs.
• High transfer rates with low error rates.
Disadvantages of LAN:
• Limited Area.
• Risk of complete breakdown.
• Sharing of data from outside.
Metropolitan Area Network:
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN.
A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a medium
such as fiber-optical links. MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and
range from 1km to 10km.
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Advantages of MAN:
• Less expensive.
• Sending local emails.
• High Speed.
• Sharing of the internet.
• High Security.
Disadvantages of MAN:
• Difficult to manage.
• Internet speed difference.
• Hackers attack.
• More wires required.
• Technical people required to setup.
Wide Area Network:
Wide area networks are the oldest type of data communications network that provide
relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over
relatively large and widely geographical areas, such as country or entire continent. WANs
interconnect routers in different locations. WANs tend to use technology like ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode), Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and Frame
Relay. LAN has connectivity range from 100km to 1000 km.
Advantages of WAN:
• Centralizes IT infrastructure.
• Boosts privacy.
• Increases bandwidth.
• Increase profits.
Disadvantages of WAN:
• High setup costs.
• Security Concerns.
• Maintenance issues.
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Internetwork (Internet):
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest
network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have
connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP
as its addressing protocol. Internet enables the users to share and access enormous amount
of information worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio, and video streaming
etc.
Services of Internet:
• Web sites
• E-mail
• Instant Messaging
• Blogging
• Social Media
• Marketing
• Networking
• Resource Sharing
• Audio and Video Streaming
TELNET (TELecommunication NETwork) :

Telnet is an application protocol used on the Internet or local area network to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection. Telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a
remote host.
Telnet is a client-server protocol, based on a reliable connection-oriented transport.
Typically, this protocol is used to establish a connection to Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).
A Telnet program allows a user on one system to login to a remote system and issue
commands in a command window of the remote system.
TELNET may be used across WAN’s as well as LAN's.
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FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer
of computer files between a client and server on a computer network.
FTP is a client-server model architecture using separate control and data connections
between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate using sign-in protocol, i.e
using username and password. FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP
used for transmitting the files from one host to another.
The main objectives of FTP are
• It provides the sharing of files.

• It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
• It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
Switching:
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards destination
have to pass through the interconnecting devices, which receives data from the source,
stores data, analyse it and then forwards to the next interconnecting device closest to the
destination.
Switching can be categorized as:
Circuit Switching:
When computer places a telephone call, the switching equipment within the telephone
system seeks out a physical path all the way from your telephone to the receiver's
telephone. This technique is called circuit switching
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Each of the six rectangles represents a carrier switching office (end office, toll office, etc.).
In this example, each office has three incoming lines and three outgoing lines. When a call
passes through a switching office, a physical connection is (conceptually) established
between the line on which the call came in and one of the output lines, as shown by the
dotted lines. An important property of circuit switching is the need to set up an end-to-end
path before any data can be sent. The elapsed time between the end of dialling and the start
of ringing can easily be 10 sec, more on long-distance or international calls. During this
time interval, the telephone system is hunting for a path. Note that before data transmission
can even begin, the call request signal must propagate all the way to the destination and be
acknowledged.
Message Switching:
An alternative switching strategy is message switching. When this form of switching is
used, no physical path is established in advance between sender and receiver. Instead, when
the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first switching office (i.e., router)
and then forwarded later, one hop at a time. Each block is received in its entirety, inspected
for errors, and then retransmitted. A network using this technique is called a store-and-
forward network.
The first electromechanical telecommunication systems used message switching, namely,
for telegrams. The message was punched on paper tape (off-line) at the sending office, and
then read in and transmitted over a communication line to the next office along the way,
where it was punched out on paper tape. An operator there tore the tape off and read it in
on one of the many tape readers, one reader per outgoing trunk. Such a switching office
was called a torn tape office. Paper tape is long gone and message switching is not used
any more.
Packet switching:
The alternative to circuit switching is packet switching, with this technology, individual
packets are sent as need be, with no dedicated path being set up in advance. It is up to each
packet to find its way to the destination on its own. With message switching, there is no
limit at all on block size, which means that routers (in a modern system) must have disks
to buffer long blocks. It also means that a single block can tie up a router-router line for
minutes, rendering message switching useless for interactive traffic.
Packet-switching networks place a tight upper limit on block size, allowing packets to be
buffered in router main memory instead of on disk. By making sure that no user can
monopolize any transmission line very long (milliseconds), packet-switching networks are
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well suited for handling interactive traffic. The first packet of a multipacket message can
be forwarded before the second one has fully arrived, reducing delay and improving
throughput. For these reasons, computer networks are usually packet switched,
occasionally circuit switched, but never message switched.
Timing of events a) circuit switching b) message switching c) packet switching
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Key factors in communication evolution:
There are four key factors in communication evolution
1. Role of technology
Technology always plays a role in determining what can be built. The capabilities
of various technologies have improved dramatically over the past two centuries.
These improvements in capabilities have been accompanied by reductions in cost.
As a result, many systems that were simply impossible two decades ago have
become not only feasible but also cost-effective. Of course, fundamental physical
considerations place limits on what technology can ultimately achieve. For example,
no signal can propagate faster than the speed of light, and hence there is a minimum
delay or latency in the transfer of a message between two points a certain distance
apart. However, while bounded by physical laws, substantial opportunities for
further improvement in enabling technologies remain.
2. Role of regulation
Traditional communication services in the form of telephony and telegraphy have
been government regulated. Because of the high cost in deploying the requisite
infrastructure and the importance of controlling communications, governments often
chose to operate communications networks as monopolies. The planning of
communication networks was done over time horizons spanning several decades.
This planning accounted for providing a very small set of well-defined
communication services, for example, telegraph and "plain-old telephone service"
(POTS). These organizations were consequently not very well prepared to introduce
new services at a fast rate.
3. Role of market
The existence of a market for a new service is the third factor involved in
determining the success of a new service. This success is ultimately determined by
a customer's willingness to pay, which, of course, depends on the cost, usefulness,
and appeal of the service. For a network-based service, the usefulness of the service
frequently depends on there being a critical mass of subscribers.
4. Role of standards
Standards are basically agreements, with industrywide, national, and possibly
international scope, that allow equipment manufactured by different vendors to be
interoperable. Standards focus on interfaces that specify how equipment is
physically interconnected and what procedures are used to operate across different
equipment. Standards applying to data communications between computers specify
the hardware and software procedures through which computers can correctly and
reliably "talk to one another." Standards are extremely important in communications
where the value of a network is to a large extent determined by the size of the
community that can be reached. In addition, the investment required in
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telecommunications networks is very high, and so network operators are particularly
interested in having the choice of buying equipment from multiple, competing
suppliers, rather than being committed to buying equipment from a single supplier.
Layered Network Architecture:

To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of layers
or levels, each one build upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered architecture is to
divide the design into small pieces. Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower
layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
Five-layer architecture is as shown below,
The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peers. In
other words, it is the peers that communicate using protocols. In reality, no data is
transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer
passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer
is reached. Below layer-1 is the physical layer through which actual communication
occurs. With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers
requires a unit of data called a protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at
the beginning of a message or a trailer appended to the end of a message. Data flows
downward through the layers in the source system and upwards at the destination address.
As data passes from one layer into another, headers and trailers are added and removed
from the PDU. This process of adding or removing PDU information is called
encapsulation/decapsulation. Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface.
The interface defines which primitives operations and services the lower layer offers to the
upper layer adjacent to it. A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.
A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called protocol stack.
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The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and interfaces.
• A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.
• Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity.
These rules concern both the contents and the order of the messages used. Basically,
a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
• Between the layers service interfaces are defined. The messages from one layer to
another are sent through those interfaces.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model:
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The seven layers are:
OSI reference model:
Physical Layer:
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI hierarchy and coordinates the functions
required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures
and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur.
The physical layer specifies the type of transmission medium and the transmission mode
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(simplex, half duplex or full duplex) and the physical, electrical, functional and procedural
standards for accessing data communication networks.
Data-link Layer:
The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next. The
data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link
and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear error free
to the upper layer (network layer). The data link layer packages data from the physical
layer into groups called blocks, frames or packets. If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define
the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of
the frame. The data-link layer provides flow-control, access-control, and error-control.
Network Layer:
It is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host. The network layer provides details that enable data to be routed between
devices in an environment using multiple networks, subnetworks or both. This is
responsible for addressing messages and data so they are sent to the correct destination,
and for translating logical addresses and names (like a machine name FLAME) into
physical addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding a path through the network to
the destination computer. It provides the upper layers of the hierarchy with independence
from the data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems.
Networking components that operate at the network layer include routers and their
software.
Transport Layer:
It is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another. The transport layer
controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message propagated through the
network between two devices, providing the reliable, transparent transfer of data between
two endpoints.
Transport layer responsibilities includes message routing, segmenting, error recovery and
two types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol: connection oriented and
connectionless. The transport layer is the highest layer in the OSI hierarchy in terms of
communications and may provide data tracking, connection flow control, sequencing of
data, error checking, and application addressing and identification.
Session Layer:
It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization. Session layer, sometimes called
the dialog controller provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end
systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.
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Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer.
These applications include file transfer protocols and sending email. Session
responsibilities include network log-on and log-off procedures and user authentication.
Session layer characteristics include virtual connections between applications, entities,
synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity
units, connection parameter negotiation, and partitioning services into functional groups.
Presentation Layer:
It is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption. It provides the presentation
layer provides independence to the application processes by addressing any code or syntax
conversion necessary to present the data to the network in a common communications
format. It specifies how end-user applications should format the data.
The presentation layer translated between different data formats and protocols.
Presentation functions include data file formatting, encoding, encryption and decryption of
data messages, dialogue procedures, data compression algorithms, synchronization,
interruption, and termination.
Application Layer:
It is responsible for providing services to the user. The application layer is the highest layer
in the hierarchy and is analogous to the general manager of the network by providing access
to the OSI environment. The applications layer provides distributed information services
and controls the sequence of activities within and application and also the sequence of
events between the computer application and the user of another application.
The application layer communicates directly with the user’s application program. User
application processes require application layer service elements to access the networking
environment. The service elements are of two types: CASEs (common application service
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elements) satisfying particular needs of application processes like association control,
concurrence and recovery. The second type is SASE (specific application service elements)
which include TC P/IP stack, FTP, SNMP, Telnet and SMTP.
Layer Example (Protocols, Standards)

7. Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP, TELNET
1. Presentation ASCII, JPEG, PGP
1. Session BOOTP, NetBIOS, DHCP, DNS
4. Transport TCP, UDP, SPX
3. Network IP, IPX, ICMP
2. Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay
1. Physical Bits, Interfaces, Hubs
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) reference model:
Internet
Host to
Network
TCP / IP reference model has four layers – Application, Transport, Network and Host to
Network
Application Layer:
It contains all the high-level protocols. It includes virtual terminal (TELNET), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), electronic mail – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), DNS
(Domain Name Service) and HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol).
The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine
and work there. The File Transfer Protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from
one machine to another. Electronic mail allows to send mail from one user to another user.
Domain Name Service is used for mapping host names onto their network addresses. HTTP
is used for fetching pages on the world wide web.
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Transport Layer:
It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a
conversation. There are two protocols –
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is a reliable connection – oriented protocol
that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error
on any other machine in the internet.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for
applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide
their own. It is also used for Client- Server type. It is used in the applications in
which prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery (Ex. Transmitting
speech or video).
Internet Layer:
Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination. They may arrive in different order than they were sent.
The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. It
handles the issues of avoiding congestion and packet routing. The specific protocol that
governs this layer is called the Internet protocol (IP).
Host to Network Layer:
The network access layer also called the host-to-network layer is concerned with all of the
issues of physically delivering data packets using frames or cells. The host has to connect
to the network using some protocol such that it can send IP packets over it. These protocols
vary from host to host and network to network.
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the
TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols.
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Transmission medium
Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the
sender to the receiver.
Routing control
A routing control is the process to control and monitors all the outgoing traffic through its
connection with the Internet service providers (ISPs), and helps in selecting the best path
for efficient delivery of the data.
Bit rate (Data Rate)
It is defined as the transmission of number of bits per second. OR
It is the number of bits that pass a given point in a telecommunication network in a given
amount of time.
Bit Rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud
Factors of data rate

Data rate depends upon 3 factors:
• The bandwidth available
• Number of levels in digital signal
• The quality of the channel – level of noise
Baud Rate
It is defined as the number of signal units per second.
Baud Rate = Bit Rate / the number of bit per baud
Bandwidth
It is the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time or
range within a band of frequencies or wavelengths.
Sampling
Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous values of
continuous-time signal in a discrete form.”
Or
A piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain is called
sampling.
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Transmission Impairment
If the signals sent at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end
of the medium it is known as transmission impairment.
There are 3 types of impairment – attenuation, distortion and noise.
Attenuation
It refers to a reduction in signal strength while transmitting analog or digital signals over
long distances.
Distortion
Distortion is the alteration of the original shape of the signal during transmission of the
data.
Noise
It is an unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals
and data.
Latency
It is the amount of time a message or packet of data takes to traverse from one designated
point to another.
Block coding
It is a technique of adding extra bits to a digital word in order to improve the reliability
of transmission. It consists of the message bits and code bits.
Frequency domain and Time domain

Frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical functions or signals with
respect to frequency.
Time domain refers to the analysis of mathematical functions or signals with respect to
time.
What is a guided media? List the types of guided media.

It is the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
bounded media.
The types of guided media are –
1. Magnetic media 2. Twisted pair 3. Coaxial Cable 4. Optical Fiber
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What is unguided media? List the types of unguided media.

It is the medium where the data is transmitted through air. It is also known as wireless
media.
The types of unguided media are –
1. Infrared 2. Radio wave 3. Microwave Transmission 4. Satellite transmission
Which guided media is more reliable and why?

Optical fiber is more reliable comparable to other guided medias. It is more reliable
because
• Optic fiber is less likely to go down during power outrage.
• It protects against interference from nearby powerlines
• The data is harder to hack.
• It can with stand more temperature fluctuations.
What is an error in the communication media? What are the different methods
used to detect these errors?
An error is said to occur when the receiver’s information does not match with the sender’s
information.
(During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from
sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.)
Different types of error detection methods are - Simple Parity check, Two-dimensional
Parity check, Checksum, Cyclic redundancy check.
What is parity check? Why it is used?
Parity check is the process that ensures accurate data transmission between sender and the
receiver during communication where a parity bit (1 or 0) is added to the original data bits
to make the total number of 1’s as even (or odd) number of 1’s. It is used to detect the
errors.
List the applications of radio transmission.

• Broadcast radio.
• Television.
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• Shortwave radio.
• Navigation and air-traffic control.
• Cellular telephony.
• Remote-controlled toys.
List the properties of media and digital transmission system.

• Transmission of data from source system to destination system.
• Information bearing capacity
• Propagation speed of signal
• Allocation of channel
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Write the difference between analog and digital signal?
Analog Signals Digital Signals
Analog signals are continuous sine waves Digital signals are square waves.
Less secure More secure
Uses low bandwidth Uses high bandwidth
Higher rate transmission Lower rate transmission
Example: Human voice, natural sound, Example: Computers, optical drives, and
analog electronic devices. other electronic devices.
Write differences between FDM and TDM?

TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Time is shared Frequency is shared
Both analog and digital signals can be Only analog signals can be used.
used
To synchronize it uses framing bits To synchronize it uses guard bands
Circuitry used is simple Circuitry used is complex
Inference is low or negligible Inference is high
Utilization of physical link is more Utilization of physical link is less
efficient efficient.
Write short notes on cellular Communication

Cellular communication is a form of communication technology that enables the use
of mobile phones. A mobile phone is a bidirectional radio that enables the transmission
and reception at the same time. Cellular communication is based on the geographic division
of the communication coverage area into cells. Each cell is allocated a given number of
frequencies (or channels) that allow a large number of subscribers to conduct conversations
simultaneously. When a cell phone (person who has got call) moves from one cell to the
other cell range then the call process will be taken care by the 2nd cell. This type of transfer
of call from one cell to the other cell is called hand shaking.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Write short notes on satellite communication.
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that amplifies radio signals through
a transponder and it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and
a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communication satellites are used
for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications.
Communication satellites are of three types
• Low earth orbit satellites – it is a circular orbit about 160 km to 2000 km above the
earth’s surface.
• Medium earth orbit satellites – it is a circular orbit about 2000km to 35000km above
the earth’s surface.
• Geo-stationary satellites – it is a circular orbit above 35000km. These satellites will
be in geo-stationary orbit that is the satellite’s orbital period is the same as the
rotation rate of the earth.
Explain ARPANET.
ARPANET was the network that became the basis for the Internet. Based on a concept first
published in 1967, ARPANET was developed under the direction of the U.S. Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA). In 1969, the idea became a modest reality with the
interconnection of four university computers. The initial purpose was to communicate and
share computer resources among mainly scientific users at the connected institutions.
ARPANET took advantage of the new idea of sending information in small units
called packets that could be routed on different paths and reconstructed at their destination.
The development of the TCP/IP protocols in the 1970s made it possible to expand the size
of the network, which now had become a network of networks.
ARPA did its work by issuing grants and contracts to universities, later Larry Roberts
turned to networking which was known as ARPANET.
In ARPANET the subnet would consists of minicomputers called IMP’s (Interface
Message Processors) connected by 56 kbps transmission lines. For high reliability each
IMP would be connected to at least two other IMP’s because if any IMP is destroyed then
messages could be automatically rerouted along alternative paths.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Explain NSFNET
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) is a wide area network that was
developed by the National Science Foundation to replace ARPANET as the main network
linking government and research facilities. NSF decided to build a backbone network to
connect its six supercomputer centers. Each supercomputer is connected with a
microcomputer called fuzzball.
The fuzzballs were connected with 56 kbps leased lines and formed the subnet. NSF also
funded some regional networks that connected to the backbone to allow users of
Universities, research labs and libraries to access any of the supercomputers and to
communicate with one another. The computer network including the backbone and the
regional networks was called NSFNET.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Explain SONET.
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) - SONET is a communication protocol
developed by Bellcore. It is used to transmit a large amount of data over large distances
using optical fibre. With SONET multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same
time over the optical fibre.
SONET is used to convert electrical signal into optical signal so that it can travel longer
distances.
❖ STS Multiplexer:
It performs multiplexing of signals and it converts electrical signal to optical signal
❖ STS Demultiplexer:
It performs demultiplexing of signals and it converts optical signal to electrical
signal
❖ Regenerator:
It is a repeater that takes an optical signal and regenerates it.
❖ Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or remove
a signal.
Advantages of SONET:
• Transmits data to large distances
• Low electromagnetic interference
• High data rates
• Large Bandwidth
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Explain the different guided media used in data communication.
The different guided media used in data communication are –
1) Twisted Pair 2) Coaxial Cable 3) Optical Fiber
1) Twisted Pair Cable:
In twisted pair technology, the two copper wires (conductors) are ``twisted'' together
in a helix to reduce interference between the two conductors. The Twisted-pair can
be used for both analog and digital communication. There are two types of twisted
pair cables – unshielded and shielded twisted pair. The twisted pair cables are
commonly used in telephone system. It can transmit the signal at a speed of 10 Mbps
over a short distance. Example: Category 3 and Category 5 cables.
2) Coaxial Cable (Coax):
A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an

insulating material. The insulator is covered by a braided mesh conductor. The outer
conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath. There are two kinds of coax
cables 50 ohm which is used for digital transmission and 75 ohm cable is used for
analog transmission and cable television.
3) Optical Fiber:
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Prof. N. H. Patil
An optical fiber is a long, thin strand of clear material. In the center, it has a core
and around the core there is a layer called the cladding. The core and cladding are
made-up of different kinds of glass or plastic, so that light travels slower in the core
than it does in the cladding. If the light in the core hits the edge of the cladding then
the light will be returned into the core. No light escapes until it comes to the end of
the fiber. A plastic coating called the buffer covers the cladding to protect it. The
buffered fiber is covered by a tougher layer called the jacket. The jacket protects the
fiber to break. It uses total internal reflection technique.
Explain the different unguided media used in data communication.

The different unguided media used in data communication are –
1) Infrared 2) Radio wave 3) Microwave Transmission 4) Light transmission
1) Infrared rays:
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has
wavelength of 700nm to 1mm and frequency ranges from 300GHz to 430THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short-range communication purposes such as
television and its remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by
nature.
2) Radio Wave Transmission:
Radio waves can have wavelength from 1mm to 100,000km and have frequency
ranging from 3Hz to 300 GHz. Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through
walls and radio waves at higher frequencies can travel in straight line and bounce
back. They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such
as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are
refracted back to the earth.
3) Microwave Transmission:
Electromagnetic waves above 100MHz tend to travel in a straight line and
signals over them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station.
Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be
aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight. Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from
1mm to 1meter and frequency ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
4) Light Transmission:
The light transmission is achieved by LASER. It tends to travel in straight line.
Hence the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. As laser transmission is
unidirectional, both the ends of communication should contain the laser and the
photo-detector. Laser beam is generally 1mm wide.
Lasers cannot penetrate walls. Laser beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere
temperature or variation in temperature.
What is modulation? Explain different types of digital modulation.

Modulation is a process of converting data into radio waves by adding information with a
high frequency signal (carrier signals).
The different types of digital modulation are – ASK, FSK and PSK
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying):
In ASK method the amplitude of the signal is varied whereas the frequency and phase
remain constant. ASK is implemented using two levels. If the bit is 1 then the signal will
be same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency and if the bit is 0 then the amplitude of
the signal will be 0.
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):

In FSK method the frequency of the signal is varied whereas the amplitude and phase
remain constant. FSK is implemented using two different frequencies. If the bit is 1 then
the signal will be represented by one of the frequencies and bit 0 is represented by other
frequency.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
PSK (Phase Shift Keying):

In PSK method the phase of the signal is varied whereas the amplitude and frequency
remain constant. PSK is implemented by using the following process; if the next bit that
we are going to transmit is different from the previous (if the bit is 0 and next bit is 1 or vice-versa)
then the phase of the signal changes by 1800.
What is an Error?
If the data alters one or more bits during transmission from one node to the other it is
known as error.
Types of error
There are two types of errors – single bit error and burst error
Single bit error
If 1 bit of the data changes during transmission (i.e from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1) then this type of error
is called single bit error.
Burst error
If more than one bit the data changes during transmission then this type of error is called
burst error.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
What is error detection? Explain simple and two-dimensional parity check method.
Error Detection is a method where the errors in the frames are identified at the receiver
end.
Single parity check: It is also known as simple parity check. In this technique, a redundant
bit (parity bit) is attached at the end of the data so that the number of 1’s becomes even.
Therefore, it is known as even parity checking.
If the number of 1’s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is attached and if the number of 1’s bits is
even, then parity bit 0 is attached at the end of the data. At the receiving end, the parity bit
is calculated from the received data bits and compared with the received parity bit.
Drawbacks of Single Parity Checking

• It can only detect single-bit errors which are rare.
• If two or more bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.
Two-Dimensional Parity Check:

In this technique, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the redundant row of bits is added
to the whole block. Parity check bits are computed for each row and each column for the
number of 1’s as that of single parity check. At the receiving end, the parity bits are
compared with the parity bits computed from the received data.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Drawbacks of 2D Parity Check
• If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same position in another
data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will not be able to detect the error.
• This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.
Explain internet checksum method.

In checksum error detection method, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
In the sender’s end the segments are added and if carry is generated then it will be added
to the LSB. After adding all the segments, 1’s complement of the result is calculated. The
1’s compliment result is called checksum segment (redundancy bits). The checksum
segment is sent along with the data segments. At the receiver’s end, all received segments
are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
If the result is zero, the received data is accepted else it will be discarded.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
What is polynomial code? Explain CRC with example.
A polynomial code is a linear code which will be having a valid code word comprises of
polynomials (dividend) which are divide by a shorter polynomial (generator).
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC):
CRC is based on binary division. In CRC, each station will be having a fixed divisor
polynomial code (generator) which will be shorter comparable to the data polynomial code.
If there are ‘n’ number of bits in the generator then n-1 number of 0’s will be added to the
data bits. Now the data bits including the 0’s will be divided by the generator, X-OR is
done for subtracting during division. Now the remainder will be added to the data including
0’s. This message will be transmitted from the sender. At the receiver the message will be
divided by the same divisor (generator). If the remainder after division is zero then the data
is assumed to be correct and therefore it is accepted else it will be rejected.
Let the original message will be 1010000 and the generator polynomial be x 3+1 (1001)
(* @ represents XOR)
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Prof. N. H. Patil
What is multiplexing? Explain the different multiplexing techniques.
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a common
shared transmission medium.
Different types of multiplexing techniques are –
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):
In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for simultaneous transmission of

data. In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided to a set of frequency bands that do not
overlap. Each divided frequency band will be provided to the individual stations. Each
station can carry signal from 1 sender to 1 receiver. The frequency bands of all the station
who has the data to be transmitted are multiplexed and sent through the communication
channel. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer regenerates the original signals as outputs.
(Draw either of one diagram)
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):

In TDM, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time. In TDM each station
will be provided with a time interval known as time slots at which the data is to be
transmitted by the sender. In each time slot a particular station utilizes the complete
bandwidth of the channel. In TDM all the stations will not transmit the data simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one. TDM can be used to multiplex both digital and
analog signals but it is mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

In WDM, the wavelength is divided and it is an analog multiplexing technique. This can
be achieved by using a prism. In this method the optical signals are transmitted through the
fibre optic cable. Here prism performs the role of multiplexer by combining the various
signals to form a composite signal and this will be transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
At the receiving end the reverse operation (demultiplexing) can be performed using prism.
Explain telephone network system OR Explain PSTN.

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) refers to the international telephone system
that uses copper wires to carry analog voice data. It consists of a collection of individual
telephones that are hardwired to a public exchange.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Each telephone has two copper wires coming out of it that go directly to the telephone
company’s nearest local office which is called End office. The two wire connections
between each telephone and the end office are known as local loop. Each end office has a
number of outgoing lines to one or more switching centres, called toll offices. These lines
are called toll connecting trunks. If the caller and the receiver do not have common toll
office then the path will have to be established with a inter-toll trunks called intermediate
switching office.
In telephone network it should be made clear who could do what the areas were divided
into LATA’s (Local Access and Transport Areas). LATA is a area covered by one area
code. Within LATA there will be LEC (Local Exchange Carrier). All the inter-LATA
traffic will be handled by IXC (Inter eXchange Carrier). Any IXC which handles calls
starting from LATA can build a switching office called POP (Point of Presence).
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Prof. N. H. Patil
1.What is point to point communication?

It is a communication which provides a dedicated link between two devices. In point to
point communication the channel is shared between two devices.
2. What is broadcast communication?

It is a communication that uses broadcasting for communication. Broadcast communication
take messages from a single sender and transmit to all the endpoints on the network.
3. What is ARQ?
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is a protocol in which the sender waits for a positive
acknowledgement before transmitting the next frame. In ARQ, when the receiver detects an
error in a packet, it automatically requests the transmitter to resend the packet. This process
is repeated until the packet is error free or till a predetermined number of transmissions.
4. What is HDLC
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of the
data link layer for transmitting data between different network points or stations. In
HDLC the frame is transmitted through the network to the destination, which verifies
whether the frame has successfully arrived at the destination. (It is a bit - oriented protocol that
is applicable for both point - to - point and multipoint communications.)
5. What is PPP?
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol which acts between two
routers directly without any host or any other networking in between. It can provide
connection authentication, transmission encryption, and compression.
6. Abbreviate i) LAP-B ii) ISO iii) IEEE

i) LAP – B Link Access Protocol, Balanced
ii) ISO International Organization for Standardization
iii) IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
(ISO is actually not an abbreviation, instead it is the name derived from the Greek word iso, which means equal
i.e. same)
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Prof. N. H. Patil
7. What is Time recovery in synchronization?
Time recovery in synchronization is the process of getting the timing information, when
a serial communication channel does not transmit the clock signal along with the data
stream then the timing must be regenerated at the receiver.
8. What is flow control in data communication?

Flow control is the process of managing the rate of data transmission between two
stations to prevent a fast sender from overwhelming (crushing the frames) a slow receiver.
9. What is the efficiency of ARQ?

The efficiency of ARQ is that for each frame received successfully by the receiver, an
acknowledgement will be sent to the transmitter this will ensure that the frame has been
reached successfully.
(Types of ARQ
• Stop-and-wait
• Go-back-N
• Selective Repeat)
10. What is Stop-and-Wait Protocol?

Stop – and – Wait protocol is data link layer protocol used for transmission of the frames
over noiseless channels. It provides unidirectional data transmission with flow control
but without error control facilities.
11. What is Stop-and-wait ARQ protocol?
Stop – and – Wait protocol is data link layer protocol used for transmission of the frames
over noisy channels. It provides unidirectional data transmission with flow control and
error control facilities. It is used in connection-oriented communication. It implements
sliding window protocol concept with window size 1.
12. What is usage of Sequence Number in Reliable Transmission?

The usage of sequence number in reliable transmission is that in case if any frame gets
corrupted then by the sequence number the transmitter and the receiver will come to
know which frame has got corrupted and the same frame can be retransmitted by the
transmitter.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
13. What is Pipelining?
Pipelining is the method of sending multiple frames without waiting for an
acknowledgment for the first frame sent. It ensures better utilization of network
resources and also increases the speed of delivery of the data.
(There are 2 concepts in pipelining –

• Go – back – N
• Selective Repeat )
14. What is Sliding Window?

Sliding window protocols are data link layer protocols used for reliable and sequential
delivery of data frames. It is also known as Transmission Control Protocol. In this
protocol, multiple frames can be sent by a sender at a time before receiving an
acknowledgment from the receiver. The term sliding window refers to the imaginary
boxes to hold the frames.
15. What is Piggybacking?

When a data frame reaches the destination instead of immediately sending the
acknowledge to this frame the receiver holds it and this acknowledgement will be
attached to the outgoing data frame from the receiving end. This technique of
temporarily delaying outgoing acknowledgement so that it can be attached onto the next
outgoing data frame is known as piggybacking.
16. What are the adaptation functions?

Adaptation functions provides the interface between the user application and ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and it also assembles data from user connections into
ATM cells for transportation and reassemble at their destination.
17. What is meant by timing jitter?

The variation in the packet arrival times is called timing jitter. Say if some packet takes
20ms and the other takes 30ms to arrive at the destination then this will result in an
uneven quality (Ex. Sound and video packets), this type of variation in the arrival of
packets is called timing jitter (or jitter).
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Prof. N. H. Patil
2 MARKS QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by multiple access?
Multiple access is a technique that permits the available bandwidth to be used
simultaneously by different users. (Or Multiple access is a technique that permits
various stations to connect to the same transmission medium (channel) to transmit the
data over it and share its capacity.)
2. What is FDMA?
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) allows multiple users to send data through
a single communication channel, by dividing the bandwidth of the channel into separate
non-overlapping frequencies.
3. Define polling?
It is a technique that identifies when a terminal (station) is ready to send the data. In this
technique one station will act as a controller, which will periodically check all the
stations whether they have any data to transmit.
4. Define the term congestion.

Congestion is a situation in which too many packets arrive at a part of the subnet, which
may occur, when the load on the network (i.e. the number of packets sent to the network) is
greater than the capacity of the network (i.e. the number of packets a network can handle). It
occurs in case of traffic overloading.
5. What is a token?
A token is a special frame that is passed from node to node around a ring network. When
it gets to a node which has some data to be transmitted, the node accepts this frame and
starts transmitting the data.
6. What is token passing?

Token passing is a process where a node or station can transmit the data whenever a
node has token. When its transmission is complete, the device then passes the token to
the next device in the topology.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
7. What is scheduling access control?
In Scheduling Access Control (also called Controlled Access), the stations seek
information from one another to find which station has the right to transmit the data. It
allows only one node to send the data at a time which avoids the collision of messages
on the shared medium.
(The different types of Scheduling are- Reservation, Polling and Token Passing.)
8. What is random access control?

In random access control, all the stations have same priority (no priority will be set). Any
station can send data if the channel is idle.
(Random Access Control has two features:

• There is no fixed time for sending data.
• There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data.
The different types of random-access control protocols are ALOHA- pure and slotted,
CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA)
9. What is meant by channelization?
In Channelization the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency and
code to the multiple stations for accessing the channel simultaneously.
(The different types of channelization are- FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.)
10. Abbreviate i) FDMA ii) TDMA iii) CDMA

i) FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
ii) TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
iii) CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
11. What is ALOHA?

ALOHA is a method in which each transmitter in a network sends data whenever there
is a frame to send. If the frame successfully reaches the receiver, the next frame is sent
and if the frame fails to reach the receiver then the frame will be sent again.
12. Define flow control.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Flow control is the process of managing the rate of data transmission between two nodes
to prevent a faster sender from transmitting the frames continuously to a slower receiver.
13. Mention various Channelization schemes.
The different types of channelization schemes are – FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
14. What are reservation systems or protocols?

The systems or protocols in which the stations will broadcast their wish of transmitting
the data before actual transmission is called reservation system or protocol.
15. Explain the term LLC layer.

The logical link control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model. It acts as the interface between the
network layer and the medium access control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer. The
LLC sublayer is used for its multiplexing property. (Allows several network protocols to
operate simultaneously).
4 MARKS QUESTIONS:
1. Explain wireless LAN.
Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local
Area Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local
Area Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building
or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still
connected to the network.
Wireless LAN technology is used to save cost and avoid laying the cables. It also
provides high-speed internet access to the public (Wi-fi).
The IEEE 802.11 standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For sharing of
the paths, it uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access
with collision avoidance).
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Prof. N. H. Patil
2. Write short notes on timing jitter.
Timing Jitter is the variation in the packet arrival time. It is a delay problem in the overall
transmission of the data. If there are different packets of data which is transmitted from
the transmitter and if these packets are delayed to reach at the destination then there will
be time sensitivity this problem is known as time jitter.
Let us consider that first packet arrives the destination system at 1s delay and second
packet arrives at 5s delay, and let the propagation time is 10s then first packet arrives at
11s (propagation time + delay time = 10s+1s) whereas the second packet arrives at 15s
(propagation time + delay time = 10s+5s) so there is a gap of 4s in between first packet
and second packet. This gap of arrival of different packets is called timing jitter. Timing
jitter can easily be identified in case of audio and video packets.
3. Write Short notes on LLC layer.

The logical link control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model. It acts as the interface between the
network layer and the medium access control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer. The
LLC sublayer is used for its multiplexing property.
Functions of LLC Sublayer
• The primary function of LLC is to multiplex protocols over the MAC layer while
transmitting and likewise to de-multiplex the protocols while receiving.
• LLC provides hop-to-hop flow and error control.
• It allows multipoint communication over computer network.
• Frame Sequence Numbers are assigned by LLC.
• In case of acknowledged services, it tracks acknowledgements
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Prof. N. H. Patil
8 MARKS QUESTIONS:
1. Explain pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA or write short notes on ALOHA
Pure ALOHA:
The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. In this protocol each station sends
a frame whenever it has frame to send. As there will be only one channel to be shared
by many stations so there is the possibility of collision between the frames.
Let us consider that there are 4 stations which are sharing a common channel and each
station sends two frames. Some of the frames collide because of multiple frames at a
particular contention. According to the above diagram only frame 1.1 from station 1 and
frame 2.2 from station 2 will arrive the destination without collision, rest all frames will
collide. In pure ALOHA the receiver sends the acknowledgement whenever a frame
reaches the destination.
The probability that k frames are generated during a given frame time is given by
𝐺 𝑘 𝑒 −𝐺
Pr[𝑘] =
𝑘!
Where G = attempts per packet time
The probability when there is no traffic during vulnerable period is 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑒 −2𝐺 .
Throughput per frame time (S) = 𝐺𝑃𝑜 , i.e 𝑆 = 𝐺𝑒 −2𝐺 . The maximum throughput occurs
at G=0.5 i.e S = 0.184 (18%)
Slotted ALOHA:
In slotted ALOHA the time is divided into slots and the stations can only send the frames
at the beginning of the time slot and only one frame is sent in each slot.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
In slotted ALOHA, if any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the
beginning of the slot then it misses that time slot and then the station has to wait until
the next time slot. But still there is a possibility of collision, if two stations try to send
at the same time slot, Example as frame 1.2 of station 1 and frame 3.1 of station 3 will
collide.
The probability when there is no traffic during vulnerable period is 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑒 −𝐺 .
Throughput per frame time (S) = 𝐺𝑃𝑜 , i.e 𝑆 = 𝐺𝑒 −𝐺 . The maximum throughput occurs
at G=1 i.e S = 0.368 (37%).
2. Explain CSMA technique. Or Explain CSMA and its different types.

CSMA protocol is based on the principle of 'carrier sense'. The station senses the carrier
or channel before transmitting a frame i.e the station checks the state of channel, whether
it is idle or busy and if the channel is idle only then the station transmits the frame.
There are three different types of CSMA protocol – 1 persistent CSMA, Non-persistent
CSMA, p-persistent CSMA.
1 – persistent CSMA:
In this method, station that wants to transmit data will continuously senses the channel
to check whether the channel is idle or busy. If the channel is busy, the station waits
until it becomes idle. When the station detects an idle-channel, it immediately transmits
the frame with probability 1. Hence it is called 1-persistent CSMA.
This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may find
channel to be idle and transmit their frames at the same time. When the collision occurs,
the stations wait a random amount of time and will retransmit the frame once again.
Non – persistent CSMA:
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Prof. N. H. Patil
In this method, if a station wants to transmit a frame and it finds that the channel is
busy (some other station is transmitting) then it will wait for a random amount of time.
After this time, it again checks the status of the channel and if the channel is free it
will transmit and if the station senses that the channel is idle, it immediately sends the
frame.
In non-persistent CSMA the station does not continuously sense the channel for the
purpose of capturing it when it detects the end of previous transmission.
It reduces the chance of collision because the stations wait a random amount of time. It
is very rare that two or more stations will wait for same amount of time and will
retransmit at the same time.
p – persistent CSMA:
In this method, the transmission of the frames will be done in the time slots. Whenever
a station is ready to send the frame, it senses the channel. If channel is busy, station waits
for the next slot. If channel is idle, it transmits with a probability p. With the probability
q = l-p, the station then waits for the next time slot. If the next slot is also idle, it either
transmits or waits again with probabilities p and q. This process is repeated till all the
frames has been transmitted or another station has begun transmitting. It reduces the
chance of collision and improves the efficiency of the network.
3. Explain FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
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Prof. N. H. Patil
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):
In this method the available bandwidth is divided into equal frequency bands so that
each station can transmit its data on a different frequency. This frequency band belongs
to the station all the time. It is an access method in the data link layer. In this method the
data link layer in each station tells its physical layer to make a bandpass signal from the
data passed to it. The signal must be created in the allocated band.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

In this method the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is
allocated a time slot. Each station transmits its data in this assigned time slot. The
problem in TDMA is to have a synchronization between the different stations. This can
be done by synchronization bits at the beginning of each slot. It is an access method in
the data link layer. In this method the data link layer in each station tells its physical
layer to use the allocated time slot. The signals must be transmitted in this time slots.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):

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Prof. N. H. Patil
In this method, the single channel carries all the stations data simultaneously and there
is no time sharing. In CDMA the data transmission will be carried by means of different
codes. In this method each station will be assigned by a code, and this assigned code
should have two properties.
• If the code of a station is multiplied by the code of another station then the result
should be zero.
(Ex: Code of Station 1 is C1=[+1 +1 +1 +1] and code of station 2 is C2 = [ +1 – 1 +1 – 1] then
multiplication will be
∑ 𝐶𝑖 𝐶𝑗 =(+1)(+1) + (+1)(-1) + (+1)(+1) + (+1)(-1) = (1) + (-1) + (1) + (-1) = 0 )
• If the code of a station is multiplied by the code of the same station then the result
should be equal to the number of stations.
If any station has data bit 0 to be transmitted then it is considered as -1, and if the data
to transmitted is bit 1 then it is considered as +1 and if the station doesn’t want to
transmit any data then it is considered as 0.
Now each station multiplies its data (either -1, +1 or 0) with its station code. Then the
data to be transmitted in the channel by all the stations will be the sum of the
multiplication of data and code.
At the receiving end the data received will be multiplied by the sender’s station code Ci
and the result is divided by the numbers present in the code (Ex: code C1 has 4 numbers in its
code). Now if the result is +1 then the receiving station considers the data to be 1 and if
the result is -1 then the receiving station considers the data to be 0.
4. Write the comparison between random access and scheduling access control.
Random Access Control Scheduling Access Control (Controlled

Access)
1) In random access control, all the 1) In Scheduling Access Control (also
stations have same priority. No called Controlled Access), the
priority is set to the stations in the stations seek information from one
network. another to find which station has the
right to transmit the data. It allows
only one node to send the data at a
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Prof. N. H. Patil
time which avoids the collision of
2) Random Access Control has two messages on the shared medium.
features: 2) Scheduling Access Control has two
• There is no fixed time for features:
sending data. • There is fixed time for sending
• There is no fixed sequence of data.
stations sending data. • There is fixed sequence of
3) Any station can send data if the stations sending data.
channel is idle. 3) Stations has to wait for their turn
even though the channel becomes
4) The different types of random- idle.
access control protocols are
4) The different types of Scheduling
ALOHA- pure and slotted, CSMA,
CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA. are- Reservation, Polling and
Token Passing.
5. Explain i) Bridges ii) Routers iii) Hub iv) Switch

i) Bridges:
It is a device which is used to connect more than one LAN, which operates in the data
link layer. The bridges examine the data link layer addresses (MAC Address) for
routing the frames.
The main function of the bridge is to block and forward data based on the MAC
address. The bridge identifies whether the destination address belongs to the same
network (from where the data has been received) or the other network. If the destination
address is on the other network then the data will be forwarded by the bridge and if
the destination address is on the same network then the bridge blocks from passing
the data to the other network. The advantage of bridge is to prevent unnecessary traffic
from crossing onto other network segments, by this it reduces the amount of traffic
on a segment.
ii) Routers:
49
Prof. N. H. Patil
It is a device which is used to connect two or more different class of Internet Protocol
(IP) networks. It operates in the network layer. It forwards data packets between the
computer networks. The data (like web pages or E-mail) transmitted through the internet is
in the form of packets, and these packets are forwarded from one router to the other
router until they reach the destination. When the data comes to one of the router it
reads the final destination’s address in the packet and then using the information in
its routing table, the router directs the packet to the next network. The advantage of
router is to connect two different class of IP address in the network and it choses best
path to forward the packets in the network.
iii) Hub:
It is a hardware device which sends data packets (or frames) to all the devices on the
network without considering MAC address. It doesn’t keep record of MAC addresses
of the devices connected to it. The frames arriving from one of the stations are sent to
all other stations connected to the hub.
iv) Switches:
It is a device that connects other devices on a network by using packet switching to
receive and forward data to the destination device which operates in the data link
layer. Switches keeps record of all the MAC addresses of the all the devices connected
to it, thus it knows which device or system is connected to which port. When a data
is received the switch immediately knows to which port the data has to be sent, so it
directs the data towards that MAC address.
6. Explain different types of bridges.

Different types of bridges are – Transparent, Translation, Source-Route bridges.
Transparent bridges — A transparent bridge is a bridge in which the stations are
unaware of the bridge’s existence (i.e it is invisible to the other devices on the network).
Transparent bridges perform only the function of blocking or forwarding data based
on the MAC address. In transparent bridges, if a bridge is added or deleted from the
system then the reconfiguration of station is not needed. Transparent bridges must
meet the following criteria,
• Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame movements in
the network.
• Loops in the system must be prevented.
Translational bridge—A translational bridge can convert from one networking

system to another. It translates the data it receives. Translational bridges are useful
for connecting two different networks, such as Ethernet and Token Ring networks.
Depending on the direction of the transmission of the frames the translational bridge
can add or remove information and fields from the frame whenever it is needed.
Source-route bridge—Source-route bridges are used on Token Ring networks. In

this the entire route of the frame is embedded within the frame. This will allow the
bridge to make specific decision about how the frame should be forwarded through
the network.
7. Explain FDDI.
Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI): It is an interface where optical fiber is used
for long distance communication. The fiber optic cables are laid up to 200 kilometers
at a speed of 100 megabit per second (Mbps). FDDI has dual communication rings
called as primary and secondary communication rings.
The primary ring is used to transmit the optical data in the network and the secondary
ring remains idle and works as a backup, i.e in case the primary ring fails then the
data can be transmitted through the secondary. Around 1000 stations can be
connected in FDDI. If primary ring transmits the data towards right of the node then
the secondary ring will transmit the data towards the left of the node. FDDI works
on the token ring protocol.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
(In FDDI there will be two types of stations – DAS (Dual Attachment Station or Class A stations) and
SAS (Single Attachment Station or Class B Stations). A DAS will be connected to both the rings and
SAS will be connected to only primary ring.)
FDDI uses token passing as an access method. Any station which wants to transmits
information holds the token and then transmits the information. When the station
finishes the transmission then it releases the token in the ring. The time a station
holds the token is called Synchronous Allocation Time (SAT) and this time is
variable for each station. The allocation of this time to each station is allocated by
the Station Management (SMT). The function of SMT are ring control, ring
initialization, station insertion and station removal in the ring.
FDDI frame format:
Preamble: It gives a unique sequence that prepares each station for an upcoming
frame.
Start Delimiter: It indicates the beginning of a frame.
Frame control: It indicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame
contains asynchronous or synchronous data.
Destination Address: It contains a unicast (Single), multicast (group), or broadcast (all
stations in the network) address.
Source Address: It identifies the single station that has sent the frame.
Data: It contains either information destined for an upper layer protocol or control
information.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS): It contains the source station address with CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) value. The destination address recalculates the value to
determine whether the frame was damaged in the channel. If so, the frame will be
discarded.
End Delimiter: It contains unique symbols which indicate the end of the frame.
Frame status: It allows the source station to determine whether an error has
occurred or not.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
8. Write short notes on LAN standards.
The IEEE LAN standards comprises of networking standards which covers the
physical layer specifications from ethernet to wireless. The 802 represents the basics
of physical and logical networking concepts. The services and protocols specified in
IEEE 802 is related to the lower two layers of the OSI reference model, i.e. Data
Link and Physical. The IEEE 802 splits the Data Link Layer into two sub-
layers, Logical Link Control (LLC) and Medium Access Control (MAC) Data link
layer. The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet, Token Ring, Wireless
LAN (Wi-Fi), Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. The groups are numbered from
802.1 to 802.22. The important standards are
IEEE 802.1 – It handles the architecture, security, management and internetworking
of local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area
networks (WAN).
IEEE 802.2 – It is a standard which defines logical link control (LLC) as the upper
portion of the data link layer of the OSI Model. LLC is a software component that
provides a uniform interface to the user of the data link service. LLC offer three
types of services: Unacknowledged connectionless services, Acknowledged
Connection services, Acknowledged connectionless services.
IEEE 802.3 – It is a standard which defines physical layer and the MAC sub-layer
of the data link layer for wired Ethernet networks.
IEEE 802.4 – It is a standard which acts as a communication protocol in a local area
network where all stations are connected in a bus topology and the token is passed
from one user to other in a sequence (left or right direction).
IEEE 802.5 – It is a standard which acts as a communication protocol in a local area
network (LAN) where all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or
more tokens for acquiring the channel in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
IEEE 802.6 – It is a standard which is a DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) and
is a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) protocol.
IEEE 802.11 – It is a standard which is used for implementing Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN) in various frequencies. It provides functionality to MAC layer.
9. Explain CSMA / CD technique.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
CSMA / CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection: If two or more
stations senses the channel to be idle and begin transmitting simultaneously, then the
stations will detect the collision almost immediately. Rather than continuing the
transmission of the frames the stations will stop the transmitting of the frames as
soon as the collision is detected. The protocol which does this process is known as
CSMA/CD.
In CSMA/CD once a station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission, waits a
random period of time and then tries again, assuming that no other station has started
transmitting in the meantime.
There are three states in CSMA/CD – Contention, Transmission and Idle period.
Contention Period: If the station determines that the channel is free, they wait a
random amount of time before they start sending. This duration is known as
contention period (or contention window).
Transmission Period: It is a period where the stations transmit the frames.
Idle period: It is a period where none of the station will be transmitting the frames.
In CSMA/CD the stations follow the below process
• Check if the sender is ready for transmitting the data packets.
• Check if the transmission link is idle, i.e. the sender has to keep on checking
if the transmission medium is idle.
• Transmit the data & check for collisions i.e. the sender transmits its data on
the channel. During transmission, if collision signal is received by the node,
transmission is stopped. The station then transmits a jam signal onto the
channel and waits for random amount of time before it resends the frame.
• If no collision was detected then the sender completes its frame transmission
and resets the counters.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
10. Explain scheduling access control – reservation, polling and token passing.
In Scheduling Access Control or Controlled Access the stations seek information

from one another to find which station has the right to send data. It allows only one
station to transmit the data at a time such that the collision of the frames can be
avoided in the channel. There are three types in the scheduling access control
methods – Reservation, Polling, Token Passing
Reservation:
• In the reservation method, a station has to make a reservation for using the channel
before sending data.
• If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots and each
station has one slot.
• Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send then it transmits 1 bit during its slot No.1
and no other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
• After all M slots have been checked, each station will come to know which stations
are wishing to transmit the data.
• The stations which have reserved their slots will transfer their frames in that order.
• After data transmission period, next reservation interval will begin.
• Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
Example: Let there be five stations and then there will be five slot reservation
frames. In the first interval let only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations, then
these will transmit the frames, and in the second interval let only station 1 has made
the reservation.
Polling
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• It is a technique that identifies when a terminal (station) is ready to send the data. In
this technique one station will act as a controller, which will periodically check all
the stations whether they have any data to transmit is called polling.
• In this method one station acts as a primary controller) and the others acts as
secondary stations.
• Whenever a secondary station has some data to transmit it must be sent to the
controller.
• Then the controller sends a message to each node (Station).
• The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected
for granting the access and the message sent by the controller will be received by all
the nodes but only the station with the address will respond to it and sends the data,
and if there is no data to be transmitted then the station will send “poll reject”(NAK)
message is sent back.
Token Passing
• In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in the
form of ring and access of the stations is by means of tokens.
• A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulates from one station
to the other in the some predefined (Ex: priority) order.
(In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the ring and in Token bus,
token is passed from one station to another station in some predefined order.)
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• A station can only transmit the frames if it receives the token and after the
transmission of data the token is passed to the next station.
• After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to
send the token to their neighbors.
11. Explain the IEEE 802.2 LAN standard.
IEEE 802.2 is a standard which defines logical link control (LLC) as the upper portion
of the data link layer of the OSI Model. LLC is a software component that provides a
uniform interface to the user of the data link service. LLC may offer three types of
services:
• Unacknowledged connectionless services,
• Acknowledged connectionless services.
• Acknowledged Connection Oriented services,
It acts as the interface between the network layer and the medium access control (MAC)
sublayer of the data link layer. The LLC sublayer is used for its multiplexing property.
Functions of LLC Sublayer
• The primary function of LLC is to multiplex protocols over the MAC layer while
transmitting and likewise to de-multiplex the protocols while receiving.
• LLC provides hop-to-hop flow and error control.
• It allows multipoint communication over computer network.
• Frame Sequence Numbers are assigned by LLC.
• In case of acknowledged services, it tracks acknowledgements.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
802.2 LLC Frame format:
LLC Header
Information
DSAP address SSAP address Control
8 bits 8 bits 8 or 16 bits multiple of 8 bits
• LLC frame format contains LLC Header and Information
• LLC header contains – DSAP address, SSAP address, Control
o DSAP (Destination Service Access Point) address – It is an 8-bit field which

contains the logical address of the destination station.
o SSAP (Source Service Access Point) address – It is an 8-bit field which

contains the logical address of the source station.
o Control – It is an 8-bit or 16-bit field which represents the Protocol Data Units
for connectionless or connection-oriented applications
• Information: It contains the data to be transmitted from the source station to the
destination, whereas the size of each frame has to be in the multiples of 8-bits.
12. Explain the frame structure of IEEE 802.3 LAN standard.
IEEE 802.3 is a standard which defines physical layer and the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer for wired Ethernet networks.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) Frame Format –
• PREAMBLE (PRE) – It contains 7-Bytes with alternative 0’s and

1’s which indicates starting of the frame and allow sender and receiver to establish bit
synchronization.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field which is always set to
10101011. SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting of the frame, which is the
destination address. It is sometimes considered as the part of PRE. The SFD tells the
other stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
• Destination Address – It is a 6-Byte field which contains the MAC address of the
destination station which receives the data.
• Source Address – It is a 6-Byte field which contains the MAC address of the source
station from which the data has to be transmitted. As Source Address is always an
individual address, the least significant bit of first byte is always 0.
• Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of entire Ethernet frame.
This 16-bit field can hold the length value between 0 to 65534.
• Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted and is known as Payload. Both
IP header and data will be inserted here if Internet Protocol is used over Ethernet. The
maximum data present may be as long as 1500 Bytes. (In case data length is less than minimum
length i.e. 46 bytes, then padding 0’s (extra 0’s) will be added to make 46 bytes.)
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – CRC is 4 Byte field. This field contains a 32-
bits hash code of data. If the checksum computed by destination is not the same as
sent checksum value then the data received at the destination will be considered as
corrupted.
IEEE 802.4 is a standard which acts as a communication protocol in a local area

network where all stations are connected in a bus topology and the token is passed
from one user to other in a sequence (left or right direction).
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) frame format –
• PREAMBLE (PRE) – It contains 1-Byte which indicates starting of the frame and
allow sender and receiver to establish bit synchronization.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field which is always set to
10101011. SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting of the frame, which is the
destination address. It is sometimes considered as the part of PRE. The SFD tells the
other stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
• Frame Control – This is a 1-byte field which specifies the type of frame i.e whether
it is a data frame (represents that the frame contains data) or a control frame (represents frame types
like frame’s priority, token passing and various ring maintenance frames).
• Destination Address – It is a 2 to 6-Bytes field which contains the MAC address of
the destination station which receives the data.
• Source Address – It is a 2 to 6-Bytes field which contains the MAC address of the
source station from which the data has to be transmitted. As Source Address is always
an individual address, the least significant bit of first byte is always 0.
• Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted and is known as Payload. Both
IP header and data will be inserted here if Internet Protocol is used over Ethernet.
• Checksum – Checksum is 4 Byte field. This field contains a 32-bits hash code of data.
If the checksum computed by destination is not the same as sent checksum value then
the data received at the destination will be considered as corrupted.
• End Delimiter – It is 1Byte field. It represents the end of the frame.

IEEE 802.5 is a standard which acts as a communication protocol in a local area
network (LAN) where all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or
more tokens for acquiring the channel in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. (IEEE
802.5 frame format is same as that of FDDI frame format.)
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Prof. N. H. Patil
Preamble: It gives a unique sequence that prepares each station for an upcoming
frame.
Start Delimiter: It indicates the beginning of a frame.
Frame control: It indicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame
contains asynchronous or synchronous data.
Destination Address: It contains a unicast (Single), multicast (group), or broadcast (all
stations in the network) address.
Source Address: It identifies the single station that has sent the frame.
Data: It contains either information destined for an upper layer protocol or control
information.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS): It contains the source station address with CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) value. The destination address recalculates the value to
determine whether the frame was damaged in the channel. If so, the frame will be
discarded.
End Delimiter: It contains unique symbols which indicate the end of the frame.
Frame status: It allows the source station to determine whether an error has
occurred or not.
The Token in IEEE 802.5 contains preamble, start delimiter, frame control, end
delimiter which will be rotating in the channel, the station which has data to be
transmitted will acquire this token and will fill these details in it.
15. Explain the frame format of IEEE 802.11 LAN standard.
IEEE 802.11 is a standard which provides functionality to MAC layer and it is used for
implementing Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) in various frequencies. IEEE
802.11 frame contains 9 fields.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
• Frame Control(FC) –
It is 2 bytes long field which contains type of frame and some control information.
Various fields present in FC are:
1. Version:
It is a 2 bit long field which indicates the current protocol version which is
fixed for any version.
2. Type:
It is a 2 bit long field which determines the function of frame i.e
management(00), control(01) or data(10). The value 11 is reserved.
3. Subtype:
It is a 4 bit long field which indicates sub-type of the frame like 0000 for
association request, 1000 for beacon (ideal).
4. To DS:
It is a 1 bit long field which when set (bit is 1) indicates that destination frame is
for DS(distribution system).
5. From DS:
It is a 1 bit long field which when set indicates frame is coming from DS.
6. More frag (More fragments):
It is 1 bit long field which when set indicates frame is followed by other
fragments.
7. Retry:
It is 1 bit long field which when set indicates that the current frame is a
retransmission of an earlier frame.
8. Power Mgmt (Power management):
It is 1 bit long field which indicates the mode of a station after successful
transmission of a frame. If this bit is Set to 1 then it indicates that the station
goes into power-save mode and if the bit is set to 0 then it indicates that the
station stays active.
9. More data:
It is 1 bit long field which indicates to the receiver that the sender has more data
to send than the current frame. This can be used by an access point to indicate
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Prof. N. H. Patil
to a station which is in power-save mode that more packets are buffered or has
more data ready to transmit.
10.WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy):
It is 1 bit long field which when set indicates that the frame is an encrypted
frame. This indicates that the security provided to a WLAN (wireless LAN) is
similar to that of a wired LAN.
11.Order:
It is 1 bit long field which indicates that if this bit is set to 1 then it informs the
receiver that to the higher layers (Ex.: OSI layers) that the frames should be in an
ordered sequence.
• Duration/ID –
It is 2 bytes long field which specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgement occupy the channel.
• Address 1 to 4 –
These are 6 bytes long fields which contains standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48
bit each). The meaning of each address depends on the DS bits in the frame control
field. Address 1 indicates address of source, Address 2 indicates source address of
base station (intermediate stations through which the data will pass), address 3
indicates destination address of base station, address 4 indicates the address of final
endpoint.
• SC (Sequence control) –
It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers. It detects the duplicate frames and
determines the order of frames for higher layers. Among the 16 bits, the first 4 bits
provides identification to the fragment and the rest 12 bits contain the sequence
number that increments with each transmission.
• Data –
It is a variable field that carries the payload from the upper layers. The maximum
size of data field is 2312 bytes.
• CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) or checksum–
It is 4 bytes long field which contains a 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to
ensure error free frame.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
16. Explain polling and token passing ring concepts.
Polling
• It is a technique that identifies when a terminal (station) is ready to send the data. In
this technique one station will act as a controller, which will periodically check all
the stations whether they have any data to transmit is called polling.
• In this method one station acts as a primary controller) and the others acts as
secondary stations.
• Whenever a secondary station has some data to transmit it must be sent to the
controller.
• Then the controller sends a message to each node (Station).
• The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected
for granting the access and the message sent by the controller will be received by all
the nodes but only the station with the address will respond to it and sends the data,
and if there is no data to be transmitted then the station will send “poll reject”(NAK)
message is sent back.
Token Passing
• In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in the
form of ring and access of the stations is by means of tokens.
• A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulates from one station
to the other in the some predefined (Ex: priority) order.
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Prof. N. H. Patil
(In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the ring and in Token bus,
token is passed from one station to another station in some predefined order.)
• A station can only transmit the frames if it receives the token and after the
transmission of data the token is passed to the next station.
• After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to
send the token to their neighbors.
17. Explain DQDB (Short notes 4 marks)

Distributed Queqe Dual Bus (DQDB) is a Data Link Layer communication protocol for
MAN. It is an IEEE 802.6 protocol. It is designed for both voice and video transmission.
It uses two unidirectional buses. A Distributed Queue is used to make sure that cells are
transmitted on a first-come first serve basis and Dual Bus are used to transmit the data
in only one direction. It can be extended up to 30 miles at 34 to 55 Mbps.
Each bus is connected to the stations directly through input and output ports. Beginning
of bus is denoted by square and end is denoted by triangle. To transmit the data by a
station it must know whether the destination is to its right or left. If right, the host must
send on the left bus and if left, the host must send on the right bus. Here Bus A traffic
moves from right to left and Bus B traffic moves from left to right.
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Prof. N. H. Patil

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B.

Com IV SEMESTER BUSINESS COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING

TELNET (TELecommunication NETwork) :

The main objectives of FTP are

• It provides the sharing of files.

Timing of events a) circuit switching b) message switching c) packet switching

Layered Network Architecture:

Layer Example (Protocols, Standards)

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) reference model:

Factors of data rate

Frequency domain and Time domain

What is a guided media? List the types of guided media.

What is unguided media? List the types of unguided media.

Which guided media is more reliable and why?

List the applications of radio transmission.

List the properties of media and digital transmission system.

Write differences between FDM and TDM?

Write short notes on cellular Communication

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an

Explain the different unguided media used in data communication.

What is modulation? Explain different types of digital modulation.

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):

PSK (Phase Shift Keying):

Drawbacks of Single Parity Checking

Two-Dimensional Parity Check:

Explain internet checksum method.

FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):

In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for simultaneous transmission of

(Draw either of one diagram)

TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

Explain telephone network system OR Explain PSTN.

1.What is point to point communication?

2. What is broadcast communication?

6. Abbreviate i) LAP-B ii) ISO iii) IEEE

8. What is flow control in data communication?

9. What is the efficiency of ARQ?

10. What is Stop-and-Wait Protocol?

11. What is Stop-and-wait ARQ protocol?

12. What is usage of Sequence Number in Reliable Transmission?

(There are 2 concepts in pipelining –

14. What is Sliding Window?

15. What is Piggybacking?

16. What are the adaptation functions?

17. What is meant by timing jitter?

4. Define the term congestion.

6. What is token passing?

8. What is random access control?

(Random Access Control has two features:

(The different types of channelization are- FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.)

10. Abbreviate i) FDMA ii) TDMA iii) CDMA

11. What is ALOHA?

14. What are reservation systems or protocols?

15. Explain the term LLC layer.

3. Write Short notes on LLC layer.

• LLC provides hop-to-hop flow and error control.

• It allows multipoint communication over computer network.

• Frame Sequence Numbers are assigned by LLC.

• In case of acknowledged services, it tracks acknowledgements

2. Explain CSMA technique. Or Explain CSMA and its different types.