CSS Core Unit 2

CORE UNIT 2
SAINT JAMES ACADEMY OF SKILLS TECHNOLOGY, INC.

Brgy. Hika, Poblacion, Compostela, Cebu
Philippines
SECTOR : ELECTRONICS SECTOR

QUALIFICATION TITLE : COMPUTER SYSTEMS SERVICING NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : SET-UP COMPUTER NETWORKS
MODULE TITLE : SETTING-UP COMPUTER NETWORKS
LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 1: INSTALL NETWORK CABLES

LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 2: SET NETWORK CONFIGURATION
LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 3: SET ROUTER/WI-FI/ WIRELESS ACCESS POINT/
REPEATER CONFIGURATION
LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 4: INSPECT AND TEST THE CONFIGURED
COMPUTER NETWORKS
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Information Sheet 2.1-1
SAFETY PROCEDURES IN INSTALLING NETWORK CABLES
Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Determine and plan the cable route
2. Identify and obtain network materials necessary to complete the work
3. Identify the Safety procedures in Installing Network Cables
Introduction:
Planning and Cabling Networks
ANs - Making the Physical Connection

Choosing the Appropriate LAN Device
For this course, the choice of which router to deploy is determined by the
Ethernet interfaces that match the technology of the switches at the center of
the LAN. It is important to note that routers offer many services and features to
the LAN. These services and features are covered in the more advanced
courses. Each LAN will have a router as its gateway connecting the LAN to
other networks. Inside the LAN will be one or more hubs or switches to connect
the end devices to the LAN.
Internetwork Devices
Routers are the primary devices used to interconnect networks. Each port on a
router connects to a different network and routes packets between the
networks. Routers have the ability to break up broadcast domains and collision
domains. Routers are also used to interconnect networks that use different
technologies. They can have both LAN and WAN interfaces. The router's LAN
interfaces allow routers to connect to the LAN media. This is usually UTP
cabling, but modules can be added for using fiber-optics. Depending on the
series or model of router, there can be multiple interface types for connection of
LAN and WAN cabling.
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Intra-network Devices
To create a LAN, we need to select the appropriate devices to connect the end
device to the network. The two most common devices used are hubs and
switches.
Hub
A hub receives a signal, regenerates it, and sends the signal over all ports. The
use of hubs creates a logical bus. This means that the LAN uses multi-access
media. The ports use a shared bandwidth approach and often have reduced
performance in the LAN due to collisions and recovery. Although multiple hubs
can be interconnected, they remain a single collision domain. Hubs are less
expensive than switches. A hub is typically chosen as an intermediary device
within a very small LAN, in a LAN that requires low throughput requirements,
or when finances are limited.
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Switch
A switch receives a frame and regenerates each bit of the frame on to the
appropriate destination port. This device is used to segment a network into
multiple collision domains. Unlike the hub, a switch reduces the collisions on a
LAN. Each port on the switch creates a separate collision domain. This creates
a point-to-point logical topology to the device on each port. Additionally, a
switch provides dedicated bandwidth on each port, which can increase LAN
performance. A LAN switch can also be used to interconnect network segments
of different speeds. In general, switches are chosen for connecting devices to a
LAN. Although a switch is more expensive than a hub, its enhanced
performance and reliability make it cost effective. There is a range of switches
available with a variety of features that enable the interconnection of multiple
computers in a typical enterprise LAN setting.
Device Selection Factors
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To meet user requirements, a LAN needs to be planned and designed.
Planning ensures that all requirements, cost factors and deployment options
are given due consideration. When selecting a device for a particular LAN, there
are a number of factors that need to be considered. These factors include, but
are not limited to:
1. Cost
2. Speed and Types of Ports/Interfaces
3. Expandability
4. Manageability
5. Additional Features and Services
Factors to Consider in Choosing a Switch
Although there are many factors that must be considered when selecting a
switch, the next topic will explore two: cost and interface characteristics.
Cost
The cost of a switch is determined by its capacity and features. The switch
capacity includes the number and types of ports available and the switching
speed. Other factors that impact the cost are its network management
capabilities, embedded security technologies, and optional advanced switching
technologies. Using a simple "cost per port" calculation, it may appear initially
that the best option is to deploy one large switch at a central location. However,
this apparent cost savings may be offset by the expense from the longer cable
lengths required to connect every device on the LAN to one switch. This option
should be compared with the cost of deploying a number of smaller switches
connected by a few long cables to a central switch. Another cost consideration
is how much to invest in redundancy. The operation of the entire physical
network is affected if there are problems with a single central switch.
Redundancy can be provided in a number of ways. We can provide a secondary
central switch to operate concurrently with the primary central switch. We can
also provide additional cabling to provide multiple interconnections between
the switches. The goal of redundant systems is to allow the physical network to
continue its operation even if one device fails.
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Speed and Types of Ports/Interfaces
The need for speed is ever-present in a LAN environment. Newer computers

with built-in 10/100/1000 Mbps NICs are available. Choosing Layer 2 devices
that can accommodate increased speeds allows the network to evolve without
replacing the central devices. When selecting a switch, choosing the number
and type of ports is a critical decision. Ask yourself these questions: Would you
purchase a switch with:
1. Just enough ports for today's needs?

2. A mixture of UTP speeds?
3. Both UTP and fiber ports?
Consider carefully how many UTP ports will be needed and how many fiber
ports will be needed. Likewise, consider how many ports will need 1 Gbps
capability and how many ports only require 10/100 Mbps bandwidths. Also,
consider how soon more ports will be needed.
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Factors to Consider in Choosing a Router
When selecting a router, we need to match the characteristics of the router to

its purpose. Similar to the switch, cost and interface types and speeds must be
considered as well. Additional factors for choosing a router include:
 Expandability
 Media
 Operating System Features
Expandability
Networking devices, such as routers and switches, come in both fixed and
modular physical configurations. Fixed configurations have a specific number
and type of ports or interfaces. Modular devices have expansion slots that
provide the flexibility to add new modules as requirements evolve. Most
modular devices come with a basic number of fixed ports as well as expansion
slots. Since routers can be used for connecting different numbers and types of
networks, care must be taken to select the appropriate modules and interfaces
for the specific media.
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Operating System Features
Depending on the version of the operating system, the router can support
certain features and services such as:
 Security
 Quality of Service (QoS)
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
 Routing multiple Layer 3 protocols
 Special services such as Network Address Translation (NAT) and Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
For the selection of devices, the budget is an important consideration. Routers

can be expensive based on interfaces and features needed. Additional modules,
such as fiber-optics, can increase the costs. The media used to connect to the
router should be supported without needing to purchase additional modules.
This can keep costs to a minimum.
Device Interconnections
LAN and WAN - Getting Connected
When planning the installation of LAN cabling, there are four physical areas to
consider:
 Work area
 Telecommunications room, also known as the distribution facility
 Backbone cabling, also known as vertical cabling
 Distribution cabling, also known as horizontal cabling
Total Cable Length
For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the

total combined length of cable spanning the four areas listed above is limited to
a maximum distance of 100 meters per channel. This standard specifies there
can be up to 5 meters of patch cable for interconnecting patch panels. There
can be up to 5 meters of cable from the cable termination point on the wall to
the telephone or computer.
Work Areas
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The work areas are the locations devoted to the end devices used by individual
users. Each work area has a minimum of two jacks that can be used to
connect an individual device to the network. We use patch cables to connect
individual devices to these wall jacks. The EIA/TIA standard specifies that the
UTP patch cords used to connect devices to the wall jacks have a maximum
length of 10 meters. Straight-through cable is the most common patch cable
used in the work area. This type of cable is used to connect end devices, such
as computers, to a network. When a hub or switch is placed in the work area, a
crossover cable is typically used to connect the device to the wall jack.
Telecommunications Room
The telecommunications room is where connections to intermediary devices

take place. These rooms contain the intermediary devices - hubs, switches,
routers, and data service units (DSUs) - that tie the network together. These
devices provide the transitions between the backbone cabling and the
horizontal cabling. Inside the telecommunications room, patch cords make
connections between the patch panels, where the horizontal cables terminate,
and the intermediary devices. Patch cables also interconnect these
intermediary devices. The Electronics Industry Alliance/Telecommunications
Industry Association (EIA/TIA) standards specify two different types of UTP
patch cables. One type is a patch cord, with a length of up to 5 meters, which
is used to interconnect equipment and patch panels in the telecommunications
room. Another type of patch cable can be up to 5 meters in length and is used
to connect devices to a termination point on the wall. These rooms often serve
dual purposes. In many organizations, the telecommunications room also
contains the servers used by the network.
Horizontal Cabling
Horizontal cabling refers to the cables connecting the telecommunication

rooms with the work areas. The maximum length for a cable from a
termination point in the telecommunication room to the termination at the
work area outlet must not exceed 90 meters. This 90 meter maximum
horizontal cabling distance is referred to as the permanent linkbecause it is
installed in the building structure. The horizontal media runs from a patch
panel in the telecommunications room to a wall jack in each work area.
Connections to the devices are made with patch cables.
Backbone Cabling
Backbone cabling refers to the cabling used to connect the telecommunication

rooms to the equipment rooms, where the servers are often located. Backbone
cabling also interconnects multiple telecommunications rooms throughout the
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facility. These cables are sometimes routed outside the building to the WAN
connection or ISP. Backbones, or vertical cabling, are used for aggregated
traffic, such as traffic to and from the Internet and access to corporate
resources at a remote location. A large portion of the traffic from the various
work areas will use the backbone cabling to access resources outside the area
or facility. Therefore, backbones typically require high bandwidth media such
as fiber-optic cabling.
Types of Media
Choosing the cables necessary to make a successful LAN or WAN connection

requires consideration of the different media types. As you recall, there are
many different Physical layer implementations that support multiple media
types:
 UTP (Category 5, 5e, 6, and 7)

 Fiber-optics
 Wireless
Each media type has its advantages and disadvantages. Some of the factors to
consider are:
 Cable length - Does the cable need to span across a room or from
building to building?
 Cost - Does the budget allow for using a more expensive media type?
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 Bandwidth - Does the technology used with the media provide adequate bandwidth?
 Ease of installation - Does the implementation team have the ability to install the cable or is a
vendor required?
 Susceptible to EMI/RFI - Is the local environment going to interfere with the signal?
Cable Length
The total length of cable required to connect a device includes all cables from
the end devices in the work area to the intermediary device in the
telecommunication room (usually a switch). This includes cable from the
devices to the wall plug, the cable through the building from wall plug to the
cross-connecting point, or patch panel, and cable from patch panel to the
switch. If the switch is located in a telecommunication rooms on different floors
in a building or in different buildings, the cable between these points must be
included in the total length. Attenuation is reduction of the strength of a signal
as it moves down a media. The longer the media, the more attenuation will
affect the signal. At some point, the signal will not be detectable. Cabling
distance is a significant factor in data signal performance. Signal
attenuation and exposure to possible interference increase with cable
length. For example, when using UTP cabling for Ethernet, the horizontal (or
fixed) cabling length needs to stay within the recommended maximum distance
of 90 meters to avoid attenuation of the signal. Fiber-optic cables may provide
a greater cabling distance-up to 500 meters to a few kilometers depending on
the technology. However, fiber-optic cable can also suffer from attenuation
when these limits are reached.
Cost
The cost associated with LAN cabling can vary from media type to media type,
and the staff might not realize the impact on the budget. In a perfect setting,
the budget would allow for fiber-optic cabling to every device in the LAN.
Although fiber provides greater bandwidth than UTP, the material and
installation costs are significantly higher. In practice, this level of performance
is not usually required and is not a reasonable expectation in most
environments. Network designers must match the performance needs of the
users with the cost of the equipment and cabling to achieve the best
cost/performance ratio.
Bandwidth
The devices in a network have different bandwidth requirements. When

selecting the media for individual connections, carefully consider the
bandwidth requirements. For example, a server generally has a need for more
bandwidth than a computer dedicated to a single user. For a server connection,
consider media that will provide high bandwidth, and can grow to meet
increased bandwidth requirements and newer technologies. A fiber cable may
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be a logical choice for a server connection. Currently, the technology used in
fiber-optic media offers the greatest bandwidth available among the choices for
LAN media. Given the seemingly unlimited bandwidth available in fiber cables,
much greater speeds for LANs are expected. Wireless is also supporting huge
increases in bandwidth, but it has limitations in distance and power
consumption.
Ease of Installation
The ease of cable installation varies according to cable types and building
architecture. Access to floor or roof spaces, and the physical size and
properties of the cable influence how easily a cable can be installed in various
buildings. Cables in buildings are typically installed in raceways. As shown in
the figure, a raceway is an enclosure or tube that encloses and protects the
cable. A raceway also keeps cabling neat and easy to thread. UTP cable is
relatively lightweight and flexible and has a small diameter, which allows it to
fit into small spaces. The connectors, RJ-45 plugs, are relatively easy to install
and are a standard for all Ethernet devices. Many fiber-optic cables contain a
thin glass fiber. This creates issues for the bend radius of the cable. Crimps or
sharp bends can break the fiber. The termination of the cable connectors (ST,
SC, MT-RJ) are significantly more difficult to install and require special
equipment.
Wireless networks require cabling, at some point, to connect devices,

such as access points, to the wired LAN. Because there are fewer cables
required in a wireless network, wireless is often easier to install than UTP or
fiber cable. However, a wireless LAN requires more careful planning and
testing. Also, there are many external factors, such as other radio frequency
devices and building constructionthat can affect its operation.
Electromagnetic Interference/Radio Frequency Interference
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

must be taken into consideration when choosing a media type for a LAN.
EMI/RFI in an industrial environment can significantly impact data
communications if the wrong cable is used.
Interference can be produced by electrical machines, lightning, and other

communications devices, including computers and radio equipment. As an
example, consider an installation where devices in two separate buildings are
interconnected. The media used to interconnect these buildings will be exposed
to the possibility of lightning strikes. Additionally, there maybe a great distance
between these two buildings. For this installation, fiber cable is the best choice.
Wireless is the medium most susceptible to RFI. Before using wireless
technology, potential sources of interference must be identified and, if possible,
minimized.
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Making LAN Connections
UTP cabling connections are specified by the Electronics Industry

Alliance/Telecommunications Industry Association (EIA/TIA). The RJ-45
connector is the male component crimped on the end of the cable. When
viewed from the front, the pins are numbered from 8 to 1. When viewed from
above with the opening gate facing you, the pins are numbered 1 through 8,
from left to right. This orientation is important to remember when identifying a
cable.
When installing any type of wire or wiring system, there is always risk
involved. These risks of course include harming yourself, someone else or loss
of property if the wires are not properly installed or necessary precautions are
not taken.
There are a few proactive measures you should take when you are working
with or installing wires. Keeping the following tips in the forefront of your mind
will help to make sure you do not cause any harm to your property and keep
safe you safe at the same time.
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1. Make Sure the Power is Off
 Check the breaker or power source and
make sure the power is always off before
starting any electrical work. Lock the
breaker if possible or if cannot, make sure
everyone in the area knows it is turned off
for a reason and leave an easily noticeable
note that you are working on the electricity.
It’s logical but critical for a safe work
environment.
2. Wear Safety Glasses and Protective Clothing

 Covering your eyes is a must when dealing with electricity. You do not want sparks or other
debris to get in your eyes. Also, wearing long shirts, pants, gloves, and thick soled shoes are also
a good idea. If the environment is outdoor or large scale, working on a project like laying
pipeline with tracer wire, a hard hat may also be needed along with other construction
environment safety gear.
3. Always Test First
 Use a voltage tester to test the wires and connections before you begin working on them to
make sure they are indeed dead. This will allow you to accurately judge the work that needs to
be done and select the product and tools you need to use.
4. Have the Right Tools On Hand
 As with any job, you need the correct tools to complete it properly and do it with safety in mind.
Having the right tools for a wire installation is detrimental. Some tools include: a voltage tester,
wire cutters, wire and cable strippers, needle nose pliers, continuity tester, and others. For large
scale jobs such as installing ground cables, you may need a wire trencher or other digging
equipment or heavy machinery.
5. Check Your Work
 Before you close up the hole or call the job “done,” check your work! The last thing you want is
there to be a loose connection and the whole project to go up in flames – literally. Electrical fires
are known to spark at any time and cause considerable damage and tragedy. Pull on the
connections to make sure they are secure. Turn on the electricity and make sure everything
works correctly and starts up without incident. Also, check the casings with a voltage tester to
make sure they are not electrified. Use the right insulators for longer life spans too.
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It is best to have a trusted, professional electrician do any electrical project.
But if you’re handy, follow all safety precautions from the beginning to the end
of a project to help ensure the safety of you, your neighbors and your property.
It will also guarantee the longevity of the work. Be prepared and check your
work as you go.
Types of Interfaces
In an Ethernet LAN, devices use one of two types of UTP interfaces - MDI or
MDIX. The MDI (media-dependent interface) uses the normal Ethernet pinout.
Pins 1 and 2 are used for transmitting and pins 3 and 6 are used for receiving.
Devices such as computers, servers, or routers will have MDI connections. The
devices that provide LAN connectivity - usually hubs or switches - typically use
MDIX (media-dependent interface, crossover) connections. The MDIX cables
swap the transmit pairs internally. This swapping allows the end devices to be
connected to the hub or switch using a straight-through cable. Typically,
when connecting different types of devices, use a straight-through cable.
And when connecting the same type of device, use a crossover cable.
Straight-through UTP Cables
A straight-through cable has connectors on each end that are terminated the
same in accordance with either the T568A or T568B standards. Identifying the
cable standard used allows you to determine if you have the right cable for the
job. More importantly, it is a common practice to use the same color codes
throughout the LAN for consistency in documentation. Use straight-through
cables for the following connections:
 Switch to a router Ethernet port

 Computer to switch
 Computer to hub
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Crossover UTP Cables
For two devices to communicate through a cable that is directly connected

between the two, the transmit terminal of one device needs to be connected to
the receive terminal of the other device. The cable must be terminated so the
transmit pin, Tx, taking the signal from device A at one end, is wired to the
receive pin, Rx, on device B. Similarly, device B's Tx pin must be connected to
device A's Rx pin.
If the Tx pin on a device is numbered 1, and the Rx pin is numbered 2, the

cable connects pin 1 at one end with pin 2 at the other end. These "crossed
over" pin connections give this type of cable its name, crossover. To achieve
this type of connection with a UTP cable, one end must be terminated as
EIA/TIA T568A pinout, and the other end terminated with T568B pinout. To
summarize, crossover cables directly connect the following devices on a LAN:
 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router Ethernet port connection
 Computer to computer
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 Computer to a router Ethernet port
As a reminder, the common uses are listed again:
Use straight-through cables for connecting:
 Switch to router
 Computer to switch
 Computer to hub
Use crossover cables for connecting:
 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 Computer to computer
 Computer to router
MDI/MDIX Selection
Many devices allow the UTP Ethernet port to be set to MDI or MDIX. This can
be done in one of three ways, depending on the features of the device:
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1. On some devices, ports may have a mechanism that electrically swaps the
transmit and receive pairs. The port can be changed from MDI to MDIX by
engaging the mechanism.
2. As part of the configuration, some devices allow for selecting whether a port
functions as MDI or as MDIX.
3. Many newer devices have an automatic crossover feature. This feature allows
the device to detect the required cable type and configures the interfaces
accordingly. On some devices, this auto-detection is performed by default.
Other devices require an interface configuration command for enabling MDIX
auto-detection
Making WAN Connections
By definition, WAN links can span extremely long distances. These distances
can range across the globe as they provide the communication links that we
use to manage e-mail accounts, view web pages, or conduct a teleconference
session with a client. Wide area connections between networks take a number
of forms, including:
 Telephone line RJ11 connectors for dialup or Digital Subscriber Line

(DSL) connections
 60 pin Serial connections
In the course labs, you may be using Cisco routers with one of two types of
physical serial cables. Both cables use a large Winchester 15 Pin connector on
the network end. This end of the cable is used as a V.35 connection to a
Physical layer device such as a CSU/DSU. The first cable type has a male DB-
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60 connector on the Cisco end and a male Winchester connector on the
network end. The second type is a more compact version of this cable and has
a Smart Serial connector on the Cisco device end. It is necessary to be able to
identify the two different types in order to connect successfully to the router.
Data Communications Equipment and Data Terminal Equipment
The following terms describe the types of devices that maintain the link
between a sending and a receiving device:
 Data Communications Equipment (DCE) - A device that supplies the

clocking services to another device. Typically, this device is at the WAN
access provider end of the link.
 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) - A device that receives clocking services from another device
and adjusts accordingly. Typically, this device is at the WAN customer or user end of the link.
If a serial connection is made directly to a service provider or to a device that

provides signal clocking such as a channel service unit/data service unit
(CSU/DSU), the router is considered to be data terminal equipment (DTE) and
will use a DTE serial cable. Be aware that there will be occasions, especially in
our labs, when the local router is required to provide the clock rate and will
therefore use a data communications equipment (DCE) cable. DCEs and DTEs
are used in WAN connections. The communication via a WAN connection is
maintained by providing a clock rate that is acceptable to both the sending and
the receiving device. In most cases, the Telco or ISP provides the clocking
service that synchronizes the transmitted signal. For example, if a device
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connected via a WAN link is sending its signal at 1.544 Mbps, each receiving
device must use a clock, sending out a sample signal every 1/1,544,000th of a
second. The timing in this case is extremely short. The devices must be able to
synchronize to the signal that is sent and received very quickly. By assigning a
clock rate to the router, the timing is set. This allows a router to adjust the
speed of its communication operations, thereby synchronizing with the devices
connected to it.
When making WAN connections between two routers in a lab environment,

connect two routers with a serial cable to simulate a point-to-point WAN link.
In this case, decide which router is going to be the one in control of clocking.
Routers are DTE devices by default, but they can be configured to act as DCE
devices. The V35 compliant cables are available in DTE and DCE versions. To
create a point-to-point serial connection between two routers, join together a
DTE and DCE cable. Each cable comes with a connector that mates with its
complementary type. These connectors are configured so that you cannot join
two DCE or two DTE cables together by mistake.
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Developing an Addressing Scheme
How Many Hosts in the Network?
To develop an addressing scheme for a network, start with determining the

total number of hosts. Consider every device that will require an IP address,
now and in the future. The end devices requiring an IP address include:
 User computers
 Administrator computers
 Servers
 Other end devices such as printers, IP phones, and IP cameras
Network devices requiring an IP address include:
 Router LAN interfaces

 Router WAN (serial) interfaces
Network devices requiring an IP address for management include:
 Switches
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 Wireless Access Points
There may be other devices on a network requiring an IP address. Add them to

this list and estimate how many addresses will be needed to account for growth
in the network as more devices are added. Once the total number of hosts -
current and future - has been determined, consider the range of addresses
available and where they fit within the given network address. Next, determine
if all hosts will be part of the same network, or whether the network as a whole
will be divided into separate subnets. Recall that the number of hosts on one
network or subnet is calculated using the formula 2 to the nth power minus 2
(2^n - 2), where n is the number of bits available as host bits. Recall also that
we subtract two addresses - the network address and the network broadcast
address - cannot be assigned to hosts.
How Many Networks?
There are many reasons to divide a network into subnets:
 Manage Broadcast Traffic - Broadcasts can be controlled because one

large broadcast domain is divided into a number of smaller domains. Not
every host in the system receives every broadcast.
 Different Network Requirements - If different groups of users require specific network or
computing facilities, it is easier to manage these requirements if those users who share
requirements are all together on one subnet.
 Security - Different levels of network security can be implemented based on network addresses.
This enables the management of access to different network and data services.
Counting the Subnets
Each subnet, as a physical network segment, requires a router interface as the

gateway for that subnet. In addition, each connection between routers is a
separate subnet. The number of subnets on one network is also calculated
using the formula 2^n, where n is the number of bits "borrowed" from the given
IP network address available to create subnets
Subnet Masks
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Having determined the required number of hosts and subnets, the next step is
to apply one subnet mask for the entire network and then calculate the
following values:
 A unique subnet and subnet mask for each physical segment

 A range of usable host addresses for each subnet
Designing the Address Standard for our Internetwork
To assist troubleshooting and expedite adding new hosts to the network, use
addresses that fit a common pattern across all subnets. Each of these different
device types should be allocated to a logical block of addresses within the
address range of the network.
Some of the different categories for hosts are:
 General users
 Special users
 Network resources
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 Router LAN interfaces
 Router WAN links
 Management access
For example, when allocating an IP address to a router interface that is the

gateway for a LAN, it is common practice to use the first (lowest) or last
(highest) address within the subnet range. This consistent approach aids in
configuration and troubleshooting. Similarly, when assigning addresses to
devices that manage other devices, using a consistent pattern within a subnet
makes these addresses easily recognizable. For example, in the figure,
addresses with 64 - 127 in the octets always represent the general users. A
network administrator monitoring or adding security can do so for all
addresses ending in these values. In addition, remember to document your
IP addressing scheme on paper. This will be an important aid in
troubleshooting and evolving the network.
Calculating the Subnets
Calculating Addresses: Case 1
In this section, we will use a sample topology to practice allocating addresses to

hosts. The figure shows the network topology for this example. By starting with
a given IP address and prefix (subnet mask) assigned by the network
administrator, we can begin creating our network documentation.
The number and grouping of hosts are:
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Student LAN
Student Computers: 460
Router (LAN Gateway): 1
Switches (management): 20
Total for student sub-network: 481
Instructor LAN
Instructor Computers: 64
Switches (management): 4
Total for instructor sub-network: 69
Administrator LAN
Administrator Computers: 20
Server: 1
Switch (management): 1
Total for administration sub-network: 23
WAN
Router - Router WAN: 2
Total for WAN: 2
Allocation Methods
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There are two methods available for allocating addresses to an internetwork.
We can use Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM), where we assign the
prefix and host bits to each network based on the number of hosts in that
network. Or, we can use a non-VLSM approach, where all subnets use the
same prefix length and the same number of host bits. For our network
example, we will demonstrate both approaches.
Calculating and Assigning Addresses-without VLSM
When using the non-VLSM method of assigning addresses, all subnets have
the same number of addresses assigned to them. In order to provide each
network with an adequate number of addresses, we base the number of
addresses for all networks on the addressing requirements for the largest
network.
In Case 1, the Student LAN is the largest network, requiring 481 addresses.
We will use this formula to calculate the number of hosts:
26
Usable hosts = 2^n - 2
We use 9 as the value for n because 9 is the first power of 2 that is over 481.
Borrowing 9 bits for the host portion yields this calculation:
2^9 = 512
512 - 2 = 510 usable host addresses
This meets the current requirement for at least 481 addresses, with a small
allowance for growth. This also leaves 23 network bits (32 total bits - 9 host
bits). Because there are four networks in our internetwork, we will need four
blocks of 512 addresses each, for a total of 2048 addresses. We will use the
address block 172.16.0.0 /23. This provides addresses in the range from
172.16.0.0 to 172.16.7.255.
Let's examine the address calculations for the networks:
Address: 172.16.0.0
In binary:
10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000
Mask: 255.255.254.0
23 bits in binary:
11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000
This mask will provide the four address ranges shown in the figure.
Student LAN
For the Student network block, the values would be:
172.16.0.1 to 172.16.1.254 with a broadcast address of 172.16.1.255.
Administrator LAN
The Administrator network requires a total of 66 addresses. The remaining

addresses in this block of 512 addresses will go unused. The values for the
Administrator network are:
27
Instructor LAN
Assigning the 172.16.4.0 /23. block to the instructor LAN, assigns an address
range of:
Only 23 of the 512 addresses will actually be used in the Instructor LAN.
WAN
In the WAN, we have a point-to-point connection between the two routers. This
network only requires two IPv4 addresses for the routers on this serial link. As
shown in the figure, assigning this address block to the WAN link wastes 508
addresses. We can use VLSM in this internetwork to save addressing space,
but using VLSM requires more planning. The next section demonstrates the
planning associated with the use of VLSM.
Calculating and Assigning Addresses - with VLSM
For the VLSM assignment, we can allocate a much smaller block of addresses
to each network, as appropriate.
The address block 172.16.0.0/22 (subnet mask 255.255.252.0) has been

assigned to this internetwork as a whole. Ten bits will be used to define host
addresses and sub networks. This yields a total of 1024 IPv4 local addresses in
the range of 172.16.0.0 to 172.16.3.0.
Student LAN
The largest sub-network is the Student LAN requires 460 addresses.
28
Using the formula usable hosts = 2^n - 2, borrowing 9 bits for the host portion
gives 512 - 2 = 510 usable host addresses. This meets the current requirement,
with a small allowance for growth.
Using 9 bits for hosts leaves 1 bit that can be used locally to define the subnet
address. Using the lowest available address gives us a subnet address of
172.16.0.0 /23.
The Student subnet mask calculation is:
Address: 172.16.0.0
In binary:
10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000
Mask: 255.255.254.0
23 bits in binary:
11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000
In the Student network, the IPv4 host range would be:
172.16.0.1 through 172.16.1.254 with a broadcast address of 172.16.1.255.
Because the Student LAN has been assigned these addresses, they are not
available for assignment to the remaining subnets: Instructor LAN,
Administrator LAN, and the WAN. The addresses still to be assigned are in the
range 172.16.2.0 to 172.16.3.255.
Instructor LAN
The next largest network is the Instructor LAN. This network requires at least
66 addresses. Using 6 in the power of 2 formula, 2^6 - 2, only provides 62
usable addresses. We must use an address block using 7 host bits. The
calculation 2^7 -2 will yield a block of 126 addresses. This leaves 25 bits to
assign to network address. The next available block of this size is the
172.16.2.0 /25 network.
Address: 172.16.2.0
In binary:
10101100.00010000.0000010.00000000
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Mask: 255.255.255.128
25 bits in binary:
11111111.11111111.1111111.10000000
This provides an IPv4 host range of:
From our original address block of 172.16.0.0 /22, we allocated addresses

172.16.0.0 to 172.16.2.127. The remaining addresses to be allocated are
172.16.2.128 to 172.16.3.255.
Administrator LAN
For the Administrator LAN, we need to accommodate 23 hosts. This will require
the use of 6 host bits using the calculation: 2^6 - 2.
The next available block of addresses that can accommodate these hosts is the
172.16.2.128 /26 block.
Address: 172.16.2.128
In binary:
10101100.00010000.0000010.10000000
Mask: 255.255.255.192
26 bits in binary:
11111111.11111111.1111111.11000000
This yields 62 unique IPv4 addresses for the Administrator LAN.
WAN
The last segment is the WAN connection, requiring 2 host addresses. Only 2
host bits will accommodate the WAN links. 2^2 - 2 = 2.
30
This leaves 8 bits to define the local subnet address. The next available address
block is 172.16.2.192 /30.
Address: 172.16.2.192
In binary:
10101100.00010000.0000010.11000000
Mask: 255.255.255.252
30 bits in binary:
11111111.11111111.1111111.11111100
This completes the allocation of addresses using VLSM for Case 1. If an

adjustment is necessary to accommodate future growth, addresses in the range
of 172.16.2.196 to 172.16.3.255 are still available.
31
Calculating Addresses: Case 2
In Case 2, the challenge is to subnet this internetwork while limiting the

number of wasted hosts and subnets. The figure shows 5 different subnets,
each with different host requirements. The given IP address is 192.168.1.0/24.
The host requirements are:
 NetworkA - 14 hosts
 NetworkB - 28 hosts
 NetworkC - 2 hosts
 NetworkD - 7 hosts
 NetworkE - 28 hosts
As we did with Case 1, we begin the process by sub-netting for the largest host
requirement first. In this case, the largest requirements are for NetworkB and
NetworkE, each with 28 hosts.
We apply the formula: usable hosts = 2^n- 2. For networks B and E, 5 bits are
borrowed from the host portion and the calculation is 2^5 = 32 - 2. Only 30
32
usable host addresses are available due to the 2 reserved addresses. Borrowing
5 bits meets the requirement but gives little room for growth.
So you may consider borrowing 3 bits for subnets leaving 5 bits for the hosts.
This allows 8 subnets with 30 hosts each.
We allocate addresses for networks B and E first:
Network B will use Subnet 0: 192.168.1.0/27
Host address range 1 to 30
Network E will use Subnet 1: 192.168.1.32/27
The next largest host requirement is NetworkA, followed by NetworkD.
Borrowing another bit and sub-netting the network address 192.168.1.64

yields a host range of:
Network A will use Subnet 0: 192.168.1.64/28
Network D will use Subnet 1: 192.168.1.80/28
This allocation supports 14 hosts on each subnet and satisfies the

requirement.
Network C has only two hosts. Two bits are borrowed to meet this requirement.
Starting from 192.168.1.96 and borrowing 2 more bits results in subnet

192.168.1.96/30.
Network C will use Subnet 1: 192.168.1.96/30
In Case 2, we have met all requirements without wasting many potential

subnets and available addresses.
33
In this case, bits were borrowed from addresses that had already been sub-
netted. As you will recall from a previous section, this method is known as
Variable Length Subnet Masking, or VLSM.
Device Interconnections
Device Interfaces
It is important to understand that Cisco devices, routers, and switches have

several types of interfaces associated with them. You have worked with these
interfaces in the labs. These interfaces, also commonly called ports, are where
cables are connected to the device. See the figure for some example interfaces.
34
LAN Interfaces - Ethernet
The Ethernet interface is used for connecting cables that terminate with LAN
devices such as computers and switches. This interface can also be used to
connect routers to each other. This use will be covered in more detail in future
courses. Several conventions for naming Ethernet interfaces are popular,
including AUI (older Cisco devices using a transceiver), Ethernet, FastEthernet
and Fa 0/0. The name used depends on the type and model of the device.
WAN Interfaces - Serial
Serial WAN interfaces are used for connecting WAN devices to the CSU/DSU. A
CSU/DSU is a device used to make the physical connection between data
networks and WAN provider's circuits. Serial interfaces between routers will
also be used in our labs as part of various courses. For lab purposes, we will
make a back-to-back connection between two routers using serial cables, and
set a clock rate on one of the interfaces. You may also need to configure other
Data Link and Physical layer parameters on a router. To establish
communication with a router via a console on a remote WAN, a WAN interface
is assigned a Layer 3 address (IPv4 address).
Console Interface
The console interface is the primary interface for initial configuration of a Cisco
router or switch. It is also an important means of troubleshooting. It is
important to note that with physical access to the router's console interface, an
unauthorized person can interrupt or compromise network traffic. Physical
security of network devices is extremely important.
Auxiliary (AUX) Interface
This interface is used for remote management of the router. Typically, a modem
is connected to the AUX interface for dial-in access. From a security
standpoint, enabling the option to connect remotely to a network device carries
with it the responsibility of maintaining vigilant device management.
35
Making the Device Management Connection
Typically, networking devices do not have their own displays, keyboards,

or input devices such as trackballs and mice. Accessing a network device for
configuration, verification, or troubleshooting is made via a connection between
the device and a computer. To enable this connection, the computer runs a
program called a terminal emulator. A terminal emulator is a software program
that allows one computer to access the functions on another device. It allows a
person to use the display and keyboard on one computer to operate another
device, as if the keyboard and display were directly connected to the other
device. The cable connection between the computer running the terminal
emulation program and the device is often made via the serial interface. To
connect to a router or switch for device management using terminal emulation,
follow these steps:
Step 1:
Connect a computer to the console port using the console cable supplied by
Cisco. The console cable, supplied with each router and switch, has a DB-9
connector on one end and an RJ-45 connector on the other end. (Older Cisco
devices came supplied with an RJ-45 to DB-9 adapter. This adapter is used
with a rollover cable that has an RJ-45 connector at each end.) The connection
to the console is made by plugging the DB-9 connector into an available
EIA/TIA 232 serial port on the computer. It is important to remember that if
there is more than one serial port, note which port number is being used for
the console connection. Once the serial connection to the computer is made,
connect the RJ-45 end of the cable directly into the console interface on the
router. Many newer computers do not have an EIA/TIA 232 serial interface. If
your computer has only a USB interface, use a USB-to-serial conversion cable
36
to access the console port. Connect the conversion cable to a USB port on the
computer and then connect the console cable or RJ-45 to DB-9 adapter to this
cable.
Step 2:
With the devices directly connected via cable, configure a terminal emulator
with the proper settings. The exact instructions for configuring a terminal
emulator will depend on the particular emulator. For the purpose of this
course, we will usually use HyperTerminal because most varieties of Windows
have it. This program can be found under All
Programs > Accessories > Communications. Select HyperTerminal. Open
HyperTerminal, confirm the chosen serial port number, and then configure the
port with these settings:
 Bits per second: 9600 bps
 Data bits: 8
 Parity: None
 Stop bits: 1
 Flow control: None
Log in to the router using the terminal emulator software. If all settings and
cable connections are done properly, you can access the router by pressing
the Enter key on the keyboard. During the lab, you will have the opportunity
to use several types of terminal emulators. Each one may be slightly different
in appearance, but their uses are the same.
37
Self-Check 2.1-1
Test I. Multiple Choice. (20 points)
Instruction: Encircle the correct answer.
1. Which are the two twisted pair cables types available?
 UDP and FTP

 STP and UDP
 UTP and FTP
 STP and UTP
 None of the above.
2. What type of connector do twisted pair cables on computer networks use?
1. RJ-11
2. RJ-30
3. RJ-45
4. RJ-50
5. None of the above.
3. What was the type of cable used by old 10Base2 Ethernet networks?
a. Thin coaxial
b. Thick coaxial
c. Twisted pair
d. Fiber optic
e. None of the above.
4. On old Ethernet networks the installation of a ________ on both ends of the cable was
necessary in order to prevent the signal from bouncing back to the cable, what caused
interference
a. Transformer
b. Adapter
c. Resistive termination
d. Capacitor
5. Regarding unshielded twisted pair cables we CANNOT state:
a. They are classified in categories, from 1 to 7.
38
b. Each pair of wires is twisted so that the electromagnetic field produced
by one wire is cancelled by the electromagnetic field produced by the
other.
c. They are the most used type of networking cable nowadays.
d. They cannot be used on Gigabit Ethernet networks.
6. What is the typical impedance of a shielded twisted pair cable?
a. 100 ohms
b. 150 ohms
c. 200 ohms
d. 250 ohms
7. What was the maximum segment length of a 10Base5 Ethernet network?
a. 100 m / 328 feet

b. 200 m / 657 feet
c. 185 m / 607 feet
d. 500 m / 1,640 feet
e. None of the above
8. Which from the components listed below IS NOT used for assembling a 10Base2 Ethernet
network segment?
a. Thick coaxial cable
b. BNC connector
c. Resistive termination
d. BNC T connector
e. None of the above
9. What is the maximum segment length for a Fast Ethernet network using unshielded twisted
pair cables?
a. 100 m / 328 feet

b. 150 m / 492 feet
c. 185 m / 607 feet
d. 200 m / 657 feet
10. What equipment was required to connect a 10Base5 Ethernet network card to a thick
coaxial cable?
a. Hub
b. Switch
c. Transceptor
d. Router
39
BASIC TERMS, CONCEPTS,

FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK CABLES
1. Recognize the functions of Networks Cable.
2. Identify the concepts , functions and kinds of Network cables
3. demonstrate installation of network cables
Introduction
Networking
A collection of two or more computers interconnected by the telephone lines, co-axial

cable, satellite links, radio and microwave transmission and some other communication
techniques. A computer network is a group of computers that are connected together that
communicate with one another for a common purpose.
The merging of computers & communications has had a profound influence on the way
computer systems are organized. The concept of the computer center as a room with a large
computer to which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete. The old model
of single computer serving all of the organizations computational needs has been replaced by
one in which a large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job. These
systems are called computer networks.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information’s.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, and communication
satellites can also be used. By requiring the computer to be autonomous, we which to execute
from our definitions systems in which there is a clear master/slave relation. If one computer
can forcibly starts, stop, or control another one, the computers are not autonomous. A system
with one control unit and many slaves is not a network; nor is a large computer with remote
printers and terminals.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a

distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system, the expense of multiple
autonomous computers is transparent to the user. He can type a command to run a program.
And it runs. It is up to the operating system to select the best processor, find and transport all
40
the input files to the processor, and put the result in the appropriate place. In other words, the
user of a distributed system is not aware that there are multiple processors; it looks like a
virtual uni-processer. A location of jobs to processors and files to disks, moment of files
between where they are stored and where they are needed, and all other system functions
must be automatic.
With a network, user must explicitly log on to one machine, explicitly submit jobs remotely,
explicitly move files around and generally handle all the network management personally. With the
distributed system, nothing has to be done explicitly it is all automatically done by the system without
the users knowledge.
In effect, a distributed system is a software system built on top of a network. The software gives
it a high degree of cohesiveness and transparency. Those distinction between a network and a
distributed system lies with the software rather than with the hardware. Nevertheless, there is
considerable our lap between the two subjects. E.g., both distributed system and computers networks
need to move file around. The difference lies in whom in vokes the movement, the system or the user.
Local Area Networks (LAN):
Local area network, generally called LANs, is privately-owned networks with in a single building or
campus of up to a few KM in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstation
in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are
distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
1. Their size,
2. Their transmission technology,
3. Their topology.
41
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and
known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that
would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

A metropolitan area network, or MAN (plural: MANs, not MEN) is basically a bigger
version of a LAN and normally uses similar technology. It might cover a group of nearby
corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public. A MAN can support both data
and voice, and might even be related to the local cable television network. A MAN just has one
or two cables and does not contain switching elements, which shunt packets over one of
several potential output lines.
Wide Area Networks (WAN):
A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. It contains of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We
will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The term end system is sometimes
also used in the literature. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet
for short. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words from speaker to listener. By separating the pure communication aspects
of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), the complete network
design is greatly simplified.
42
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
transmission lines & switching elements. Transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or
trunks) move bits between machines.
The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect two or more
transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose
an outgoing line to forward them on.
In most WANs, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one
connecting a pair of routers. If two routers that do not share a cable nevertheless wish to
communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is send from one
router to another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each
intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is free, and the
forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a Point to Point, store and forward or packet
switched subnet. Nearly all wide area networks (except those using satellite) have store and
forward subnet. When the packet are small and all the same size, they often called cells.
Wireless network:
Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDA)
are the fastest growing segment of the computer industries. Many of the owners of these
computers have desktop machines on LAN’s and WAN’s back at the office and want to be
connected to their home base even when away from home or en route. Since having a wired
connection is impossible in cars and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in wireless network.
43
Wireless networks come in many forms. Some universities are already installing
antennas all over campus to allow students to sit under the trees and consult the libraries card
catalogs. Here the computers communicate directly with the wireless LAN in a digital form.
Another possibility is using a cellular (i.e. portable) telephone with a traditional analog modem.
Direct digital cellular service, called CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) is becoming available in
many cities.
Network Hardware
It is now time to turn our attention from the application and social aspects of
networking to the technical issues involved in network design. There is no generally accepted
taxonomy into which all computer network fit, but two dimensions stand out as important:
transmission technologies and scale. We will now examine each of these in turns.
Broadly speaking, there are two types of transmission technologies:

1. Broadcast networks.
2. Point-to-point networks.
Broadcast networks: Have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines
on the network. Short messages, called packets in certain contexts, sent by any machine are
received by all the others. An address field within the packet specifies for whom it’s intended.
Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for itself,
it process the packet, if the packet is intended for the other machine, it is just ignored.
44
Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a packet with this code is
transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. This mode of
operation is called broadcasting. Some broadcast system also support transmission to a subset
of a machines, something now has multicasting.
Point-to-point networks: Consists of many connections between individual pairs of machines.

To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of network may have to first visit
one or more intermediate machines. Often multiple routes, of different lengths are possible, so
routing algorithm play an important role in point-to-point networks. As a general rule (although
there are many exceptions), smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use
broadcasting, where larger usually are point-to-point.
Whenever we want two devices – transmitting and receiving device to communicate
with each other, we need hardware’s to achieve that. We would be discussing about the
various hardware such as:
1. Sender and Receiver hardware
2. Communication devices
3. Communication channels
Sender and Receiver Hardware: Following hardware are used for handling communication
messages, data transfer etc.
Nodes and workstations: Data communication is done using various communication devices
and software’s interconnected for information exchange. The devices used to communicate a
data in communication network are called Workstations. These workstations may be
computer, terminal, printer, telephones and other communication devices. Each workstation is
connected to something called a Data Communication Network Mode.
Multiplexer: As the name suggests, multiplexing is a form of data transferring which are
communication channels and is used for several transmission. For e.g. the telephone lines that
we used for our daily conversation can carry 100’s and even 1000’s of conversations using
multiplexing. In other words multiplexing is a type of network which allows a number of
simple, low cost terminals to share each communication lines introduces almost no delay and
requires no special computer software’s.
45
Multiplexing is used in two major ways:
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
FDM: By dividing a communication channel into various smaller segments of different

frequencies.
TDM: By taking groups of bytes from each sender and send or transmit them over the channel
one after another. Each group of data bytes are tagged at the beginning and end with start and
stop bytes. These by control bytes are then separated at the receiving end and send to their
respective places. This type of multiplexing occurs so fast that the transmission seems
continuous.
Communication devices: There are several types of communication devices or interface used in
data communication. These interfaces are connection between receiver and sender hardware
involved in data communication and the communication network. Some of these interface or
communication devices are discussed below:
1. Modems: Modulator and Demodulators are devices which converts digital signals in
to analog for transmission over the analog transmission facilities such as
telephones. At the receiving end, a modem performs the reverse function and
converts analog signals into digital form.
46
2. Codec performs the opposite function of a modem. A communication port /
adapter is a connector on the computer, which is used as an entry to departure
point for data involved in data communication. A common type of communication
port is RS-232c. This adapter is used for transfer of data between the computer and
the telephone lines.
3. Line Drivers are simple devices used to transmit digital signals over short distances. These
devices do not modulate or demodulate signals, but use filters to reduce the high frequency
components and the modified signal is transmitted directly over the media. These devices
are used for the distances up to 1 KM and can achieve data transfer rates of up to 19200
BPS. It is mainly used for connecting VDU terminals with a computer at a distance of more
than 100 feet or so.
47
Communication channels:
The most basic hardware required for communication is the media through which data
is transferred. There are several types of media, and the choice of the right media depends on
many factors such as cost of transmission media, efficiency of data transmission and the
transfer rate.
Some of the following transmission Media are as follows:

1. Two wire open line: This is the simplest of all the transmission media. It consists of
a simple pair of metallic wires made of copper or sometimes aluminums of between
0.4 and 1mm diameter, and each wire is insulated from the other. There are
variations to this simplest form with several pairs of wire enclosed in a single
protected cable called a multi core cable or molded in the form of a flat ribbon.
This type of media is used for communication within a short distance, up to about 50
M, and can achieve a transfer rate of up to 19200 bits per second.
2. Twisted Pair cable: A twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductors that are
twisted together. The advantages of a Twisted Pair cable over the Two Wire Open
Lines are; it provides better immunity from spurious noise signals. As the Two Wires
are closed to each other, both pick equal interferences caused by extraneous signal
sources and this reduces the differential signal added by the noise.
Twisted Pair cable is used for communication up a distance of 1 KM and can achieve
a transfer rate of up to 1-2 MBPS. But as the speed increased the maximum
transmission distances reduced, and may require repeaters.
48
Twisted pair cables are widely used in telephone network and are increasingly being used for
data transmission.
3. Co-axial Cable: A co-axial cable consists of a solid conductor running co-axial inside a
solid or braided our annular conductor. The space between the two conductors is
filled with a dielectric insulating material. Larger the cable diameter, lower is the
transmission loss, and higher transfer speeds can be achieved. A co-axial cable can
be used over a distance of about 1 KM and can achieve a transfer rate of up to 100
MBPS.
A co-axial cable is of two types- a 75 Ohm cable which is used by the cable TV
operators and 50 Ohm cable which is used in high speed broad band networks and is
low loss cables.
4. Fiber Optic Cables:
49
A fiber optic cable carries signals in the form of fluctuating light in a glass or plastic
cable. An optical fiber cable consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a cladding of a
similar material but with a lower refractive index. The core transmits the light while the change
in refractive index. The core transmit the light while the change in refractive index between the
core and the cladding causes total internal reflection, thus minimizing the loss of light from
fiber.
As light waves gave a much wider wand width than the electrical then the electrical
signal and are immune from electromagnetic interferences, this leads to high data transfer rate
of about 1000 mega bites per second & can be used for long & medium distance transmission
links.
5. Radio, Microwaves & Satellite Channels
Radio, Microwaves & Satellite Channels use electromagnetic propagation in open space.
The advantage of these channels lie in their capability to cove large geographical areas & being
inexpensive than the wired installation.
The demarcation between radio, microwave & satellite channels lie in the frequencies in
which they operate. Frequency bellow 1000 MHZ are radio frequencies & higher the Microwave
frequencies.
The radio frequency transmission may be bellowing 30 MHZ above 30 MHZ & thus the
techniques of transmission are different. Owing to the characteristics of the ionosphere,
frequencies bellow 30MHZ are reflected back towards the surface of the earth. Above 30Mhz
propagation is on line of sight paths. Antennas are placed in between the line-of- sight paths to
increase the distance. Radio frequencies are prone to attenuation and, thus, they require
repeats along the path to enhance the signal. Radio frequencies can achieve data transfer rate
of 100 Kbps to 400 Kbps.
Microwave links use line- of- sight transmission with repeaters placed every 100-200
Kms. Microwave links can achieve data transfer rates of about 1000 Mbps.
Satellite links use microwave frequencies is the order of 4-12 GHz with the satellite as a
repeater. They can achieve data transfer rates of about 1000 Mbps.
50
Network Concept and Classifications
Communication using computer has brought a revolution in the world of computer

technology, particular in the field of computers. We have always heard of networking or the
term network. A network is a way or means of transmitting or receiving information from one
or more sources. As an example car salesman after years in the business, have developed a
network of associates. When the car salesman needs a car to make a sale the car salesman calls
out to his network to retrieve information on the location of the car. Employment agents also
develop a network.
Their customers become their network. Employment agents will frequently keep in
touch with their clientele for possible openings or to locate a candidate for an opening. Without
the capability of networking, these two people would have a difficult time. It is the same in
computing. Networks provide the means for locating transporting information.
In computer networks, the origin of the information request utilized the service of a
network to locate & return the information. This is done with addresses. In the two previous
examples of the car sales man & the employment agent, a telephone number can be
considered the address of their associate or client. Addresses in computer networking are used
in the same manner. These addresses identify the network resource. There are two popular
architectures for networking – hierarchical & peer.
Hierarchical addressing is defined in a master slave relationship. In hierarchical network,
the master controls the network & therefore assigns addresses to the network resource. This
architecture has the main frame as the master & all network resources as slave. The bases of
this is that if the master does not know before hand of a network resource existence through a
predefined address then that resource cannot participate in the network. Peer networking
does not need predefined networking addressing. Instead, each resource on the network is
seen as a peer. Each network resource is a peer to the other network resource. When a new
network resource joins the network it introduced itself & notifies its peer to any other network
resources that it knows about peer networks are share network information.
The entire computer network can be classified into two board categories. They are (a) LAN
(Local Area Network) (b) WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network)
As numbers of system grow within an organization, a need is felt for sharing expensive
resource and exchanging data and information between systems. This need of information
exchange and resource and sharing with in an organization has given birth to a local area
network or LAN.
A LAN is a data communication network, which connects many computers or
workstation (Computer’s Terminals, Printer etc.) and permits exchange of data & information
among themselves, with in a localized area, typically confined to a building, or a cluster of
buildings. The distance between two communications prints connected on the same LAN
channels is usually up to 02 to 05kms.
LANs are not rigidly defined but tend to share most of all of the following characteristics.
 The transmission media is shared by all the connected devices in the network.
 Each device is connected in the network can either operate stand alone or in the network.
 Area covered is small.
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 Data transfer rates are high, usually 1 Mbps- 100 Mbps (Millions of bits per second).
 Each device connected in the network can communicate with any other device in
network.
 Cost of setting up the network is usually low.
LAN Topology
A network topology refers to the physical layout of the network in which all the devices are
connected. This includes all the hardware that makes up the network. The points of the
connection to the network by the station are calls Nodes or Link stations. There are several
types of topographical design & strategies are used to implement LAN. The majority of these
are based on three types of topologies.
a) Star b) Bus c) Ring

Each topology has its advantages & disadvantages.
Star Topology
Star topology is shown below. In this topology. A number of stations are connected
directly to a central station or controller. Communication on the connecting links between the
stations & the central station of the star topology can be bidirectional and are point to point. A
station on this type of network passes an information frame to the central controller, which
then forwards the information to the destination station. The central controller manage and
controls all communication between stations on the network.
NODE NODE
NODE
NODE NODE
Star Network
Failure of a station on a star network is easy to detect and can be remove from the
network. However, failure of the central controller will disable communication throughout the
whole network.
Bus Topology
A bus topology is shown below all stations are connected to a single communication
line. This single communication line is referred to a bus. Information frames originating at a
station are propagated away from the station in both directions on the bus. Each station on the
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bus interrogates the information frame destination address failed for its on addresses. If the
destination failed does not match the station address, the station discards the information
frame back on to the bus. If the destination address matches the station addresses, it accepts
the information frame & processes the frame.
An extension to the bus topology is tree topology as seen in the below figure. Tree
topology extends the branches of the bus topology allowing more stations to access the bus.
NODE NODE NODE NODE
Bus Topology
On a bus or tree network there is no central point for management & control. These
function ions are distributed to each station on the bus. A brake in the bus can be difficult to
locate but limits the outage to communications between stations that traverse the broken
point.
Ring Topology
A ring topology is shown below. Local area network that have each station attached to
an adjacent station using point to point links from a physical ring. Each station attached and
active to the ring regenerate the information frame, then retransmits the information frame on
the ring. The ring itself is logically circle and the information travels in one direction.
NODE
NODE NODE
NODE
Ring Topology
53
Failure of a station in a ring topology disrupts the ring because the information frame is
not regenerated. Additions or deletions of stations of the ring can be disruptive, if the changes
are not managed properly.
LAN Hardware and Software
As we have seen so far, to realize a LAN process, several functions are to be performed. These
are so specialized in nature they require hardware specially built for such purpose. Here we will
discuss briefly the basic hardware components of LAN, these are:
(A) Transformission channel
(B) Network Interface Unit (NIU)
(C) Servers
(D) Work Station\
(A) Transfermission Channels
Generally, the following four types of channels are used for data communication in a
LAN. They are:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable
(ii) Coaxial Cable
(iii) Fiber Optic Cable
(iv) Radio waves
(B) Network Interface Units (NIU)
Network interface units connect each device in the LAN network to shared transmission
device. It contains the rules or logic to access the LAN. NIU is also used for to implement LAN
protocols and for device attachments. Its functions depend on the type of topology used in LAN.
(C) Servers
One of the major benefits of implementation of LAN is sharing expensive resources such
as storage device, printer etc. This is achieved through providing servers on the LAN. It is a
dedicated computer that controls on or more resources. This contains both hardware &
software for LAN. Three major categories of servers used in LANs are
(i) File Server
(ii) Printer Server
(iii) Modem Server
In a networking, the file server is used to share storage space for files. Besides providing
storage space for files in a LAN environment, it is used for talking periodical backup, and also to
provide gateway to other servers within & between LANs.
Similarly printer server is use to handle printing works of all workstations connected in
the network.
In the LAN environment, modem is required to get connected to other network or
simply to use a telephone. A modem server is used to share these expensive resources by all
connected workstation in a networking ring.
LAN Software/ Operating System
54
As the name suggest LAN operating system is required to operate on the LAN system,
manage the tremendous work load with a number of various types of server attached to it. It
has basically two aspects (i) Server Software (ii) Work station Software. As case of other multi
user operating system, LAN operating system also facilitate the sharing of expensive resources
such as printer, storage space etc. among all LAN users, provides security of data permits
connections to other network.
There are various types of LAN operating systems for example Novel Netware, LAN
server, omni met, PC Net, IBM PC LAN, Etherlik plus etc.
WIDE Area Network
As the name suggests, WAN spread across countries and continents satellites being one
of the transmission media.
A wide area network WAN is a network that links separate geographical location. A
WAN can be a public system such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or one of
the various packet switched services provided by the public telecommunication authorities.
WANs can also use most other types of other types of circuit including satellite networks, ISDN,
Value Added Networks (VANs/VADs).
The network can be a private system made up from the local telephone company or set
up using public systems as virtual private network. A virtual private network is one which
operates in the same way as a private network but which uses public switched services for the
transmission of information.
The main distinguishing feature between a LAN and WAN is that, the LAN is under the
complete control of the owner, whereas the WAN needs the involvement of another authority
like the telephone company. LANs are also able to handle very high data transfer rates at low cost
because of the limited area covered. LANs have a lower error rate then WANs.
Communication Switching Techniques
In a WAN, two computing devices are not connected directly. A network of switching
nodes provides a transfer path between the two devices. The process of transferring data
blocks from one node to another is called data switching.
There are three switching techniques commonly employed and these are:
1. Circuit Switching
In circuit switching there is a dedicated communication path between the sending and
receiving devices. The dedicated path is a connected sequence of links switching nodes. A
conventional telephone network, where a dedicated path is set between the called party for
the duration of a telephone call is an example of circuit switching.
Communication viz. circuit switching involves three steps-circuit establishment; data
transfer; and circuit termination. Circuit switching is mainly used for voice telephone network,
but is not that effective for data communication network, as channel capacities are not fully
utilized, as data communication equipments do not generate data continuously.
2. Massage Switching
Massage switching is an alternative switching techni8que, where it is not necessary to
establish a dedicated path between the sending and receiving devices. In massage switching,
the sending device appends the destination address to the massage and passes to the network;
the massage is then passed through the network from one node to another till it reaches the
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intended destination. Each switching are electronic mails, computer files, telegrams and
transaction queries and responses. A complete exchange may consist of several messages.
The basic disadvantage of massage switching is the variable delay at intermediate switching
nodes.
3. Packet Switching
Packet switching combines the advantages of message & circuiting switching. Packet
switching is functionally similar to message switching, in which data is transmitted in blocks,
stored by the first switching node it meets in the network and forwarded to the next and
subsequent downstream nodes until it reaches the destination. The length of data block is
limited in packet switching network. Typical maximum length of packets is between 128 bytes
to 4096 bytes. There are two approaches to packet switching:
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit
In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently and may follow a different
path through the network. Packets may be reordered, dropped or delivered in wrong sequence.
The communication protocols provide the error recovery sequencing of packets at the receiving
device.
In virtual circuit approach, a fixed logical path through the network from the sender to
the receiver is established before any packets are sent. This path remains unchanged for the
duration of the session. This is quite like circuit switching, but no resources are reserved along
the path. Packets are buffered at intermediate nodes awaiting transmission.
WAN Devices / Hardware

The switching techniques utilized the routine technology of data transfer. Routing is
responsible for searching a path between two computing devices that wish to communicate
and for following the data packets on this path. Devices such as bridges, router and gateway
provide this routing function.
1. Bridges
Bridges are used to connect two LANs that use identical LAN protocols over a wide area.
The bridge acts as an address filter which picks up packets from one LAN that are identical for a
destination on the another LAN and passes these packets on the network. Bridges operate at
the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. As all devices use the same protocols, the amount
of processing required at the bridge is minimal. If the distance between the two LANs is large,
the user would require two additional bridges at either end of the communication link.
Besides a point-to-point link, the intervening communication facility can be a network
such as a wide area packet switching network in such case the bridges need to add X. 25 link
layer header and trailer.
2. Routers
Routers can be used to connect networks that may not be similar. Routers provide
connectivity between two LANs or two WANs over large geographical distance. Routers operate
at the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. All routers participate in routing protocols to
access the network topology, and based on this information routers computes the best route
from a sender to the receiver,
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For large wide area network spanning thousands of kilometers, the normal practice is to
put network routers at suitable locations to minimize link cost for leased link and provide
adequate reliability from link failures. Networks and other system are then connected to the
nearest router.
3. Gateways
Gateways are used to connect to dissimilar LANs. The term gateway and routers are
used interchangeably, though there is a subtle difference between the two. A router operates
at the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model, whereas a gateway operates on the application
layer (layer 7) of the OSI model. A gateway is required to convert data packets from one
protocol format to another before forwarding it, as it connects two dissimilar networks.
While discussing the WAN devices, we referred to X.25 and protocols. We will now see what
x.25 is.
 What is X.25
Towards the end of the 1960s, the conman telecommunication carriers around the
world recognized the need for data communication service that would be distinct from voice
circuits. The plan was to put together a series of recommendation during the 1970s using ITTCC
(International telegraph & telephone consultative committee) as the total standards body. This
ITTCC recommendation series to define the new service was doubled the X series. During the
1970s sum 60 to 70 recommendations had involved. The most famous of these is X.25, which
define an interface in to a particular regular data network that of a packet switched network.
ITTCC developed X.25 as the standard interface between the Data Terminal Equipment
(DTE, computer system) and Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCET- the network node to
which the DTE is connected) the recommendation has been widely accepted as the industry
standard for public packet switched networks.
X.25 is a protocol for interfacing to a Public Packet Switched Network. It is not a protocol
for implementing a network. Two systems that support X.25 cannot necessary be connected
back – to – back. They can only be connected through a DCE in a public packet switched.
Type of WIDE Area Network
The essential purpose of WIDE Area network, regardless of the size or technology used
is to link separate locations in order remove data around. A WAN allows these locations to
access shared computer resources and provides the asocial infrastructure for developing wide
spread distributed computing system.
We will now discuss the different types of WAN which are communally used.
1. Public Networks
Public networks are those networks which are installed and run by the
telecommunication authorities and are made available to any organization or individual who
subscribe. Examples include Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN), Public Switched Data
Network (PSDN), Value Added Service (VANs/ VADs) and the Integrated Service Digital
Networks (ISDN). We would be discussing the main features of their services:
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
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The features of the PSTN are its low speed, the analog nature of transmission, restricted
bandwidth & its wide spread availability. As PSTN is designate for telephones, modems are
required when it is used for data communication.
 Public Switched Data Network (PSDN)
The term PSDN covers a number of technologies; although currently it is limited to
Public Packet Switch Networks available to the public. The main features of all PSDNs are their
high label reliability and the high quality of the connection provided. The can support both high
& low speeds at appropriate costs.
 Value Added Services (VANs/ VADs)
In value added services, the provider of such services must process, store and
manipulate the data that is carried on the network, that add value to it. The technique can be
used in specific types of business in which it is advantageous to be able to share information
with other companies in the same line.
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
The ISDN is the networking concept providing for the integration of voice, video and data
servicing using data service using digital transmission combining both circuits and packet
switching techniques. The motivating force behind ISDN is that telephone networks around the
world have been making a transition towards utilizing digital transmission facilities for many
years.
2. Private Networks
The basic technique used in all forms of private WAN is to use private (or more usually leased)
circuits to link the locations to be served by the network. Between these fixed points the owner
of the network has complete freedom to use the circuits in any way they want. They can use
the circuit to carry large quantities of data or for high speed transmission.
Private WIDE area network can be built using whatever standard technology is available. The
way private networks have generally been set up has to specify
 DBMS - Database Management Systems are used to share data on a network.

 DCE - Data communications equipment.
 DDP - Datagram Delivery Protocol is a routable protocol that provides for data packet
transportation. It operates at the network layer at the same level of the IP protocol.
 DDS - Digital data service is a leased dedicated digital line.
 DECnet - From Digital Equipment Corporation is a suite of protocols which may be used
on large networks that integrate mainframe and minicomputer systems
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is used to assign IP addresses dynamically
to network cards works at the application layer. RFC 1541.
 Direct sequence modulation - The data is broken into parts and transmitted
simultaneously on multiple frequencies.
 DLC - Data Link Control operates at the data link layer and is designed for
communications between Hewlett-Packard network printers and IBM mainframe
computers on a DECnet network.
 DNA - Digital Network Architecture is a term from DECNet
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 DNS - Domain Name System is used on the internet to correlate between IP address and
readable names. RFC 1034, 1035, 1535-1537, 1591.
 DRDA - Distributed Relational Database Architecture is from IBM.
 DSU - Digital service unit used to connect to digital leased lines on the LAN side.
 DTD - Document Type Definition.
 DTE - Data terminal equipment.
 DUN - Dial up networking.
 DVM - Digital volt meter.
 EGP - Exterior Gateway Protocol. Used between routers of different systems.
 EIA - Electronic Industries Association .
 EISA - Extended ISA used when the 80286 through 80486 series microprocessors were
being produced. It is backward compatible with ISA.
 EMI - Electromagnetic Interference.
 Ethernet - A network architecture that uses carrier-sense multiple-access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD) for controlling access to the network media and baseband
broadcasts. It uses star topology.
 FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface is a network architecture normally used to send
longer distances. Topology is ring with two counter rotating rings for reliability with no
hubs. Cable type is fiber-optic.
 Frame Relay - Error checking is handled by devices at both sides of the connection.
Frame relay uses frames of varying length and it operates at the data link layer of the
OSI model. A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is established between two points on the
network. Frame relay speed is between 56Kbps and 1.544Mbps.
 Frequency hopping - The transmitter and receiver change predetermined frequencies at
the same time (in a synchronized manner).
 FTP - File Transport Protocol is a TCP/IP protocol running at the application layer.
 Gateway - A gateway can translate information between different network data formats
or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting
TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Not the same as a default
gateway used by a client to send packets to.
 HTML - Hypertext Markup Language is the format many files for web viewing are in. It is
a language with "mark-up" text included for formatting.
 HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the protocol used to communicate between web
servers and web browser software clients.
 Hub - A type of repeater used on several network architectures which usually connects
several stations.
 IAB - Internet Architecture Board
 IANA - Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.
 ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol is used to perform network error reporting
and status. It works at the transport layer. RFC 792.
 IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force. Sets Internet technical standards.
 IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol, used for managing multicast groups. RFC
1112.
 IMAP4 - Internet Mail Access Protocol version 4 is the replacement for POP3
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 Impedance - The amount of resistance to the transmission device.
 Infrared - Infrared is just below the visible range of light between 100Ghz and 1000Thz.
 Interference - Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Crosstalk - When wires pick up
electromagnetic signals from nearby wires also carrying signals.
 InterNIC - Internet Network Information Center, the authority for allocating internet
addresses.
 Intranet - Refers to using internet technologies such as a web server on an internal
network.
 IP - Internet Protocol os used for software addressing of computers and works at the
data link layer. RFC 791.
 IPIP tunneling - Tunneling IP packets in IP packets. Used for VPN tunneling.
 IPSec - Internet protocol security, developed by IETF, implemented at layer 3. it is a
collection of security measures that address data privacy, integrity, authentication, and
key management, in addition to tunneling. Used for VPN.
 IPX - Internetwork Packet Exchange supports the transport and network layers of the
OSI network model. Provides for network addressing and routing. It provides fast,
unreliable, communication with network nodes using a connection less datagram
service.
 IRQ- Interrupt Request
 IRTF - Internet Research Task force.
 ISA - Industry Standard Architecture internal computer bus. Used when the original
8088 8bit microprocessor based personal computers were produced. (16 bit).
 ISAKMP/Oakley - Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol
Authentication.
 ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network is a method of sending voice and data
information on a digital phone line. Two 64Kbps B-channels with one 16Kbps D channel
is provided with basic ISDN service
 ISP - Internet Service Provider
 ISOC - Internet Society, promotes internet policies.
 ITU - International Telecommunication Union.
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol.
 L2F - Layer2 Forwarding, works at the link layer of the OSI model. It has no encryption.
Being replaced by L2TP. It is used for VPN.
 L2TP - Layer 2 tunneling protocol (RFC 2661). Used for VPN tunneling.
 LAN - Local Area Network
 LDA - Local delivery agent on the receiving machine receives the mail from its MTA. This
program is usually procmail.
 LU - Logical Units are ports that users use to access network resources is an SNA term.
 MAC - Media Access Control address. Basically a network card unique hardware address.
 Mail notifier - This program notifies the recipient that they have mail. Normally this
requires two programs, biff and comsat. Biff allows the administrator or user to turn on
comsat service.
 MAN- Metropolitan area network refers to a network which connects several LANS over
various media that is large enough to cover an area the size of a city.
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 MAPI - Microsoft's Messaging API which is incorporated throughout Microsoft's office
products supports mail at the application level.
 MAU - Multistation access unit used by Token Ring Networks.
 MBONE - Being on the MBONE means you are on a network that supports multicasting.
 MCI - Microchannel architecture by IBM and used mainly on IBM brand computers for
the internal bus. Established in 1988. (16 or 32 bits).
 Media - The hardware method used to connect computers over a network. The three
main types are copper cable, fiber optic cable, and wireless.
 Media converter - Used to adapt from one cable type to another.
 MHS - Message Handling Service by Novell is used for mail on Netware networks.
 MIB - Management Information BASE specifies variables the network elements
maintain. Works with the TCP/IP protocol SNMP.
 MIME - Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is the protocol that defines the way files
are attached to SMTP messages.
 MOTIS - Message-oriented text interchange system.
 MS - Message Store is a storage area for messages that can't be delivered immediately
when the recipient is off-line.
 MTA - Message transfer agent is used to pass mail from the sending machine to the
receiving machine. There is a MTA program running on both the sending and receiving
machine. Send mail is a MTA.
 MTU - Maximum Transmission Unit is the maximum size of each data packet for the
ethernet protocol.
 MUA - Mail users agent. This is the program a user will use to type e-mail. It usually
incorporates an editor for support. The user types the mail and it is passed to the
sending MTA. This may also be called the user agent (UA).
 Multicasting - Transmitting to a group of interface cards on the network.
 NADN - Nearest Active Downstream Neighbor is a Token ring Architecture term.
 NAU - Network Addressable Units is an SNA term.
 NAUN - Nearest Active Upstream Neighbor is a Token ring Architecture term.
 NAT - Network Address Translation.
 NBF - NetBIOS Frame Protocol.
 NBNS - NetBIOS Name Server. A server that maps NetBIOS names to IP addresses. This
service is provided by the nmbd daemon on Linux.
 NBP - Name-binding protocol of the AppleTalk suite of protocols translates addresses
into names.
 NBT - NetBIOS over TCP/IP defined by RFC 1002.
 NCP - NetWare Core Protocol provides for client/server interactions such as file and
print sharing. It works at the application, presentation, and session levels.
 NCP - Network Control Program performs routing, session management tasks. It runs in
the communications controller. It is an SNA networking term.
 NDIS - Network Driver Interface Specification from Microsoft, is used on Microsoft
networks. It allows multiple protocols to be used on a network card and supports the
data link layer of the network model.
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 NetBEUI - NetBIOS Extended User Interface works at the transport layer and provides
data transportation. It is not a routable transport protocol which is why NBT exists on
large networks to use routable TCP protocol on large networks.
 NetBIOS - Network Basic Input Output System by Microsoft.
 Network Operating System - Typically used to run computers that act as servers, but
may be used on various types of computers today.
 NFS - Network File System. A protocol that allows UNIX and Linux systems remotely
mount each other's file systems. RFC 1094
 NIC - Network interface card. Also called LAN adapters.
 NNTP - Network News Transport Protocol is used to link newsgroups for discussions on
the web
 OC - Optical Carrier level, see SONET.
 ODBC - Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) from Microsoft lets application developers
integrate database connections in applications. It is an application programming
interface (API). ODBC drivers convert an application's query int SQL and send it to the
database engine program.
 ODI - Open Data-link Interface operates at the data link layer allowing IPX to work with
any network interface card.
 OSI - Open Systems Interconnect is a suite of protocols developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO) which corresponds with the layers of the OSI model.
 OSPF - Open Shortest Path First, a dynamic routing protocol. RFC 1247.
 PAP - Password Authentification Protocol is a two way handshake protocol designed for
use with PPP.
 PAP - Printer access protocol of the AppleTalk suite of protocols manages information
between workstations and printers.
 PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect internal computer bus. The popular expansion
bus of choice. It is significantly faster than EISA. This is a 32bit bus with plug and play
capability from Intel.
 PDC - Primary Domain Controller is an NT server providing central control of user access
permissions and accounts on a network.
 PDL - Page description language is a printing language.
 PDN - Public data network.
 Peer - A computer that can act as both a client and a server.
 Plenum - Space above a false ceiling in an office area where heat ducts and cables may
be run. Plenum cabling is special fire resistant cabling required for use in these areas
due to fire hazards.
 POP - Point of presence is each point at the end of the transport media (internet) when
talking about VPN.
 POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3 is used by clients to access an internet mail server
to get mail. It is not a transport layer protocol.
 Protocol - A set of standards sets of standards that define all operations within a
network. There are various protocols that operate at various levels of the OSI network
model such as transport protocols include TCP, SPX.
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 PPP - Point to Point Protocol, used for serial connections to a network of the internet.
(RFC 1332, 1548)
 PPTP - Point to point tunneling protocol (RFC 2637) Used for VPN tunneling.
 PU - Physical Units are a network device used to communicate with hosts. It is an SNA
term.
 PVC - Permanent virtual circuit is set up once in communication switches to establish a
permanent circuit.
 RADIUS - Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service is used for dial in clients to connect
to other computers or a network. It provides authentication and accounting when using
PPTP or L2TP tunneling.
 RAID - Redundant Array of Inexpensive disks is a fault tolerant method of storing data,
meaning that a failure can occur and the system will still function.
 RARP -Reverse Address Resolution Protocol used for disk less computers to determine
their IP address using the network. It works at the data link layer. RFC 903.
 RAS - Remote Access Service (RAS) with Windows NT allows users connecting to the
network using a modem to use network resources. The NT RAS server can handle 256
connections.
 Redirector - it runs on a windows operating system and directs requests for network
resources to the appropriate server and makes network resources seem to be local
resources.
 Repeater - Used on a network to regenerate signals to be sent over long distances or tie
computers together on a network.
 Resolver - Used as part of DNS, it is the client side asking for DNS information.
 RIP - Routing Information Protocol, a dynamic routing protocol. A distance-vector
algorithm is used to calculate the best route for a packet. RFC 1058, 1388 (RIP2).
 Rlogin - Remote login between UNIX hosts. This is outdated and is replaced by Telnet.
 Router - Routes data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each
packet to tell where it is going.
 RPC - Remote Procedure Call. A protocol invented by Sun Microsystems to allow remote
computers to invoke functions on other hosts. RFC 1057.
 RR - Resource Records are a part of the DNS database.
 RTMP - Routing table maintenance protocol is used to update routers with information
about network status and address tables. The whole address table is sent across the
network.
 S/Key - A onetime password system, secure against replays. RFC 2289.
 SAP - Service Advertising Protocol packets are used by file and print servers to
periodically advertise the address of the server and the services available. It works at
the application, presentation, and session levels.
 SAS - Single Attachment stations attached to one ring and used by FDDI networks to
attach workstations to concentrators.
 SDH - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
 SDLS - Synchronous Data Link Control is a possible SNA communications architecture.
 Sector Sparing - A method of fault tolerance that automatically identifies and marks bad
sectors as not available. It is also called hot-fixing.
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 Server - For the most part it provides resources on the network for other computers to
use.
 SGML - Standardized General Markup Language is the base language for document
publishing and is used to define XML, HTML and more.
 Shielding - Used to minimize interference.
 SLED - Single Large Inexpensive disk - The concept that a large disk costs less per amount
of storage than several smaller ones. Somehow this concept is used as a means of fault
tolerance.
 SLIP - Serial Line interface Protocol used to connect serially to a network or internet. RFC
1055, 1144 (Compressed). Replaced by PPP.
 SMAU - Smart Multistation Access Unit.
 SMB - Server Message Block protocol works at the presentation level to provide peer to
peer communication.
 SMDS - Switched Multi-megabit Data Service uses fixed length cell switching and runs at
speeds of 1.533 to 45Mbps.
 SMS - SMS - Systems Management Server from Microsoft can collect information of
software on each computer and can install and configure new software on the client
computers. It will also monitor network traffic.
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a TCP protocol for mail transport running at the
application layer. RFC 821, 822.
 SNA - System Network Architecture by IBM is a suite of protocols mainly used with IBM
mainframe and AS/400 computers.
 SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol. RFC 1155, 1157, 1213, 1441.
 SONET - Synchronous Optical Network is a physical layer standard that defines voice,
data, and video delivery methods over fiber optic media. It defines data rates in terms of
optical carrier (OC) levels.
 Spread spectrum - It uses several frequencies at the same time.
 SPX - Sequenced Packet Exchange operates at the transport layer providing connection
oriented communication on top of IPX.
 SQL - Structured Query Language is a database access language. It is used by most
client/server database applications.
 SSCP - Systems Services Control Point manages all resources in the host's domain. An
SNA term.
 STP - Shielded Twisted Pair cable. 100 meter maximum length. 16-155 Mbps speed.
Lower electrical interference than UTP
 STS
 SVC - Switched virtual circuit is temporarily set up by switching mechanisms to establish
a connection between devices for a session.
 TACACS - Offers authentication, accounting, and authorization.
 T Carrier - Multiplexors are used to allow several channels on one line. The T1 line is
basic T Carrier service.
 TCP - Transport Control protocol is a connection oriented reliable protocol working at
the transport layer. RFC 793.
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 TDI - Transport Driver Interface is a standard for passing messages between the drivers
at the data link layer and the protocols working at the network layer such as IP or
NetBEUI. It was produced by Microsoft.
 TDR - Time-domain reflect meter sends a sonar like electrical pulse down a cable and
can determine the location of a break in the cable.
 TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol. RFC 1350.
 Telnet - Remote session at the application layer. RFC 854.
 Thicknet - Half inch rigid cable. Maximum cable length is 500 meters. Transmission
speed is 10Mbps. Expensive and is not commonly used. (RG-11 or RG-8).
 Thinnet - Thinnet uses a British Naval Connector (BNC) on each end. Thinnet is part of
the RG-58 family of cable*. Maximum cable length is 185 meters. Transmission speed is
10Mbps.
 TIA - Telecommunications Industries Association
 TLD - Top Level domain
 Token Ring - A network architecture developed by IBM which sends tokens around a
ring of computers to allow media access. Standardized to IEEE 802.5
 Topology - The shape of the physical connection of a network with regard to repeaters
and networked computers. The three main types are ring, bus, and star.
 UA - Users agent. This is the program a user will use to type e-mail. It usually
incorporates an editor for support. The user types the mail and it is passed to the
sending MTA. This may also be called the mail user agent (MUA).
 UDP - User Datagram Protocol is a connection less unreliable protocol working at the
transport layer. RFC 768.
 UNC - Universal Naming Convention is used to allow the use of shared resources
without mapping a drive to them.
 Uncast - A transmission to a single interface card.
 URL - Universal Resource Location is a term used to describe the name of a web based
resource such as a web page or location of a file for down loading.
 UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. Normally UTP contains 8 wires or 4 pair. 100 meter
maximum length. 4-100 Mbps speed.
 VIM - Vendor-Independent Messaging protocol from Lotus supports mail at the
application level and is supported by many vendors exclusive of Microsoft.
 VPN - Virtual Private Networking. The function of VPN is to allow two computers or
networks to talk to each other over a transport media that is not secure, but the
network is made secure by VPN security protocols.
 W3C - World Wide Web Consortium, sets standards for the web working with the IETF.
 WAN - Wide Area Network is larger than a MAN and may be an enterprise network or a
global network.
 WINS - Windows Internet Name Service is the Microsoft implementation of NetBIOS
name service.
 Wireless bridge - Microwave or Infrared is used between two line of site points where it
is difficult to run wire.
 X.25 - This is a set of protocols developed by the CCITT/ITU which specifies how to
connect computer devices over an internetwork.
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 X.400 - International Telecommunication Union standard defines transfer protocols for
sending mail between mail servers.
 X.500 - This is a recommendation outlining how an organization can share objects and
names on a large network. It is hierarchical similar to DNS, defining domains consisting
of organizations, divisions, departments, and workgroups.
 XML - Extensible Markup Language is a subset of SGML and is used widely on the web.
 ZIP - Zone information protocol used with RTMP to map zones. Routers use zo
Self-Check 2.1-2
A. Encircle the Best Answer of your choice.
1.A home computer network is sometimes also called a…
a.SAN
b.LAN
c. WAN
d. MAN
2. You can establish a Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection… (Select all correct answers)
a. Only when using wireless connections to the Internet
b. Only when connected to the Internet
c. None of these answers
3. The purpose of a firewall on computer networks is to…
a. Allow pictures and video to be downloaded from a camera to a computer

b. Allow more than 4 computers to share the same Internet connection
c. Prevent unwanted network connections from being made
4.A home router...
a. Boils water
b. Helps people build Web sites
c. Enables safe sharing of resources among network devices in the home
5. Wi-Fi is a…
a. Popular technologies and standards for wireless computer networking

b. Computer programs that help people make money on the Internet
c. Type of network cable
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CAT5e/CAT6e CABLES ACCORDING TO THE
NETWORK WIRING STANDARD CODES
1. Identify the CAT5e/CAT6e cables according to the network wiring
standard code’s
2. Recognize the CAT CAT5e / CAT6e cables according to the network
Introduction:
Introduction to Network Cables
Despite advances in wireless technologies, many computer networks in

the 21st century still rely on cables as a physical medium for devices to
transfer data. Multiple different standard types of network cables exist, each
designed for specific purposes.
Coaxial Cables
Invented back in the 1880s, "coax" was best known as the kind of cable
that connected television sets to home antennas. Coaxial cable is also a
standard for 10 Mbps Ethernet cables.
When 10 Mbps Ethernet was most popular, during the 1980s and early 1990s,
networks typically utilized one of two kinds of coax cable - thinnet (10BASE2
standard)or thicknet (10BASE5). These cables consist of an inner copper wire of
varying thickness surrounded by insulation and other shielding. Their stiffness
caused network administrators difficulty in installing and maintaining thinnet
and thicknet.
Twisted Pair Cables
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Twisted pair eventually emerged during the 1990s as the leading cabling
standard for Ethernet, starting with 10 Mbps (10BASE-T, also known as
Category 3 or Cat3), later followed by improved versions for 100 Mbps
(100BASE-TX, Cat5 and Cat5e) and successively higher speeds up to 10 Gbps
(10GBASE-T). Ethernet twisted pair cables contain up to 8 wires wound
together in pairs to minimize electromagnetic interference.
Two primary types of twisted pair cable industry standards are defined –
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
Modern Ethernet cables use UTP wiring due to its lower cost, while STP
cabling can be found in some other types of networks such as FDDI.
Fiber Optics
Instead of insulated metal wires transmitting electrical signals, fiber
optic network cables work using strands of glass and pulses of light. These
network cables are bendable despite being made of glass.
They have proven especially useful in wide area network
(WANs) installations where long distance underground or outdoor cable runs
are required and also in office buildings where a high volume of
communication traffic is common.
Two primary types of fiber optic cable industry standards are defined –
single-mode (100BaseBX standard) and multimode (100BaseSX standard).
Long-distance telecommunications networks more commonly use single-mode
for its relatively higher bandwidth capacity, while local networks typically use
multimode instead due to its lower cost.
More - What Is a Fiber Optic Cable?
USB Cables
Most Universal Serial Bus (USB) cables connect a computer with a
peripheral device (keyboard or mouse) rather than to another computer for
networking. However, special adapters (sometimes called dongles) also allow
connecting an Ethernet cable to a USB port indirectly. USB cables feature
twisted-pair wiring.
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Serial and Parallel Cables
Because many PCs in the 1980s and early 1990s lacked Ethernet
capability, and USB had not been developed yet, serial and parallel interfaces
(now obsolete on modern computers) were sometimes used for PC-to-PC
networking. So-called null model cables, for example, connected the serial
ports of two PCs enabling data transfers at speeds between 0.115 and 0.45
Mbps.
Crossover Cables
Null modem cables are one example of the category of crossover cables. A
crossover cable joins two network devices of the same type, such as two PCs or
two network switches.
The use of Ethernet crossover cables was especially common on older
home networks years ago when connecting two PCs directly together.
Externally, Ethernet crossover cables appear nearly identical to ordinary
(sometimes also called straight-through), the only visible difference being the
order of color-coded wires appearing on the cable's end connector.
Manufacturers typically applied special distinguishing marks to their crossover
cables for this reason. Nowadays, though, most home networks utilize routers
that have built-in crossover capability, eliminating the need for these special
cables.
Other Types of Network Cables
Some networking professionals use the term patch cable to refer to any
kind of straight-through network cable being used for a temporary purpose.
Coax, twisted pair and fiber optic types of patch cables all exist. They do not
differ in physical characteristics from other types of network cables except that
they tend to be a shorter length.
Power line network systems utilize a home's standard electrical wiring for
data communication using special adapters plugged into wall outlets.
Self-Check 2.1-3
Test I. Enumeration (10 points)
Instruction: Answer the question below.
1. Can a cat6 cable be used with cat5?

2. Is cat6 better than cat5e?
3. Can you use cat5e connectors on cat6 cable?
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PROPER SPLICING OF APPROPRIATE NETWORK CABLES
1. Identify the proper Splicing of appropriate network cable.
2. Demonstrate the proper slicing of Ethernet Cables
Introduction:
Ethernet cables are used to connect two or more computers together in a

wired network. While these cables are available in different lengths, situations
may arise where the Ethernet cables that you have on hand aren't long enough
to connect your computers. Should this occur, two cables can be spliced to
create a longer Ethernet cable without fear of data loss. The splicing should
only take a few minutes, after which the new cable should carry data across
the network just as easily as either of the cables it was made from previously.
THINGS YOU'LL NEED
 Two or more sections of Ethernet cable

 Wire cutters
 Wire stripper
 Electrical tape
STEP 1
Use your wire cutter to cut the two cables that you are splicing together,
leaving each cable at least 1 to 2 inches longer than you need it to be.
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STEP 2
Cut the outer insulation of each piece of Ethernet cable 3/4 of an inch from the
end that you cut off previously, making sure that you do not cut into the wires
contained inside. Remove this portion of insulation, leaving the wires visible.
STEP 3
Strip the ends of the individual wires, exposing approximately half an inch of
each. Unwind the braided pairs only as much as you need to strip the wires.
STEP 4
Wind the wires from one portion of the cable around the corresponding wires
from the other, making sure that you match the colors of the insulation on
each wire when doing so. Wrap electrical tape around each spliced wire when
done
STEP 5
Wrap additional electrical tape around the exposed wires, covering any portion
of them that is not covered by the Ethernet cable's insulation. Once covered,
the Ethernet cable is ready for use.
TIPS & WARNINGS
 Splicing Ethernet cables is an easy way to make damaged cables functional again,
because you can remove the damaged portion of the cables and splice the remaining
pieces together.
 Make sure that the Ethernet cables that you are splicing belong to the same category,
such as Cat5, Cat5e or Cat6.
 Do not create an Ethernet cable that is longer than 350 feet. Cables longer than this
experience data transfer problems and may result in network slowdown or data loss.
Self-Check 2.1-4
Test I. Enumeration. (10 points)
Instruction: Answer the question below.
1. Can Ethernet cables be spliced?
2. Can you split network cable?
3. Can you split Ethernet cable?
71
INSTALL NETWORK CABLE AND CABLE RACEWAY &

CHECK INSTALLATION WORK
After reading the information sheet, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Identify thenetwork cables and cable raceways
2. Recognize the procedure of installation of checking of work
3. Practice Installing network cables
Introduction:
Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network

device to other network devices or to connect two or more computers to
share printers, scanners etc. Different types of network cables, such as coaxial
cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the
network's physical layer, topology, and size. The devices can be separated by a
few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the
interconnections of the Internet).
There are several technologies used for network connections. Patch cables are
used for short distances in offices and wiring closets. Electrical connections
using twisted pair or coaxial cable are used within a building. Optical fiber
cable is used for long distances or for applications requiring
high bandwidth or electrical isolation.
Many installations use structured cabling practices to improve reliability and

maintainability. In some home and industrial applications power lines are used
as network cabling.
Twisted pair
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Twisted pair cabling with the ubiquitous "RJ-45" 8P8C modular connector is a
form of wiring in which pairs of wires (the forward and return conductors of a
single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling
out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire pairs and from external
sources. This type of cable is used for home and corporate Ethernet networks.
Twisted pair cabling is used in short patch cables and in the longer runs
in structured cabling.
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of twisted pair Ethernet cable used to
connect computing devices together directly that would normally be connected
via a network switch, Ethernet hub or router, such as directly connecting
two personal computers via their network adapters. Most currentEthernet
devices support Auto MDI-X, so it doesn't matter whether you use crossover or
straight cables.[1]
Fiber optics
An optical fiber cable consists of a

center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective material. Optical
fiber deployment is more expensive than copper but offers higher bandwidth
and can cover longer distances.[2] There are two major types of optical fiber
cables: shorter-range multi-mode fiber and long-range single-mode fiber.
Coaxial
73
Coaxial cables form a transmission line and confine the electromagnetic wave
inside the cable between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission
of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable
between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted
(subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to
conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.
Early Ethernet, 10BASE5 and 10BASE2, used baseband signaling over coaxial
cables. In the 20th century the L-carrier system used coaxial cable for long-
distance calling.
Coaxial cables are commonly used for television and other broadband signals.
Although in most homes coaxial cables have been installed for transmission
of TV signals, new technologies (such as the ITU-T G.hn standard) open the
possibility of using home coaxial cable for high-speed home
networking applications (Ethernet over coax).
Patch
A patch cable is an electrical or optical cable used to connect one electronic or
optical device to another or to building infrastructure for signal routing.
Devices of different types (e.g. a switch connected to a computer, or a switch
connected to a router) are connected with patch cords. Patch cords are usually
produced in many different colors so as to be easily distinguishable, [1] and most
are relatively short, no longer than a few meters. In contrast to on-premises
wiring, patch cables are more flexible but may also be less durable.
Power lines
Although power wires are not designed for networking applications, new
technologies like Power line communication allows these wires to also be used
to interconnect home computers, peripherals or other networked consumer
products. On December 2008, the ITU-T adopted
Recommendation G.hn/G.9960 as the first worldwide standard for high-speed
powerline communications.[3] G.hn also specifies communications over
phonelines and coaxial wiring. The HomePlug protocol family is also used for
power line communication.
In the electrical wiring of buildings, a cable tray system is used to support
insulated electrical cables used for power distribution, control, and
communication. Cable trays are used as an alternative to open wiring
or electrical conduit systems, and are commonly used for cable management in
commercial and industrial construction. They are especially useful in
situations where changes to a wiring system are anticipated, since new cables
can be installed by laying them in the tray, instead of pulling them through a
pipe.
According to the National Electrical Code (NEC), a cable tray is a unit or
assembly of units or sections and associated fittings forming a rigid structural
system used to securely fasten or support cables and raceways
Types
74
Several types of tray are used in different applications. A solid-bottom tray
provides the maximum protection to cables, but requires cutting the tray or
using fittings to enter or exit cables. A deep, solid enclosure for cables is called
a cable channel or cable trough.[2]
A ventilated tray has openings in the bottom of the tray, allowing some air
circulation around the cables, water drainage, and allowing some dust to fall
through the tray. Small cables may exit the tray through the ventilation
openings, which may be either slots or holes punched in the bottom. A ladder
tray has the cables supported by a traverse bar, similarly to the rungs of a
ladder, at regular intervals on the order of 4 to 12 inches (100 to 300 mm).
Ladder and ventilated trays may have solid covers to protect cables from falling
objects, dust, and water. Tray covers for use outdoors or in dusty locations
may have a peaked shape to shed debris including dust, ice or snow. Lighter
cable trays are more appropriate in situations where a great number of small
cables are used, such as for telephone or computer network cables. These trays
may be made of wire mesh, called "cable basket", [2] or be designed in the form
of a single central spine (rail) with ribs to support the cable on either side.
Channel Tray provides an economical support for cable drops and branch cable
runs from the backbone cable tray system. Channel cable tray is used for
installations with limited numbers of tray cable when conduit is undesirable. [3]
Large power cables laid in the tray may require support blocks to maintain
spacing between conductors, to prevent overheating of the wires. Smaller
cables may be laid unsecured in horizontal trays, or secured with cable ties to
the bottom of vertically mounted trays.
To maintain support of cables at changes of elevation or direction of a tray, a
large number of specialized cable tray fittings are made compatible with each
style and manufacturer. Horizontal elbows change direction of a tray in the
same plane as the bottom of the tray and are made in 30, 45 and 90 degree
forms; inside and outside elbows are for changes perpendicular to the tray
bottom. These can be in various shapes including tees and crosses. Some
manufacturers and types provide adjustable elbows, useful for field-fitting a
tray around obstacles or around irregular shapes.
Various clamping, supporting and splicing accessories are used with the cable
tray to provide a complete functional tray system. For example, different sizes
of cable tray used within one run can be connected with reducers.
A raceway (sometimes referred to as a raceway system) is an enclosed conduit
that forms a physical pathway for electrical wiring. Raceways protect wires and
cables from heat, humidity, corrosion, water intrusion and general physical
threats.
Article 100 of the NEC defines 14 specific types of products as “raceway.”
However, cable tray is one exception that is not considered a “raceway” as
defined by the NEC because cable tray is an “open” structural system that does
not enclose the cable
A power cable is an electrical cable, an assembly of one or more electrical
conductors, usually held together with an overall sheath. The assembly is used
75
for transmission of electrical power. Power cables may be installed as
permanent wiring within buildings, buried in the ground, run overhead, or
exposed
COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID WHEN INSTALLING CABLING NETWORKS
Any network technician knows setting up cable networks is nothing short of

finicky. Running cables to install a network can, and often does, involve
working indoors, outdoors, and even in small, constricted spaces. Add to that
the fact that installations themselves can also be taxing and laborious - even
the most experienced experts are guilty of the occasional slipup. However,
inadequately fitted cabling can disrupt network performance; resulting in
maintenance headaches, and extra hidden costs.
To circumvent potential network errors and reduce the risk of expensive errors,
here are a few of the most common mistakes technicians make when installing
networks, and what can be done to avoid them.
Poor Planning
Maybe you’re only allocated 100Mbps, even though 1Gbps is the norm. Or
what if the company you’re installing the network in is planning to move to new
offices in the next year? How does that influence your installation strategy?
Either way, avoid going for out dated cabling technology or stick with
something that meets current requirements (and will continue to do so) over
the next few years at least. Even though top-of-the-line cables won’t be the
least expensive selection, it’s imperative to consider its merits based on the job,
even if you don’t go for it in the end. After all, most organizations won’t need
76
anything more powerful than 10 Gbps for some time, but certainly don’t go for
the cheapest option either. You get what you pay for.
Whatever the situation or requirements, knowing them in advance and
being prepared is a key to an efficient, successful network cable installation.
Electrical Cables Running Alongside Network Cabling
Anyone who’s performed a few network cable installations will have
noticed that most offices have a lot of electrical wiring. It’s imperative that you
never lay data cables parallel to this electrical wiring.
A lot of network cables will consist of twisted pairs (or wiring that has
two conductors twisted together to cancel out any electromagnetic interference
from external sources) – preventing cables from affecting one another. However,
they have a magnetic field generated from the small amount of voltage that’s
coursing through them. When network cables are installed alongside electric
cables, it raises the likelihood of said magnetic field being interrupted,
resulting in an inferior quality signal and / or a sluggish network.
Not Following Applicable Network Cabling Laws and Regulations
To ensure that you have the right network set up, following the
compulsory standards is essential – acting as a defense against the myriad of
potential issues that could exist within a network. That being said, there are
still companies making the same, non-compliant errors when installing their
cabling networks.
Overlooking the laws and regulations though, is not a risk worth taking.
For instance, if for any reason, the fire risk is higher to occupants in a certain
building, PVC cables should not be used, as they are well known to react badly
and emit toxic hydrogen chloride gas when alight. Were these cables to be
used in a high risk building and a fire broke out, even if nobody was injured as
a result, the organization would still be subject to malpractice fines and libel to
remove the already installed cables.
So make sure you are up-to-date on all the entire network cabling
compliance rules and regulations before starting work on any installations.
Ignoring Distance Limitations
Most technicians will know that the accepted distance limitations for
UTP cabling (up to 1 Gbps) is 100 metres. That said, if cables are being run for
additional purposes, like 10 Gbps or even 40 Gbps, take note of the distance
limitations recommended with the type of cables used. If a 10 Gbps is run up
to 100 metres over twisted pair cabling for example, it’s imperative to use a
Category 6A or better cabling.
Skipping the Testing Phase
Anytime cabling is installed, every cable should be tested with
the appropriate tools to ensure that it is suitable for the required use. This
includes authenticating the length and cable specifications as well.
Not only does testing verify that the system meets the project specifications, it
also offers a starting point for all testing and troubleshooting of the system in
future - supporting the assessment of any warranty claims.
77
Self- Check 2.1-5
Test I. Enumeration (30points)

Instruction: Answer the questions below.
1. Which type of network cable is commonly used to connect office computers

to the local network?
2. What types of cables used in networking?
3. How many types of cables are used in computer networking?
4. How do I connect a network cable?
5. What is the most common type of cable used in networking?

5s and 3R’s
After reading the information sheet, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Know and learn the Principles of 5s and 3R’s
2. Apply the different procedures and steps in applying the %s and
3R’s.
Introduction:
Follow The 3 R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
78
R3 reminds you to follow the 3 R’s--Reduce, Reuse and Recycle!
Can you think of other ways you can reduce, reuse or recycle?
Tell us about them - post your comments at the end of this article.
REDUCE – throw away less by buying only what you need and by buying fewer
disposable and over-packaged products.
1. Use washable dishes instead of paper plates and cups.
2. Use a reusable water bottle instead of single serve water bottles.
3. Bring your own bag to the grocery store.
4. Pack a litterless lunch with only containers that can be recycled or
washed.
5. Have furniture, toys and appliances repaired instead of tossing them and
getting new ones.
REUSE – use items over and over or give gently used items to others.
1. Reuse containers, bags boxes, tubs, cups, bottles and jars over and over
before discarding or recycling.
2. Pass down outgrown clothing, books and toys to younger brothers and
sisters, donate to charity or have a yard sale.
3. Collect rain water in a rain barrel to use to water the garden.
4. Take “garbage” and make it into something new to use or to play with.
5. Take your food scraps and yard waste and start a compost bin in your
backyard.
RECYCLE – as much as you can by collecting recyclable materials to be

picked up at the curb or taken to a drop-off location and made into new
products.
1. Collect paper and beverage containers and find the best way to recycle
them in your community so they can be made into recycled paper and
new beverage containers.
2. Have your school work with a recycling partner to collect and recycle ink
jet cartridges, cell phones, bottle caps or aluminum tabs.
3. Collect aluminum cans and take to your local metal recycler for
redemption.
4. Look for the recycling symbol and buy recycled products like recycled
content paper, cards, and paper towels.
5. Encourage your parents to look for recycling centers that accept things
like tires, batteries, motor oil, paints, and electronics for recycling too.
79
Why should we bother to reduce, reuse and recycle?
It’s easy – Most localities have curbside pick-up or drop-off locations for your
recyclables. Contact your locality to find out what you can recycle and where,
and recycle more or start today.
It saves natural resources – Plastic is made from petroleum, aluminum
from an ore called bauxite, tin cans from mostly steel, and paper from trees.
Recycling these materials means fewer natural resources need to be mined or
harvested. Glass, steel, aluminum and plastic can be recycled over and over
again.
It saves money – Recycling saves fuel and transportation costs and
saves on garbage disposal fees.
It saves energy – Recycling just one aluminum can instead of making it
from scratch saves enough energy to run a computer for 3 hours.
It saves landfill space – Our landfills are getting full. Putting only
materials that can’t be reused or recycled in the trash will make landfills last
longer. Plastic, aluminum, paper, and other recyclable materials do us no good
trapped in a landfill.
It reduces pollution and protects the environment – Recycling
reduces air and water pollution and mining waste because it uses less energy
and causes less damage to land and water than mining and harvesting.
5S: SORT, SET, SHINE, STANDARDIZE, SUSTAIN
The philosophy of 5S represents a way of focusing and thinking
in order to better organize and manage workspace, specifically by
eliminating the 8 Wastes as defined by the Lean Manufacturing
system. It is one of the most widely used and fundamental
components of Lean Manufacturing. It’s simple; common-sense
application is highly effective and reliable as a stabilizing force in
Lean strategies.
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The philosophy of 5S represents a way of focusing and thinking in order
to better organize and manage workspace, specifically by eliminating the 8
Wastes as defined by the Lean Manufacturing system. It is one of the most
widely used and fundamental components of Lean Manufacturing. It’s simple,
common-sense application is highly effective and reliable as a stabilizing force
in Lean strategies.
5S stands for two sets of words: one in Japanese and one in English.
They are:
1. Seiri – Sort
2. Seiton – Set in Order
3. Seiso – Shine
4. Seiketsu – Standardize
5. Shitsuke – Sustain
Let’s take a closer look at each of these steps and how they can benefit
the manufacturing process or other system in need of more efficient and waste-
free operations.
Sort – This step focuses on the elimination of any unnecessary workplace

clutter. In a process called “red tagging,” all workplace items are sorted
through, with a red tag placed on any that are not absolutely necessary for
completing a task. Once tools, supplies, materials and equipment have been
tagged, they are then relocated to a holding area for a follow up evaluation.
Items that are only seldom used can be stored closer in proximity to the
workspace, while obsolete clutter should be discarded.
Sorting’s benefits include: a more effective use of space, simplified tasks,
a reduction in hazards, and a significant decrease in distracting clutter.
Set in Order – The goal of this step is to examine methods of storage
that are effective and efficient, sometimes referred to as “visual management,”
and then create a work environment that is organized, ergonomic, uncluttered
and easily navigable. Some question to ask during this step might be: Which
specific items are needed to perform a task? How many items need to be readily
accessible and where should they be located?
The methodical storage of materials means that every item has a
predetermined location where it will remain until it used, and then it will be
returned immediately following its use. Labels and color coding are also helpful
techniques to use in this step. With an organized and efficient use of storage,
everyone is easily able to locate important items and enjoy a less stressful work
environment.
Shine – With the clutter gone and the storage organized, the next step is
to properly and thoroughly clean the work area every day. This step is critical
as a way of sustaining the improvements begun in the Sort and Set phases. All
storage areas, machines, equipment, tools and work surfaces must be cleaned
and checked regularly. Employees will feel more comfortable in this clean and
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uncluttered environment, which could also lead to increased ownership of the
organization’s goals and vision.
Standardize – Now that the first three steps are in play, it’s time to
standardize these new practices. All employees need to be included in the
creation of a set of standards that will become the new norm for the workspace.
When these new standards and best practices are implemented, the old habits
will soon die out and be replaced by the more efficient patterns of behavior.
New standards, however, will probably require some oversight and enforcement
until they are habitual; reminders such as visuals and emails are effective tools
to help these new standards become set in stone.
Sustain – The final step of 5S is certainly the most challenging:
remaining disciplined enough to sustain the positive changes made in the first
three steps. It is critical that the new system be maintained or the efforts and
costs put into developing the new system will be pointless. By putting a formal
system in place that includes regular training and communication, employees
will be able to comfortably conform to the company’s 5S procedures.
The 5S system is not complicated to understand; the challenges lie in
successfully implementing the steps and sustaining the practices. Among other
things, a successful 5S implementation will improve workplace safety, develop
self-esteem among employees and reduce training time for new employees.
Self–Check 2.1-6
Test I. Enumeration. (25 points )
Instruction: Answer the question.
1. What are the benefits of 5s?
2. What are the 5 elements of 5s?
3. What are the advantages of reuse?
4. How does recycling save energy and money?
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NETWORKING HARDWARE
1. Identify the names and distinguishing features of different devices used in
networking.
2. Understand the functions and purposes of the devices present in networking.
Introduction:
Networking Hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface

cards and other equipment needed to perform data-processing and
communications within the network.
This section provides information on the following components:
1. File/Network Servers
One or more network servers is a part of nearly every local area network.
These are very fast computers with a large amount of RAM and storage space,
along with a one or more fast network interface card(s). The network operating
system provides tools to share server resources and information with network
users. A sophisticated permissions-handling system is included, so that access
to sensitive information can be carefully tailored to the needs of the users. For
small networks, a single network server may provide access control, file
sharing, printer sharing, email, database, and other services.
The network server may be responding to requests from many network
users simultaneously. For example, it may be asked to load a word processor
program to one workstation, receive a database file from another workstation,
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and store an e-mail message during the same time period. This requires a
computer that can store and quickly share large amounts of information. When
configuring such a server, budget is usually the controlling factor.
The following guidelines should be followed:
 Fastest processor(s)
 Large amount of RAM
 multiple large, fast hard drives
 Extra expansion slots
 Fast network interface card(s)
Optionally (if no other such devices are available on the network):
 A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve large amounts of data(even

after a disk failure)
 A back-up unit (i.e. DAT tape drive, removable hard drives, or CD/DVD/BluRay burner)
2. Workstations
Computers that humans use are broadly categorized as workstations. A typical
workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card,
networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not
necessarily need large storage hard drives, because files can be saved on the
file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.
3. Laptops/Mobile Devices
Laptops and other mobile devices are

becoming more and more common. These
devices typically have modest internal storage, but enough power to serve as a
workstation for users on the go. These machines nearly always have a wireless
adapter to allow quick network connections without cumbersome cabling. In a
school environment with good wireless coverage, a mobile device user can move
about the campus freely, and remain continuously connected to the network.
4. Network Interface Cards
The Network Interface Card (NIC) provides the physical connection
between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal,
and they are included in the purchase of most computers. Network interface
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cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a
network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type
of workstation you are using.
The following are the most common network interface connections:
1. Ethernet Cards
Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although
additional ethernet cards can be purchased and installed on most computers.
Ethernet cards can contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair
cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection
will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.
Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach
coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this
method is used there is always an external transceiver attached to the
workstation. Only the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern ethernet
cards .
Fig. 1. Ethernet card.
From top to bottom: RJ-45, AUI, and BNC connectors
2. Wireless Adapters
Wireless adapters are found in most portable devices, such as laptops,

smart phones, and tablet devices. External wireless adapters can be purchased
and installed on most computers having an open USB (Universal Serial Bus)
port, or unused expansion slot.
5. Switches
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An Ethernet Switch is a device that provides a central connection point
for cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology,
twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most
switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from
one device to another. The predecessor of the switch was the hub, which
broadcasted all inbound packets out all ports of the device, creating huge
amounts of unnecessary network traffic. Modern switches build a port map of
all IP address which respond on each port, and only broadcasts on all ports
when it doesn't have a packet's target IP address already in its port map.
Switches are:
 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Available as "managed" or "unmanaged", with the later less expensive, but adequate for
smaller networks
 direct replacements for hubs, immediately reducing network traffic in most networks
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store network
servers, bridges, or routers.
6. Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often

necessary to boost the signal with a device called a Repeater. The repeater
electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can
be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator. They are
used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for
the type of cable being used.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network
using a star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for
unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most common configuration
is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-port
active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass
through it allowing for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the
100 meter limit.
7. Bridges
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A Bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme
and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.
A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so
that it can pass packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can
"listen" to the network and automatically figure out the address of each
computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each message
and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.
The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on
both sides of the network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at
a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both
sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges
can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They
must, however, be used between networks with the same protocol.
8. Routers
Routers are the traffic directors of the global internet. All routers
maintain complex routing tables which allow them to determine appropriate
paths for packets destined for any address. Routers communicate with each
other, and forward network packets out of or into a network.
While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the
network, routers know the addresses other routers which in turn know about
their own networks. Routers can even "listen" to entire networks to determine
which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections
until traffic congestion clears.
So, routers are network gateways. They move network packets from
one network to another, and many can convert from one network protocol to
another as necessary. Routers select the best path to route a message, based
on the destination address of the packet. The router can direct traffic to
prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic
along back roads and shortcuts.
9. Firewalls
A Firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a
LAN when connecting a networks together, particularly when connecting a
private network to a public network, such as the internet. The firewall uses
rules to filter traffic into and out of the private network, to protect the private
network users and data from malevolent hackers.
Firewalls are either hardware or software, depending on their intended
use. A firewall used to protect a network is a hardware device that should be
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installed in the network between the router and the network. Almost all
hardware firewalls will have at least two ports, labeled "Trusted" and
"Untrusted". These terms imply the true nature of the firewall's responsibility
to the private network. The public network is connected to the untrusted
network port, and the private network is connected to the trusted port.
Firewall rules are usually simple, consisting of a verb, either allow or
deny, the direction of the traffic, either inbound or outbound, and an address
or other network traffic identifier. Firewall rules are cumulative, so general
rules may be specified, and exceptions added as necessary. Some examples
are:
 Allow outbound all (all private network users can do anything on the public network)
 Deny inbound all (default setting to prevent all traffic from the public or untrusted port,
to the private port)
 Allow inbound port 80 (allow internet web traffic to come into network to find web
servers)
 Allow inbound port 80 destined to 170.200.201.25 (allow inbound web traffic to a
specific web server on your private network)
 Deny inbound from 201.202.1.1/24 (deny all inbound traffic from a specific IP address or
range of addresses)
Software firewalls are commonly included in modern workstation and server
operating systems. They operate in a similar way as hardware firewalls, except
that they filter traffic in and out of the machine itself. These software firewalls
are typically unnoticed by machine users, and only need attention occasionslly
when an internet-connected application don't work as expected. The software
firewall should always be considered a "suspect" in such cases. The problem is
easily resolved, by setting an exception rule in the firewall for the software that
is attempting to communicate.
APU2 2NIC - Hardware Firewall
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Self- Check 2.2-1
IDENTIFICATION: Identify the following Network Hardware and give its

functions. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering.
1. ___________________ 2. ___________________
3. ___________________ 4. ___________________
5_________________
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NETWORK DESIGN
1. Identify different types of network topology.
2. Differentiate and understand the concept of each topology.
Introduction:
Network is a collection of computers and related equipment (printers,
webcams, game consoles, etc.) connected so that data can move between them.
The majority of networking is done using the internet standard. At the center
of the basic diagram of a wired network is either a hub or a switcher and
computers are connected to the hub, much like spokes of a wheel or star. Each
connection at the hub is called a port.
Three Basic Network Categories
1. Local Area Network (LAN) – is the smallest of the three network types, consist of PCs
connected together within a limited area, such as within the same building, floor or
department.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – are network that spans no more than 50 miles. It is
design to connect LANs spanning a town or city
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) – is used to distribute information thousands of miles among
thousands of users.
Network Design -refers to the planning of the implementation of a computer network
infrastructure. It involves evaluating, understanding and scoping the network to be
implemented. Typically, network design includes the following:
 Logical map of the network to be designed
 Cabling structure
 Quantity, type and location of network devices (router, switches, servers)
 IP addressing structure
 Network security architecture and overall network security processes
Network Topologies – is a topology defining the arrangement of nodes (sender and receiver),
cables and connectivity devices that makeup the network. In order words can say, topology is
the geometric arrangement of workstation and the links among them.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
1. BUS TOPOLOGY
It is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus
topology.
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Features of Bus Topology:
1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology:
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
2. RING TOPOLOGY
This topology is called Ring Topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
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Features of Ring Topology:
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in
them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through
each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
3. STAR TOPOLOGY
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology:

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology:
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
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Disadvantages of Star Topology:
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
4. MESH TOPOLOGY
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected to each other.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:
1. Routing: In Routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network
requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the
destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can
even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
2. Flooding: In Flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network
nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust, andit’s
very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the
network.
Types of Mesh Topology:

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology:
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
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Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
5. TREE TOPOLOGY
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called Hierarchical Topology. It should at least have three
levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology:

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology:
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
6. HYBRID TOPOLOGY
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (Ring Topology and Star
Topology).
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Features of Hybrid Topology:
1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Self- Check 2.2-2
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Write the letter of the correct answer on the space
provided.
______1. It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called Hierarchical Topology.
a. Star Topology c. Mesh Topology
b. Tree Topology d. Archery Topology
______2. A type of Mesh Topology wherein each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other.
a. Partial Mesh Topology c. Miss Topology
b. Connected Mesh Topology d. Full Mesh Topology
______3. Which of the following is not the Advantages of Bus Topology?
a. It is cost effective.
b. Used in small networks.
c. It is not easy to understand.
d. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
______4. A Topology which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
a. Hybrid Topology c. Poly-Topology
b. Upgrade Topology d. Bridging Topology
______5. Considered as the smallest of the three network types, consist of PCs
connected together within a limited area, such as within the same
building, floor or department.
a. MAN Network c. LAN Network
b. WAN Network d. Limited Network
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NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
1. Competently identify, analyze and describe client-server and peer-to-peer networks
2. Give advantages and disadvantages of each type of networking model.
Introduction:
Network architecture uses information to develop a high-level, end-to-end structure for the
network. It develops the major network functions (e.g., addressing/routing, network management,
performance, security) as architectural components that will be brought together to form the network;
goals for the architecture; and sets of interactions, trade-offs, dependencies, and constraints that will be
used to optimize the architecture. There usually is not a single “right” architecture or design for a
network; instead there are several that will work, some better than others. Network architecture also
provides a set of guidelines that can be used to formulate the technical design of a network.
The Network Architecture can be broken into 2 major parts:

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network
No server exist, and computer simply can connect with each other in a
workgroup to share files, a printer or Internet In other words, all nodes are
equal and any node can talk to any other node.
Advantages:
 Easier to setup
 Not dependent on a single node
 More resilient
 Better distribution of network traffic
 No central administrator required
 Less expensive hardware required
Disadvantages:
 Less secure and more difficult to secure
 More difficult to administer
 More difficult to backup
 More difficult to locate information.
No node has any special role. This was the original networking model of
windows networking. (windows for Workgroups) - Diagram below:
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A Modern example of Peer to Peer networking is BitTorrent.
Although this networking model isn’t currently popular it could become more
popular with the Internet of things (IOT).
2. Client-Server
In this model, a server has a special role e.g file server, domain
controller, web server etc.A client connects to a server to use the
appropriate services.
This is the networking model used on the web and the Internet and on
modern large Windows networks - Diagram below:
Advantages:
 Easy to find resources as they are on a dedicated node i.e. A server
 Easy to secure
 Easy to administer
 Easy to backup
Disadvantages:
 Servers are a single point of failure
 Expensive hardware required
 Network traffic get concentrated
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A Modern example of Client Server networking is the Web. Facebook,
Twitter, Google search and many other web services use this networking
model.
Self- Check 2.2-3
TRUE or FALSE: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is

wrong on the space provided.
____________1. Client-Server Networking Model is less secure and more difficult to secure.
____________2. Peer-to-Peer Networking Model has no server exist.
____________3. A server serves as file server only.
____________4. Peer-to-Peer considers as the original Networking Model of

windows networking (windows for Workgroups).
____________5. Laptop can be used as a Client in networking.

CONFIGURING A PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK FOR WINDOWS 7
1. Configure IP address; change Computer Name and Workgroup, and Network Location
either through Wired or Wireless Network.
2. Configure a Home Group Network
Introduction:
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) networking has generated tremendous interest

worldwide among both Internet surfers and computer networking
professionals. P2P computing is the sharing of computer resources and
services by direct exchange between systems. These resources and services
include the exchange of information, processing cycles, cache storage, and disk
storage for files. P2P computing takes advantage of existing computing power,
computer storage and networking connectivity, allowing users to leverage their
collective power to the ‘benefit’ of all.
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For wired networks, it requires only the following:
 Each computer must have a network interface card (NIC), such as an internal network adapter, a
USB network adapter, a motherboard-based network chip, or a network PC Card.
 Must have an external router or switch.
 Must activate Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP) on the router. DHCP automatically assigns
unique IP addresses to each computer on the network.
 Each computer must have a network cable running from the NIC to a port in the router (or
switch).
 If having a high-speed modem, it must run a network cable from the Internet (or WAN) port in
the router to the network port in the modem. This ensures that every computer on the network
can share the Internet connection.
 Each computer must have a unique name.
 Each computer must use the same workgroup name.
For wireless networks, the configuration is more or less the same (except, of course, you don't
need to run a network cable from each computer to the router).
Here are the differences for a wireless network:
 Each computer must have a NIC that supports wireless connections.

 You must have a wireless access point or gateway that also doubles as a router.
 During the initial configuration, one computer must connect to the access point via a network
cable. This enables you to configure the access point before the wireless connection is
established.
NOTE: Networks don't have to be exclusively wired or wireless. In fact, it's quite common to have a
mixture of the two connection types. Most wireless access points come with a few ports to accept wired
connections.
Caution Some broadband providers are using "smart" modems that include routing and firewall
features. That's fine, but these modems almost always have a static IP address, and that address is
usually either http://192.168.1.1 or http://192.168.0.1, which might conflict with your wireless
gateway's IP address. If you have connection problems after adding the wireless gateway, the likely
culprit is an IP address conflict. Disconnect the broadband modem, access the gateway's configuration
program, and change its IP address (to, say, http://192.168.1.2 or http://192.168.0.2).
Steps in Network Configuration:

1. CONFIGURING THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL
After the network adapters are all installed—and, if you’re using a wired
network, cabled together—you need to ensure that each computer is assigned
an IP address. This is a number that uniquely identifies each computer on the
network. These numbers are assigned in one of the following ways:
 If the network has a computer that uses Windows Internet Connection
Sharing to share an Internet connection, if you have a hardware Internet
sharing router, or if you are on a corporate LAN running Windows
Server, each computer will be assigned an IP address automatically—
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they’re doled out by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
service that runs on the sharing computer or in the router. This is why it
is recommend using a router even if those aren’t setting up a shared
Internet connection.
By default, Windows sets up new network adapters to receive an address
this way. If your network fits into this category, you don’t have to change
any settings, and you can just skip ahead to the section “If You Have a
Shared Internet Connection.”
 Each computer can be given an address manually, which is called
a Static Address as opposed to a dynamic (automatic) one. If you are not
going to use a router or a shared Internet connection, you should set up
static addressing. I tell you how shortly.
 If no static settings are made but no DHCP server exists on the network,
Windows automatically assigns IP addresses anyway. Although the
network will work, this is not an ideal situation and can slow Windows
down.
If No Shared Internet Connection
If you’re setting up a new network from scratch, and you do not have a
connection sharing computer, router, or wireless access point, you should use
static addressing. If your computer will be part of an existing network with
predetermined IP addresses, your network manager will provide you with the
setup information.
Otherwise, for most home and small office networks, the following static
address scheme should work fine:
IP Address 192.168.1.1 for your first computer,
192.168.1.2 for your second computer,
192.168.1.3 for your third, and so on.
I strongly suggest that you keep a list of your computers and the addresses that
you assign to each of them.
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway (Leave blank)
Preferred DNS Server (Leave blank)
Alternate DNS Server (Leave blank)
Follow these steps on each computer to ensure that the network is set up correctly:
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1. Log on using a Computer Administrator account. Click Start, Control Panel, View Network Status
and Tasks (under Network and Internet), Change Adapter Settings. Right-click the Local Area
Connection or Wireless Connection icon that corresponds the LAN connection and select
Properties.
Tip: If your computer will move back and forth between a network that
uses automatic configuration and a network that uses static settings—
say,between work and home—select Obtain An IP Address
Automatically (refer to Figure 2 – Obtain IP address setting). A tab
named Alternate Configuration will appear. Select the Alternate
Configuration tab and configure the static settings. Windows will use
these static settings only when a DHCP server is not present
2. Highlight Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) and click Properties.
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3. Change the settings in the Properties dialog box. Figure 1 shows an example, but you must use the
address values appropriate for your computer and your network.
Figure 1. Make IP address settings within the Internet Protocol Version 4

(TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box.
Figure 2.Obtain IP address settings within the Internet Protocol Version 4

(TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box.
If with Shared Internet Connection
As I mentioned previously, if you plan to share an Internet connection with all
the computers on your network. Keep the following tips in mind:
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 If you will use Windows Internet Connection Sharing, first set up the one
computer that will be sharing its connection, then set up networking in
your other computers.
Note: If you add a shared Internet connection later, go to every one of
your computers, bring up the TCP/IP Properties dialog box shown
in Figure 2 again, and select Obtain an IP Address Automatically and
Obtain DNS Server Address Automatically. Otherwise, the shared
connection will not work.
 All the computers, including the one sharing its Internet connection,
should have their Local Area Network connection set up to Obtain an IP
Address Automatically and Obtain DNS Server Address Automatically
 If you will use a hardware router, configure the router first, following the
manufacturer’s instructions. Enable its DHCP feature. If you can, set the
starting DHCP IP address to 100 so that numbers from 2 to 99 can be
used for computers with static settings. Also, if your ISP has provided
you with static IP address settings, be sure to enter your ISP’s DNS
server addresses in the router’s setup screens so it can pass them to the
computers that rely on the router for their IP setup.
2. CHOOSING YOUR NETWORK LOCATION
When connecting to a new network for the first time, Windows 7 will prompt
you to choose a network location. The type of location selected determines the
Windows Firewall settings that are applied and the networking features that
will be available.
The following three network location choices are available:
 Home Network — is one where you trust the other computers on the
network. (That is, you trust the people using the other computers.) File
and printer sharing is enabled, as is Network Discovery, which makes
your computer visible to other users and makes their computers visible
to you. It’s possible to join a homegroup.
 Work Network — is like a Home network. Other computers are trusted.
File and printer sharing and Network Discovery are enabled. It’s not
possible to create a homegroup; so, if you are setting up a small office
network and want to use the HomeGroup system, feel free to set your
computer’s location to Home.
 Public Network — A Public network is one where you don’t trust the
other users or computers on the network. File and printer sharing and
Network Discovery are disabled on this network connection.
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Additional information:
Any connection that leads directly to the Internet without a firewall or

router in between must be designated a Public network to protect your
computer from the hackers and bad software “out there.” This goes for
dial-up Internet as well as Ethernet connections that plug into a cable or
DSL modem.
You should also select Public when you are connecting to any wired or
wireless network or Internet service in a hotel, Internet café, airport,
dorm, school, and so on, and even an office network belonging to a
client, customer, or anyone else whom you don’t want poking into your
computer.
Here’s a good rule of thumb: If you don’t need to use file sharing and printer
sharing in a given location, select the Public location.
Caution:
If you connect to a wireless or wired network that you’ve never used before and
Windows doesn’t quickly prompt you to select the network location type,
change the location manually, using the following procedure:
1. Click Start, Network and Internet, View Network Status and Tasks.
2. Locate the icon for the active network connection and click the Home
Network, Work Network, or Public Network label next to the icon.
3. Select the correct network location.
3. SETTING YOUR COMPUTER IDENTIFICATION
After configuring the network, the next step is to make sure that each of the computers on your network
is a member of the same domain or workgroup. Likewise, to implement a flawless Windows 7 network,
each computer must have a unique name.
Note:
 Your domain administrator must know about your new computer and
create a computer account for it before you try to add your computer to
the domain.
If you are part of a Windows domain-type network, your system administrator
will give you the information you need to set your computer identification.
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If you are setting up your own network of Windows computers without
Windows Server, click Start, right-click Computer, and select Properties. Look
at the “Computer Name, Domain, and Workgroup settings” section on each
of the computers on your network. Do they each have a different full computer
name and the same workgroup name? If so, you’re all set.
If not, click Change Settings, click the Network ID button, and prepare to
answer the wizard’s questions. Click Next on the wizard’s first screen. You are
asked to select the option that best describes your computer:
 This Computer Is Part of a Business Network; I Use It to Connect to
Other Computers at Work.
 This Computer Is a Home Computer; It’s Not Part of a Business Network.
Note: If you use the Home Computer option, be sure that all your computers
are set up the same way, with the workgroup name WORKGROUP. Otherwise,
you’ll have trouble working with the other computers on your network.
Which one you choose makes a significant difference. If you choose the “Home
Computer” option, the wizard sets up your computer for peer-to-peer
networking with the workgroup name WORKGROUP and finishes.
If you choose the “Business Network” option, Windows configures your
computer for a higher standard of security than it will for home use.
The wizard next asks you to choose from one of the following responses:
 My Company Uses a Network With a Domain
 My Company Uses a Network Without a Domain
If you are joining an existing domain network managed by Windows Server,
check With a Domain (but you should consult with your network manager
first).
Caution: You must be sure that every computer on your network
uses the same workgroup name if you want them to be able to easily
share files and printers.
Otherwise, if you are building your own network, select Without a Domain and
click Next.
The last question asks for a name for the network workgroup. Leave the default
setting WORKGROUP in place.
Click Next and then click Finish to complete the setup. You need to let
Windows restart your computer if you changed any of the settings or names.
Here are the steps to follow to change the computer name and workgroup name in Windows 7:
1. Click Start, type system properties computer name in the Search bar, and press Enter. Or after
pressing the Start button, right-click the Computer, then choose Properties.
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2. Click Change settings. the System Properties dialog box appears with the Computer Name tab
displayed. Click Change.
3. The Computer Name/Domain Changes dialog box appears, as shown in Figure below.
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4. Type the computer name.
5. Select the Workgroup option and type the common workgroup name.
6. Click OK. Windows 7 tells you that you must restart the computer to put the changes into effect.
7. Click OK to return to the System Properties dialog box.
8. Click Close. Windows 7 prompts you to restart your computer.
9. Click Restart Now.
5. SETTING UP A HOMEGROUP
Windows 7 has a new networking feature called Home Group that can
make sharing files, folders, printers, and music/video media very easy. What a
homegroup does is let each user decide whether or not to share specific
categories of documents, music, video, printers, and so on, or even specific
folders and files. Once shared, every user on every computer in the home group
can see the items, without worrying about passwords or usernames. It’s all just
there, organized, and easy to get to.
Home Group networking works by setting up a password that is used to join each computer to
the group. Once a computer has been made a member of the home group, any user on any of the
member computers can see any of the group’s shared folders and printers.
Is a home group right for you? Consider these points to decide whether or not
to use this new feature:
 The Home Group feature works only with Windows 7 computers.
Computers running Windows Vista, XP, Mac OS, Linux, and so on can
still use folders and printers shared by computers in the home group if
you take some additional steps.
 Likewise, Windows 7 computers that aren’t members of the home group
can still access the folders and printers shared by the group’s member
computers, if you take those same additional steps.
 Within a home group, you can’t decide individually which other users
can see your shared stuff and which users can’t. Anybody who can use a
computer that’s a member of the home group can use the content that
you decide to share.
Note: If you have a computer that is part of a domain network when you
connect at work, you can still join it to your homegroup at home. You’ll
be able to use folders and printers shared by other computers in the
home group, but you won’t be able to share any of your computer’s
folders with the group.
What you can control is whether to share your stuff or not, and
whether the other users can just view and use your stuff or modify,
delete, and add to it.
To set up a Home Group, log on to one of your Windows 7 computers and
perform the following steps:
1. Click Start, Control Panel, Choose Home group and Sharing Options (under Network and Internet).
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2. Click Create a Home group.
3. Select which types of your content you want to share with everyone else in the home group, as
shown in Figure 2. Check Pictures, Documents, Music, and/or Videos to let other users see your
files. Check Printers to share your computer’s printer(s) with other computers in the Home Group.
When you’ve made your selections, click Next.
Figure 2. Select the types of files you want to share with everyone else in
the home group. This selection applies only to your own files—other users
get to choose for themselves what they want to share.
4. Windows will create the home group settings, and will display a password as shown in Figure 3. You
might want to jot it down, as you’ll need it to join your other Windows 7 computers to the home
group. Upper- and lowercase matter, by the way. Click Finish to complete the process.
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Figure 3. The Home Group password consists of a series of letters and
numbers that are case sensitive. You’ll need it when you join other computers
to the home group. But don’t worry about losing it; Windows can display it for
you later on.
5. We suggest that you use the random home group password that Windows generated for you. You
don’t have to worry about remembering it, because any member computer can redisplay it for you
whenever you want. But if you really want to change it, you can, and now is the time. Click Change
the Password, and then when the pop-up box appears, confirm by clicking Change the Password
there too. Type in a new password. (Remember that any member computer can view it, so don’t use
your personal password.) Click Next, then Finish.
Now, working on other computers:
6. You or another computer owner should go to another Windows 7 computer on your network, log
on, and click Start, Control Panel, Choose Home group and Sharing Options, Join Now.
7. Select the types of files that this computer user wants to share with the rest of the HomeGroup.
Then, click Next.
8. Enter the Home Group password and click Next. (If you don’t have it written down, go to a computer
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that’s already a member, and click Start, Control Panel, Choose Home group and Sharing Options,
View or Print the Home group Password.) Finally, click Finish.
Repeat steps 6 through 8 on any other Windows 7 computers that you want to
join to the home group.
Each user on each computer will have to log on and decide which of their materials they want to share
with the home group. Until they do, their names won’t appear in the Home group listing in Windows
Explorer.
6. ALTERNATIVES TO USING A HOMEGROUP
Home Group security gives anyone in the group access to any shared
folder or printer. If you need to restrict access to shared folders and printers on
a user-by-user basis, or if you have computers that don’t run Windows 7, you
might not want to set up a Home Group, but instead use the traditional
Windows file sharing scheme. There are two ways you can configure traditional
sharing:
 If you have OSs other than Windows 7 on your network and you don’t
need per-user security, you can turn off Password Protected Sharing. To
do this, click Start, Control Panel, Choose Home group and Sharing
Options (under Network and Internet), Change Advanced Sharing
Settings, Turn Off Password Protected Sharing.
This makes any shared folder or printer available to anybody who can
connect to your network, with no passwords required at all.
 If you need to control in detail which users can use which shared files
and folders, leave Password Protected Sharing turned on (which is the
same as disabling Simple File Sharing on Windows XP). You will have to
set up the same user accounts with the same passwords on each of your
computers so that people can access shared folders and printers.
7. TO FIND OTHER COMPUTER ON SAME WORKGROUP/HOMEGROUP
Steps:
1. Click Start, then, Computer. It displays Computer window.
2. Click Network or Home group from the left side options to see the
computers successfully connected as appears below:
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Self- Check 2.2-4
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Write the letter of the correct answer on the space
provided.
______1. Which of following is NOT an option in Network Location?
a. Home Network c. Public Network
b. Work Network d. School Network
______2. Diana is exploring her laptop on how to change its Computer Name.
But it’s already 2 hours passed by; she wasn’t able to find it. Can we
really able to change the Computer Name of a Laptop?
a. No, because it is a default from the manufacturer.
b. No, because Diana is blind.
c. No, because the laptop will explore if you change the computer
name.
d. Yes, we can change whatever we want and it won’t cause any
damage to the laptop.
______3. A network where you don’t trust the other users or computers on the
network. File and printer sharing and Network Discovery are disabled
on this network connection.
a. Public Network c. Work Network
b. School Network d. Home Network
______4. IP Address a unique string of numbers separated by periods that
identifies each computer using the Internet Protocol to communicate
over a network. IP stands for ________.
a. Internet Prototype c. Internet Protocol
b. Intellectual Property d. Intellectual Protocol
______5. Tyler assigns a Workgroup name of “WARRIOR” from his computer. If
he wishes to add another two computers in a network, what
Workgroup name should he put on them?
a. WORKGROUP c. CHALLENGER
b. GROUPMATES d. WARRIOR
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Information Sheet 2.3.1
CONFIGURE CLIENT DEVICE SYSTEM SETTINGS
1. Differentiate what are the different types of network topology.
2.Configure client device system setting.
Introduction:
A computer network consists of two or more computers that are interconnected with each
other and share resources such as printers, servers, and hardware and exchange the data in the form
of files, facilitating electronic communication. Computers on a network can be connected through
twisted pair cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites or optical fiber cables. The first computer
network designed was the ‘Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)’ by the United
States Department of Defense. Since then, myriads of new computer networking technologies have
been designed.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology.This technology was

invented by Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was
standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.
Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has high
probability of data collision. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technology to detect collisions. On the
occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll back, wait for some
random amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.
Ethernet connector is,network interface card equipped with 48-bits MAC

address. This helps other Ethernet devices to identify and communicate with
remote devices in Ethernet.
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Traditional Ethernet uses 10BASE-T specifications.The number 10
depicts 10MBPS speed, BASE stands for baseband, and T stands for Thick
Ethernet. 10BASE-T Ethernet provides transmission speed up to 10MBPS and
uses coaxial cable or Cat-5 twisted pair cable with RJ-5 connector. Ethernet
follows star topology with segment length up to 100 meters. All devices are
connected to a hub/switch in a star fashion.
Fast-Ethernet
To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware

technologies, Ethernet extends itself as Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP,
Optical Fiber, and wirelessly too. It can provide speed up to 100 MBPS. This
standard is named as 100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5 twisted pair
cable. It uses CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the
Ethernet hosts and CSMA/CA (CA stands for Collision Avoidance) technique
for wireless Ethernet LAN.
Fast Ethernet on fiber is defined under 100BASE-FX standard which

provides speed up to 100 MBPS on fiber. Ethernet over fiber can be extended
up to 100 meters in half-duplex mode and can reach maximum of 2000
meters in full-duplex over multimode fibers.
Giga-Ethernet
After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its high speed status only for 3 years
till Giga-Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet provides speed up to 1000 mbits/seconds. IEEE802.3ab
standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables. IEEE802.3ah defines Giga-
Ethernet over Fiber.
Virtual LAN
LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media
in Ethernet create one single Broadcast domain and one single Collision
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domain. Introduction of switches to Ethernet has removed single collision
domain issue and each device connected to switch works in its separate
collision domain. But even Switches cannot divide a network into separate
Broadcast domains.
Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into

multiple Broadcast domains. Host in one VLAN cannot speak to a host in
another. By default, all hosts are placed into the same VLAN.
In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes.

Hosts in one VLAN, even if connected on the same Switch cannot see or speak
to other hosts in different VLANs. VLAN is Layer-2 technology which works
closely on Ethernet. To route packets between two different VLANs a Layer-3
device such as Router is required.
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A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both
physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies
could be same or different in a same network.
Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer,

switches or routers, servers connected back to back using a single piece of
cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to sending end of the
other and vice-versa.
If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network
and see each other as if they are connected directly.
Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or

cable.Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or
recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple
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forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other
devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other
devices stop functioning.
Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only
one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator
removes the data from the line.
Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub
device, using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the
following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
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As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails,
connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between
hosts, takes place through only the hub.Star topology is not expensive as to
connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.
Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other

machines, creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to
communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the data
travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
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Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every
connection in the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ
one more backup ring.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This

topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may
also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
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Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have
direct point-to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus
for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network
structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect
to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide
reliability to some hosts out of all.
Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of

network topology in use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network.

Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer
is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer
and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point
of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.
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All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between
them.Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire
network suffers even.though it is not the single point of failure. Every
connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into
unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring
topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end
hosts.Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents
Ring topology.
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Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every
link failure splits the network into two segments.Every intermediate host
works as relay for its immediate hosts.
Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is

said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all
the incorporating topologies.
The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The

combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-
chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology
and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is
the best example of largest Hybrid topology.
How to assign a Static IP Address in Windows 7, Windows 8 &

Windows 10.
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When organizing your home network it’s easier to assign each computerit’s own IP address than
using DHCP. Here we will take a look at doing it in XP, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8.x, and Windows 10.
If you have a home network with several computes and devices, it’s a good idea to assign each
of them a specific address. If you use DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), each computer will
request and be assigned an address every time it’s booted up. When you have to do troubleshooting on
your network, it’s annoying going to each machine to figure out what IP they have.
Using Static IPs prevents address conflicts between devices and allows you to manage them
more easily. Assigning IPs to Windows is essentially the same process, but getting to where you need to
be varies between each version.
To change the computer’s IP address in Windows, type network and sharing into the Search box
in the Start Menu and select Network and Sharing Center when it comes up. If you are in Windows 8.x it
will be on the Start Screen itself, like the screenshot at the top of this article. If you’re in Windows 7 or
10 it’ll be in the start menu.
Then when the Network and Sharing Center opens, click on Change
adapter settings. This will be the same on Windows 7 or 8.x or 10.
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Right-click on your local adapter and select Properties.
In the Local Area Connection Properties window highlight Internet

Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)then click the Properties button.
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Now select the radio button Use the following IP address and enter in the correct IP, Subnet
mask, and Default gateway that corresponds with your network setup. Then enter your Preferred and
Alternate DNS server addresses. Here we’re on a home network and using a simple Class C network
configuration and Google DNS.
Check Validate settings upon exit so Windows can find any problems with the addresses you
entered. When you’re finished click OK.
Now close out of the Local Area Connections Properties window.
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Windows will run network diagnostics and verify the connection is good.
Here we had no problems with it, but if you did, you could run the network
troubleshooting wizard.
Now you can open the command prompt and do an ipconfig to see the
network adapter settings have been successfully changed.
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Windows 7 - Converting from Static to Dynamic IP
NOTE: If you have information populated in your wireless connection properties window, please
take down this information before selecting the option for automatic IP address retrieval.
These instructions will also work on the Windows Vista operating system.
In order to use the Leeward CC Wirless service, you must have your computer set to DHCP
or Dynamic Hosting Control Protocol.
Normally most computers are already set to this when you connect to a wireless network,
however, there have been some cases where it needs to be changed to this protocol in order to obtain a
wireless connection. To accomplish this, follow the steps outlined below:
1.Click on the Start and type "Network and Sharing Center" (without quotes) and press ENTER. You will
then see the Network and Sharing Center. Click on the option Change adapter settings from the left
side of the screen.
2.The Network Connections window will appear. Right click your network adapter and selectProperties.
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3.The Wireless Network Connection Properties window will appear. Select Internet Protocol Version
4 from the options and click Properties.
4.Make sure the options Obtain an IP address automatically and Obtain DNS server address
automatically is selected.
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1. Click OK to close the window and close all other windows normally.
Self-Check 2.3-1
Multiple Choice
1. Ethernet based network uses what type of protocol when it comes to
collision detection.
a. DHCP b. TCP/IP c. CSMA/CD d. SMTP
2. How many total bits there are in a MAC address or Physical address of a
certain NIC of Network Interface Cards.
a. 128 bits b. 16 bits c. 48 bits d. 16 bits
3. In the Ethernet 10Based-T specifications, what is the number 10 represent
in terms of transmission speed?
a. 10Tb/s b. 10Gb/s c. 10Mb/s d. 10Pb/s
4. What is the most common jack being used for network data communication?
a. RJ-11 b. RJ-45 c. RJ-6 d. RJ-8
5.What is the maximum length of a UTP lan cable to be used for network data
communication?
a. 25 Meters b. 50 Meters c. 75 Meters d. 100 Meters
6.In the Fast-Ethernet 100Based-T specifications, what is the number 100
represent in terms of transmission speed?
7.In the Giga-Ethernet 1000Based-T specifications, what is the number 1000
represent in terms of transmission speed ?
8.What type of network topology where-in all nodes are directly connected to a
central switch/hub?
a. Star topology b. Ring topology c. Bus topology d. Full-Mesh topology
9.What type of network topology where-in all nodes are connected with each
other so that it resembles into a circular form?
a. Bus topology b. Ring topology c. Star topology d. Full-Mesh topology
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10. What type of network topology where-in all nodes share the same
communication cable and both ends are terminated using terminator?
a. Bus topology b. Ring topology c. Star topology d. Partial Mesh
11.What type of network topology where-in all nodes are connected with each
other or fully redundant system ?
a. Bus topology b. Ring topology c. Star topology d. Full-Mesh topology
12.Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star
topology and inherits properties of bus topology.a. Bus topology b. Tree
topology c. Star topology d. Full-Mesh topology
13.A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said
to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.
a. Bus topology b. Tree topology c. Star topology d. Hybrid topology
14. In building a LAN or Local Area Network, all computers should be assigned
what type of addresses?
a. MAC address b. IP address c. DNS address d. Home address
15. What type of IP protocol being used when implementing dynamic mode
networks?
a. DNS b. SMTP c. HTTP d. DHCP

CONFIGURE LOCAL AREA NETWORK PORT
1. Identify the different types/speed of LAN port.
2. Assigned the appropriate IP address to the LAN port.
Introduction:
In the early days of computing, individual computers operated as stand-alone systems. The
earliest personal computers did not have an easy way to connect to other computers. In order to
transfer files between computers, you had to use a portable storage medium such as a floppy disk;
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however, in modern-day computers, connecting to a network is essential. For example, you need to
connect to use e-mail, access information on the Internet, and share documents within a corporate
network.
A computer uses a network interface card (NIC) to become part of a network. The NIC contains
the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a wired connection (e.g., Ethernet) or a wireless
connection (e.g.,WiFi). A network interface card is also known as a network interface controller,
network adapter, or Local Area Network (LAN) adapter.
Early NICs typically consisted of an expansion card connected to a computer's motherboard. This
separate card contained the electronic circuitry and the physical connectors. Here's an example of a
typical NIC:
How to Create a Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN, or local area network, is a great way to share files and devices between multiple
computers. If you have several computers in your home, setting up a network will allow you to share an
Internet connection, data, printers, and other devices between your computers - all without wires.
Fortunately, the process is simple, and you can learn how to set up a LAN in your home by following a
few easy steps.
Step 1
Assess your needs in a network. The devices you use to set your network up will determine
your network's capabilities. You should address your needs in terms of cost, security, connection speed,
expandability (adding more computers or devices later) and distance between computers. In general,
you will need to keep all the computers in the network within 100 yards (91 m) of each other.
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Step 2
Ensure that your computers have wireless networking cards installed. In order to communicate
wirelessly with other computers in the network, each computer must have a wireless networking card. If
your computers are only a few years old, you are almost guaranteed to already have one built-in, as this
is a standard feature on all computers being produced today. If you have an older computer, you may
need to purchase and install a networking card.
Step 3
Set up an Internet connection. While LANs can be set up simply to share files between
computers without Internet connectivity, there is little benefit to doing so considering the cost of wiring
the entire network. To share an Internet connection between computers, you will first need a
broadband Internet connection (such as cable or DSL) set up for your primary computer. Contact a local
Internet service provider (ISP) to establish a connection if you don't already have one.
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Step 4
Purchase a wireless router. You will need to broadcast your Internet connection wirelessly, and for this,
you need a router. When buying a router, make sure you get one that is designed for your connection
type (cable, DSL, etc.). You should also consider the strength of the router's signal. The packaging will
describe how far you can expect the router's signal to broadcast. It will need to reach every computer in
your network.
Step 5
Install the router. To install the router, run your main Ethernet cable (the one used for
connecting your primary computer to the Internet) from your modem into the router. Plug the router's
power cord in, and then install any software that it came with on each computer in the network. When
you are finished, the router should begin broadcasting your Internet connection wirelessly.
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Step 6
Connect each computer to the wireless network. On each computer, find the wireless
network's name that you assigned during the software installation. Connect to that network using the
password that you created.
Step 7
Share files over the network. To make files on 1 computer accessible to users on other
computers, you must mark them as shared. In Windows, you can do this by placing the files in the
"Shared Documents" folder or by right-clicking on each file and checking "Share this file" in the
"Properties" menu. The process will differ slightly for other operating systems.
Step 8
Connect to any devices in the network. To connect to devices such as printers and scanners,
these devices will also need to be able to communicate wirelessly (this feature is not nearly as common
on printers as on computers). To connect to a device, simply locate the device's icon on the network
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drive on each computer. Double-clicking on a printer's icon, for example, should install the printer and
enable it for future use.
LAN Connection Setup - Windows 7

Use the following steps to setup your LAN connection in Windows 7, when your computer is the device
plugged in to your wireless radio or POE.
1.First, go to the start menu and into Control Panel.
2.Once in Control Panel, if you are in Category view, click on the View by: drop down menu, and select
Large icons.
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3.Nowthat you are in Large icons view, find and double click on Network and Sharing Center.
4.Nowthat you are in Network and Sharing Center, click on the "Change adapter settings" link on the
left.
5.In the Change adapters settings screen, find and right click on your Local Area Connection, and left
click on Properties.
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6.Inthe Local Area Connection Properties window, highlight Internet Protocol Version 4
(TCP/IPv4), and click on the Properties button.
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7.Inthe Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties window, you will need to select "Use
the following IP address" and "Use the following DNS server addresses:"
Enter in the corresponding settings per their section. If you don't have the settings, or
need help with them, call into tech support so we can provide them to you.
8.Once the settings have been entered in, click ok on the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)
Properties window, then click on close on the Local Area Connections properties window.
At this point the Local Area Connection should say connected. See if you can browse to a
web site at this time. If you are able to, your setup is complete. If you are not able to browse,
call us here at tech support, so we can verify your settings are correct.
Self-Check 2.3-2
Instructions: Write your answer in the blank provided , put a / if the

sentence is true and mark X is the sentence false.
____________1.The earliest personal computers did not have an easy way to

connect to other computers. In order to transfer files between computers, you
had to use a portable storage medium such as a floppy disk.
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____________2.A computer uses a network interface card (NIC) to become part of
a network. The NIC contains the electronic circuitry required to communicate
using a wired connection (e.g., Ethernet) or a wireless connection (e.g.,WiFi).
____________3.A LAN, or local area network, is not a great way to share files and
devices between multiple computers. If you have several computers in your
home, setting up a network will not allow you to share an Internet connection,
data, printers, and other devices between your computers - all without wires.
Unfortunately, the process is not simple, and you can’t learn how to set up a
LAN in your home by following a few easy steps.
____________4.The devices you use to set your network up will determine your network's capabilities.
You should address your needs in terms of cost, security, connection speed, expandability (adding more
computers or devices later) and distance between computers. In general, you will need to keep all the
computers in the network within 100 yards (91 m) of each other.
____________5.In order to communicate wirelessly with other computers in the network, each
computer must have a NIC networking card. If your computers are only a few years old, you are almost
not guaranteed to already have one built-in, as this is not a standard feature on all computers being
produced today. If you have an older computer, you may not need to purchase and install a networking
card.

CONFIGURE WIDE AREA NETWORK PORT
1. Identify which part of the router is the external and internal zone.
2. Determine the different functions of LAN between WAN.
Introduction:
Most networks consist of two major zones—the local area network (LAN)
and the wide area network (WAN). A LAN is the internal network, whether it is
a house with two computers or a high-rise office building with thousands
doesn’t matter. The WAN is the network outside the LAN; this is both other
internal networks and the full Internet. A WAN port is the portal by which
information passes back and forth between the LAN and the WAN.
Most users will find a WAN port on a network router. A common home
router has one WAN port and four LAN ports. Some routers refer to them as an
uplink (for the WAN port) and wired connections (for LAN ports). This port take
in information from a high-speed Internet source, such as a cable modem, and
splits it to multiple machines inside the home network. While the majority of
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home routers have four LAN ports, there can be as few as zero or an unlimited
amount, although rarely more than eight.
These five ports all appear as rectangular holes on the back of the device.
Each of them is designed to have a network cable plugged into it. The WAN port
generally sits apart from the other ports to make it easier to identify, but it
otherwise looks the same as the LAN ports.
Dual WAN and Load Balancing

Every business organization has to withstand the competition in market
for survival and business continuity amidst several issues. Today
communication and information exchange has grew to a large extent such
that even small scale organizations use technology to expand their network
and carry on business transactions from remote places.
Technology has prospered to great heights that today it serves as a fuel
for business vehicle. On the global edge, almost all companies whose branch
office function world wide (like MNCs) need Internet access to stay connected
and control the network from any remote location. Unhindered connectivity
and quick access has become a feature that everyone desire.
This is possible by a communication network infrastructure called ‘WAN
or Wide Area Network’.
In general, business organizations configure WAN setup using single
Internet connection provided by Internet Service Provider (ISP) connected to
their LAN via wan modem. Modem is a device to perform modulation and
demodulation of the signals traveling from source to destination. They link the
local network to internet via wan port.
Here data transfer takes place when the packet data traverse from source,
router routes packet to different nodes in the network using the address label
in the routing table to reach the destination. Refer (To see Figure WAN
configuration setup) for WAN setup for an organization.
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Unhindered connectivity and fast access to Internet is the need of the
hour for any organization that runs its business using Internet. Single ISP
connection is quite risky as it leads to unbearable losses in case the network
fails due to sudden disasters.
Here comes a new technology ‘Dual WAN’ that serves the purpose of
maintaining network status always ‘up’ with two ISP connections (one as a
backup), to function singular or together based on the mode of operation of
the wan router and requirement of the organization.
The dual modes of operation exist in dual wan routers serving dual purpose
are:
1. Load Balancing: As per (below figure), we can make out the WAN setup
with the dual wan router functioning as a load balancer.
In this mode, both the wan connections stay ‘active’ and load sharing between them based on
the bandwidth. The dual wan load balancing avails two broadband connections aggregating the
bandwidth overall. We can observe wan load balancing by the dual wan connections with one modem
possessing high speed (cable modem) and other can be Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).
The internet traffic load balancing handled with both the links (wan link 1 and wan link 2)
showing ‘active’ state. Given below is a representation of load balancing mode:
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3. Automatic Failover or backup: In this mode only one wan link stays
‘active’ and is considered ‘primary’. When the primary wan connection
fails, the alternate connection automatically takes over the control of
the network and proceeds with the operations.
Hence, the name ‘automatic failover’ that avoids network disruption and collapse and
maintain redundancy even at sudden disasters. Refer (below figure) for dual wan router working in
automatic failover mode. So when one of the links fail, the status of the respective interface is ‘down’
and immediately alternate link becomes ‘active’ and traffic is passed through it. Given below is a
representation of automatic failover mode:
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As per the organization requirements, current market has very few
companies like Linksys, Dlink, and FatPipe Networks providing specialized
WAN services coupled with internet load balancing. The characteristic
features of WAN are nearly satisfied on a large scale in the products of FatPipe
Networks. The technical team has worked on the network management issues
and launched several products like QoS (for link load balancing), XTREME,
and SUPERSTREAM in the market of which XTREME and SUPERSTREAM are
refrained as hardware load balancers termed for their functionality.
XTREME is a network load-balancing device that perfectly suits any
organization that has implemented WAN setup, ensuring redundancy and
dynamic load balancing for outbound Internet traffic. XTREME opens
multiple connections over multiple ISPs eliminating the need of BGP
programming. Refer (To see Figure Working of FatPipe XTREME) for the setup
of FatPipe ‘XTREME’.
This network load balancer has similar features as of the previous

product but meets the needs of small-scale companies making maximum of
‘Four connections’ effectively working with any combination of transmission
media (T1, T3, and DSL, wireless, ISDN and cable routers). Refer (To see
Figure Working of FatPipe SUPERSTREAM) for working of FatPipe
SUPERSTREAM.
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In general, network professionals recommend users to opt for two connections with different
service providers, as it is a safe option rather than using two wan connections of the same provider with
varying IP addresses, are risky since the network can lose its connectivity in case primary wan
connection fails to function. So if you are looking for best option for Dual WAN setup in your network
with maximum benefits and efficiency, go ahead for the best one!
Self-Check 2.3-3
Fill in the Blank.
1.___________________ What are the two major zones that most network
consist of.
2.___________________ In network data communications, what zone is

considered to be an internal network segment.
3.___________________ In network data communications, what zone is

considered to be an external network segment.
4.___________________ On what networking device the WAN port usually

found.
5.___________________ Some router refers to the WAN port as what type of

network port.
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CONFIGURE WIRELESS SETTINGS
1.Design and implement wireless network data communication.
2. Troubleshoot and rectify wireless network issue such as files and printer sharing, security and
authentication.
Introduction:
One of the most transformative technology trends of the past decade is the availability and
growing expectation of ubiquitous connectivity. Whether it is for checking email, carrying a voice
conversation, web browsing, or myriad other use cases, we now expect to be able to access these online
services regardless of location, time, or circumstance: on the run, while standing in line, at the office, on
a subway, while in flight, and everywhere in between. Today, we are still often forced to be proactive
about finding connectivity (e.g., looking for a nearby WiFi hotspot) but without a doubt, the future is
about ubiquitous connectivity where access to the Internet is omnipresent.
What is Wireless Network
Wireless network is a network set up by using radio signal frequency to
communicate among computers and other network devices. Sometimes it’s also
referred to as WiFi network or WLAN.
This network is getting popular nowadays due to easy to setup feature and no cabling involved.
You can connect computers anywhere in your home without the need for wires.
Here is simple explanation of how it works, let say you have 2 computers each equipped with
wireless adapter and you have set up wireless router. When the computer sends out the data, the
binary data will be encoded to radio frequency and transmitted via wireless router. The receiving
computer will then decode the signal back to binary data.
It doesn’t matter you are using broadband cable/DSL modem to access internet; both ways will
work with wireless network. If you heard about wire less hot spot, that means that location is equipped
with wireless devices for you and others to join the network.
The two main components are wireless router or access point and
wireless clients.
If you have not set up any wired network, then just get a wireless router
and attach it to cable or DSL modem. You then set up wireless client by
adding wireless card to each computer and form a simple wireless network.
You can also cable connect computer directly to router if there are switch ports
available.
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If you already have wired Ethernet network at home, you can attach awireless access point to
existing network router and have wireless access at home.
Wireless router or access points should be installed in a way that maximizes coverage as well as
throughput. The coverage provided is generally referred to as the coverage cell. Large areas usually
require more than one access point in order to have adequate coverage. You can also add access point
to your existing wireless router to improve coverage.
Wireless Operating Mode

The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure
mode and ad hoc mode.
Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless
network adapters, also known as wireless clients, to an existing wired network
with the help from wireless router or access point. The 2 examples which I
specified above operate in this mode.
Ad hoc mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together,
without the need for a wireless router or access point. An ad hoc network
consists of up to 9 wireless clients, which send their data directly to each
other.
Wireless Setup - Connecting Wireless Router
This is quick wireless setup. Before you configure the wireless router, you need to physical set it
up first.
Try to place the router in position that will best cover your wireless network. Usually the higher
you place the antenna of router, the better the performance will be. Anyway if you are not sure where is
the best position to place, just leave it next to DSL/Cable modem to ease the setup, you can always
reposition it later to get optimized performance once you have built up your wireless network.
Here is how to do physical setup, connect your cable/DSL modem to the WAN port of your
wireless router by using straight Ethernet cable, so that the computers which are connected to wireless
router later can access to Internet via the modem. Also you need to ensure that your cable/DSL modem
is configured in bridge mode, so that it can work well after connecting to wireless router.
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After that, use another straight cable to connect wireless router’s LAN port to your computer’s
Ethernet port. Usually there are up to 4 or 5 LAN ports on wireless router for you to connect to
computers with network cable.
The reason for connecting wireless router to your computer is to configure the router for the
first time through web browser. You can remove the cable after completing wireless router
configuration.
After completing physical network setup, we need to decide what IP addresses should be used
for wireless router and computers, so that each computer on network and wireless router are able to
communicate with each other by using IP address later.
For my wireless network setup, I use IP address 192.168.1.1-254, netmask 255.255.255.0. I also
plan to assign 192.168.1.1 to wireless router and this IP address is default gateway for other computer
on wireless network.
Wireless Router Configuration
Now we can start to configure wireless router, and I will use Linksys
E1200 Wireless Router as an example. This router supports 802.11n and
backward compatible with 802.11g, 802.11b and 802.11a standard. The
supported authentications are WEP, WPA and WPA2 authentication with pre-
shared key or RADIUS server.
You are advised to read the router manual before starting to configure it. This is useful for you
to understand more about the router features and how to configure it. If you have lost the router
manual, you can download it from vendor website.
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Sometimes the vendor will prepare some quick setup wizard for you to expedite router
configuration, but I will explain some important and common setting which will be found in most of the
wireless routers from different vendors, so you can still configure it manually after reading this article.
If you like, you could also register your router at vendor website, so that you will be notified of
firmware update, security alert and also other product related information.
Ok, without wasting more time, let’s open your popular web browser (Internet Explorer, Opera,
Mozilla Firefox, Chrome, etc), then type http://192.168.1.1and press "Enter". This IP address is factory
default IP assigned to the router, you will be able to find it in your wireless router manual. That’s why I
said it’s important to read the manual.
You need to set computer with the IP sits in the network same as wireless router, so you can
access and configure it. In this scenario, I set computer IP as 192.168.1.10 (you can set 192.168.1.X, X=
number between 2 and 254), netmask as 255.255.255.0 and gateway as 192.168.1.1
Ok, you need to key in username and password in order to log on to

router management page. Not sure about username and password? Check the
router manual to find out.
These are general router settings that you need to configure:
WAN (Wide Area Network) Setting
LAN (Local Area Network) Setting
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Setting
After that, these are additional wireless settings that you need to
configure, so that you can connect computer to it wirelessly.
SSID and Other Basic Wireless Settings
Wireless Network Authentication
WAN (Wide Area Network) Setting
First go to Setup tab and click Basic Setup, this is the place you set public IP
address provided by your ISP in order to access Internet. It can be one of these
6 options:
Automatic Configuration – DHCP - Choose this option to obtain an IP
address automatically from your ISP. (For most cable modem users). Optionally
key in a name for this router. The default MAC address is set to the WAN’s
MAC address on the router.
Sometimes you will need to clone MAC address under MAC Address Clone tab.
This feature is required by cable modem users with the service registration
via computer network card’s MAC address. That means the ISP will
authenticate your network card’s MAC address whenever you use the
connection service. If so, you will need to click clone MAC address in order to
clone the computer network card’s MAC address to your network router. If you
are not sure, check with your ISP technical support. If you don’t know how to
locate MAC address, click here to check MAC address of network card.
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Static IP - Choose this option to set static IP information provided to you by
your ISP. You are required to type in all network information manually if select
this option. This option is mostly used by business users. Lot of works if use
this option, try to avoid this if possible.
PPPoE - Choose this option if your ISP uses PPPoE. Your ISP will provide you
with a username and password. This option is typically used for most DSL
services.
PPTP - Same as PPPoE, This option is mostly used by DSL service users with
provided username, password and IP information.
L2TP - This option is mostly used by DSL service users is Europe with
provided username, password and L2TP dedicated server information.
Telstra Cable: This option is mostly used by DSL service users with provided
username, password and Heart Beat dedicated server information.
As a cable modem user, I will choose Automatic Configuration – DHCP option. I
won't clone MAC address because the service registration is tied to cable
modem's MAC address.
LAN (Local Area Network) Setting
At the same setup page, set up the IP address for the router. This will be
therouter/gateway IP address that you will set on your network computers.
The LAN IP address is private in your home network and cannot be seen from
the internet. I set my router with IP 192.168.1.1 and subnet mask
255.255.255.0. I also assign a name (Home-E1200) to the router.
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DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Setting
Most of the routers has built-in DHCP server, so does this router. The
DHCP server will automatically assign an IP address to the computers in your
wireless network, so that you don’t have to configure them manually. At the
same setup page, you must specify the starting IP address, number of users
and lease time. Lease time is the length of time for the IP assigned to the
computer.
For my case, the starting IP Address is 192.168.1.150, maximum dhcp

users is 50 and I set the Lease Time for 1 day (0 minutes).
SSID and Other Basic Wireless Settings

Now proceed to click Wireless tab and you will see Basic Wireless
Settings. These are unique features for wireless router, it’s not available for
those wired routers:
Manual way is used to configure this router.
Network Mode – Many different wireless operating modes are supported by
this router, it can be Mixed (802.11b/g/n), Wireless-B/G Only (802.11b/g),
Wireless-G Only(802.11g), Wireless-B Only(802.11b), Wireless-N
Only(802.11n). In this case I select Wireless-G Only mode as most of my home
computers run with 802.11g wireless network adapter. Plan to upgrade all
wireless adapters to support 802.11n soon.
Network Name (SSID) – The SSID is the network name of this wireless network
and must be identical for all devices in the network. When wireless clients
(home computers or other wireless devices) first start up, they scan the
wireless frequency band for special beacon frames that contain SSID sent by
wireless routers or access points, finally connect to the network that preferred
by users.
SSID is case-sensitive and must not exceed 32 alphanumeric characters.
Change it and don’t use default SSID due to security concern. I set it as home-
network.
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Wireless Channel - There are 13 wireless channels (1-13) supported. All
devices in your wireless network must use the same channel in order to
function correctly. I select 11 in this case. If not too sure which channel to use,
you can make use of this inSSIDer wireless scanning tool to identify good
channel with no interference.
Wireless SSID Broadcast - If you enable this feature, the router will broadcast
SSID and will be detected by wireless clients in the network. If you enable this
feature, make sure you enable wireless network authentication shown in
section below.
Click WI-FI Protected Setup option if your wireless client supports this feature, you can either
press WI-FI Protected Setup button on client to join the wireless network or register the PIN for the
client to join the wireless network.
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Wireless Network Authentication
Although wireless client can join wireless network without
authentication, but it’s dangerous as whoever detects this network can join too!
So please set authentication on wireless router, so that wireless client can only
join the network after successful authentication. This router supports
WPA/WPA2 mixed mode, WPA2, WPA or legacy WEP authentication with pre-
shared key and RADIUS authentication.
Usually home users will use WEP, WPA personal or WPA2 personal
security mode. Use WPA2 personal, WPA personal or WPA2/WPA Mixed
Mode if supported by your wireless adapter, then set pre-shared key for
authentication. Choose AES as your WPA or WPA2 algorithm if required.
You can only use WPA2 Enterprise, WPA Enterprise or WPA/WPA2
Enterprise Mixed Mode if you have set up RADIUS server. This is the
authentication with RADIUS server instead of pre-shared key .
If use WEP option, you need to set passphrase with 64 and 128 bits
encryption. However my advice is you should not use WEP if possible as it’s too
vulnerable.
Since my wireless network card can support WPA2, I use following setting.
You don't have to follow all settings I used above, you can just tune the wireless router according to your
needs.
One last thing that I would like to tell you, if you wish to connect all home computers to access to
Internet via this wireless router, please select NAT orGateway mode in Setup->Advanced Routing page
and save the settings.
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Windows 7 Wireless Adapter Configuration
You can take a look on this Windows 7 wireless adapter configuration article after you have set
up your wireless router, so that you can connect Windows 7 computer to wireless network and access
Internet websites. It’s pretty similar to how you configure wireless adapter in Windows Vista and the
process is not difficult.
Wireless Adapter Driver Status and TCP/IP Setting
First you need to install the Windows 7 wireless adapter driver correctly
and so it will operate well, if not you will face problem to connect to wireless
network later. You can always check and download the latest driver from
manufacturer website and install it if you have lost the installation CD, but
sometimes it will be installed automatically by Windows 7. Take a look on how
to check wireless adapter driver statusarticle and ensure it works well.
After that, you need to configure the TCP/IP setting on the wireless
adapter with IP address, subnet mask, gateway and DNS manually or obtain
those network settings from DHCP server. Take a look onconfiguring IP address
and other network information here if you are not too sure how to do it.
Note: If you have enabled DHCP setting on the wireless router, then you
should select Obtain an IP address automatically and Obtain DNS server
address automatically on your wireless adapter’s TCP/IP setting.
Note: If you are using laptop with built-in wireless adapter, make sure you
have activated the wireless adapter by turning on the wireless button, press
Alt+F2 or other keys on the laptop. Read the laptop manual to know more.
WLAN Auto-Config Service in Windows 7
Now you need to decide which wireless utility to use to detect wireless
network and manage wireless network profile. You can use the wireless utility
which is provided by wireless adapter manufacturer or the WLAN AutoConfig
service in Windows 7. I prefer to use WLAN AutoConfig service in Windows 7 as
it’s pretty simple to use.
If you prefer this WLAN AutoConfig service too, you need to set this
service to start automatically whenever you boot up the computer. You can
learn this easy way to start WLAN AutoConfig service here!
Connecting to Wireless Network Easily and Automatically
Ok! We are now ready to start Windows 7 wireless networking by connecting to
wireless network, you can use network icon in Windows 7 to detect available
wireless network, connect to it and then save the wireless network profile.
Check this article on how to connect to wireless network, and then
access Internet website. You can also set it to connect automatically next time.
Please note that you will be prompted to select network location type
when you first connects your computer to network, this will automatically set
the appropriate firewall and security settings on computer. Check out
this network location type article to understand which location type you should
choose and also how to change it later if needed.
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Creating the Wireless Network Profile Manually
If not, you can also create the wireless network profile manually and then
connect to wireless network later. This is useful especially the network that you
plan to connect is not available now, but you know the connection settings.
This is the way to create Windows 7 wireless network profile:
1) Go to Start and click on Control Panel.
2) Proceed to click View network status and tasks in Control Panel window.
3) Network and Sharing Center window will appear, proceed to click Set up a new connection or
network.
4) Set up a connection or network window will appear, select Manually connect to a wireless
network and click Next.
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5) Here you need to enter the wireless network information (network name/SSID, security type,
encryption type, security key) that you wish to connect (it should match the wireless settings on wireless
router/access point that you plan to connect to). The supported security types are No authentication
(Open), WEP, WPA2-Personal, WPA-Personal, WPA2-Enterprise, WPA-Enterprise and 802.1x. The

supported encryption types are TKIP and AES. Here I key in the wireless network settings of my friend's
wireless network, and click Next at last.
Note: Tick on Start this connection automatically option if you want it to connect automatically next
time when it’s in connecting range.
Note: Don’t tick on Connect even if the network is not broadcasting option if possible for better
security. The non-broadcasting wireless network will be show as Other Network on detected network
list.
6) This final window tells you that your Windows 7 wireless network profile is created and you can
change the connection settings by clicking on Change connection settings. Click Close at last. You
computer will then connect to this new wireless network when it’s available.
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Website Access and Computer Resource Sharing
You can now assign the computer name and workgroup to your
computer, so that you can easily identify the computers in your network.
Follow step-by-step instructions here to set computer name and workgroup. In
addition, also enable network discovery to discover other connected computers.
Test to connect to Internet website, see how it goes.
Thinking about sharing computer resource? Have a look on this simple file
sharing or password protested file sharing articles to get it done. Test these
features and see how you like it. Basically here you have done Windows 7
networking by using wireless adapter.
Having problem? Check out on how to use ping to troubleshoot network
problem.
Looking for wireless adapter? Here are my preferred USB wireless
adapter, wireless PCI adapter and wireless PCMCIA card.
Hope you enjoy doing this Windows 7 wireless adapter configuration! It's not
difficult!
Self-Check 2.3.4
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1.________________is a network set up by using radio-signal frequency

tocommunicate among computers and other network
devices. Sometimes it’s also referred to
as WiFinetwork or WLAN.
2.Wireless router or access points should be installed in a way that

maximizes coverage as well as throughput. The coverage provided is
generally referred to as the ___________________.
155
3.If you have not set up any wired network, then just get a wireless router
and attach it to cable or DSL modem. You then set up wireless client by
adding _______________ to each computer and form a simple wireless
network.
4.______________________is used to connect computers with wireless network

adapters, also known as wireless clients, to an existing wired network with
the help from wireless router or access point.
5.___________________is used to connect wireless clients directly together,

without the need for a wireless router or access point.
An ad hoc network consists of up to 9 wireless clients,
which send their data directly to each other.

CONFIGURE SECURITY/FIREWALL/ADVANCE SETTINGS
1. Understand what a firewall is and is not capable of.
2. Understand what technologies firewalls typically employ.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of different firewall technologies.
4. Understand why FireWall-1 is the right firewall for the job.
Introduction:
This chapter provides a brief overview of firewalls—what they can and cannot do. It is not
meant to comprehensively cover the topic of firewalls or network security in general. These topics are
better covered by more general texts. In this chapter, you will explore some of the technologies used in
firewalls, investigate which technologies are used by FireWall-1, and establish why FireWall-1 is the right
firewall for you. Examples of how a given technology handles a specific service are also provide.
156
A firewall is a device that allows multiple networks to communicate with one another according
to a defined security policy. They are used when there is a need for networks of varying levels of trust to
communicate with one another. For example, a firewall typically exists between a corporate network
and a public network like the Internet. It can also be used inside a private network to limit access to
different parts of the network. Wherever there are different levels of trust among the different parts of
a network, a firewall can and should be used.
Firewalls are similar to routers in that they connect networks together. Firewall software runs
on a host, which is connected to both trusted and untrusted networks. The host operating system is
responsible for performing routing functions, which many operating systems are capable of doing. The
host operating system should be as secure as possible prior to installing the firewall software. This not
only means knowing how the operating system was installed but also making sure that all of the security
patches are applied and that unnecessary services and features are disabled or removed.
Firewalls are different from routers in that they are able to provide security mechanisms for
permitting and denying traffic, such as authentication, encryption, content security, and address
translation. Although many routers provide similar capabilities (such as high-end devices from Cisco),
their primary function is to route packets between networks. Security was not part of their initial design
but rather an afterthought. A firewall's primary function is to enforce a security policy, and it is designed
with this in mind.
What a Firewall Cannot Do
It is important to realize that a firewall is a tool for enforcing a security
policy. If all access between trusted and untrusted networks is not mediated by
the firewall, or the firewall is enforcing an ineffective policy, the firewall is not
going to provide any protection for your network. However, even a properly
designed network with a properly configured firewall cannot protect you from
the following dangers.
157
 Malicious use of authorized services: A firewall cannot, for instance, prevent
someone from using an authenticated Telnet session to compromise your
internal machines or from tunneling an unauthorized protocol through
another, authorized protocol.
 Users not going through the firewall: A firewall can only restrict connections
that go through it. It cannot protect you from people who can go around
the firewall, for example, through a dial-up server behind the firewall. It
also cannot prevent an internal intruder from hacking an internal system.
To detect and thwart these kinds of threats, you may need a properly
configured intrusion detection/prevention system.
 Social engineering: If intruders can somehow obtain passwords they are not
authorized to have or otherwise compromise authentication mechanisms
through social engineering mechanisms, the firewall won't stop them. For
example, a hacker could call your users pretending to be a system
administrator and ask them for their passwords to "fix some problem."
 Flaws in the host operating system: A firewall is only as secure as the
operating system on which it is installed. There are many flaws present in
operating systems that a firewall cannot protect against. This is why it is
important to properly secure the operating system and apply the necessary
security patches before you install the firewall and on a periodic basis
thereafter. It also explains why "appliance" firewalls such as those provided
by Nokia and NetScreen, which contain a purpose-built, hardened
operating system, are becoming more popular.
 All threats that may occur: Firewall designers often react to problems
discovered by hackers, who are usually at least one step ahead of the
firewall manufacturers
158
How to Set Up a Router Firewall
Among the many firewalls available in the security market are the router
firewalls. Unlike the software firewall, the router firewall attempts and blocks
incoming query requests at server level thereby keeping your entire network
safe. As the router is the end point of most networks and is the only point
connecting any computer on your network to the Internet, turning on the
router firewall keeps your network safe.
Set Up A Router Firewall
This article talks about how to set up a router firewall or configure your
router for activating the firewall. We also take a look at what all ports do you
need for regular working.
Open Router Firewall Configuration & Settings Page

Before you can turn on the router firewall, you will need the IP address
to get to the configuration page. To get the address, open the RUN dialog by
pressing Windows Key + R. Type CMD and press Enter.
In the command window, type IPCONFIG /ALL and press Enter. Make a
note of IP address provided next to Gateway. You will have to type that address
159
(in form of numbers, including the dots) into a browser address bar to open the
router configuration page. That number would work in most cases. If it doesn’t
work, please contact router support for the address.
Configure Router Firewall
This is simply turning the firewall on/off. If you’ve installed Windows,
chances are the operating system has already set up your router while
installation. You can set it up manually too, using a browser of your
preference.
To set up a router firewall:
1. Access the router homepage by typing router IP address in a browser (The
one you noted down in the above section; example: 192.168.1.1)
2. Check for Firewall option on the router homepage. This option can be
grouped under different names such as Advanced Settings
3. If the Firewall is deactivated or not enabled, click to select and activate it
The image below shows an enabled firewall on a Binatone Ethernet router.
Manage Windows Firewall in Windows 7/8/10
Manage Windows Firewall
Windows now allows you to access the advanced settings, including
configuration of filtering for outbound connections, through its Control Panel.
Windows, now gives you three choices – public network, home network
or work network, unlike Vista, which gave you only 2 choices to choose
whether you are on a public or private network.
By default the Windows 10/8/7 firewall blocks connections to programs that
are not on the list of allowed programs. With all network types, it now allows
you to configure the settings for each network type separately. This is what is
referred to as Multiple Active Firewall Profiles.
Most would just prefer to have the Windows firewall set to its default and
forget about it. The default settings are good enough. Those who want to fine
tune it can manage the Windows firewall in the following ways:
1) Windows Firewall Control Panel application. This is the simplest

one and good enough for routine tasks.
160
It is the simplest—and the least capable. But with it you can complete
routine tasks, such as allowing a program through it or blocking all incoming
connections. This Technet link true will help you get started.
2) Windows Firewall – Advanced Security. This one is a snap-in and
predefined console for Microsoft Management Console, offers much more
granular control over rules, exceptions, and profiles. You can access it through
the Control panel app too.
3) The Netsh utility (in particular, its Firewall and Advfirewall contexts) lets
you make firewall settings from a Command Prompt window or a batch
program.
4) Group Policy Object Editor (available only in select editions) incorporates
the Windows Firewall With Advanced Security snap-in (under Computer
Configuration\Windows Settings\Security Settings\Windows Firewall With
Advanced Security). In addition, Windows Firewall can be managed with a
number of policies, which can be found in Computer Configuration \
Administrative Templates \ Network \ Network Connections \ Windows
Firewall.
Incidentally, nearly a total 0f over 3000 settings can be configured through
Group Policy Editor (gpedit.msc). However, Group Security Policy is not
included in Windows Home Edition.
161
Self-Check 2.3-5
FILL-IN THE BLANKS
1.___________________Is a device that allows multiple networks to

communicate with one another according to a defined
security policy. They are used when there is a need for
networks of varying levels of trust to communicate
with one another.
2.___________________This one is a snap-in and predefined console for
Microsoft Management Console, offers much more
granular control over rules, exceptions, and profiles.
You can access it through the Control panel app too.
3.___________________Lets you make firewall settings from a Command
Prompt window or a batch program.
4.___________________Incorporates the Windows Firewall With Advanced
Security snap-in (under Computer
Configuration\Windows Settings\Security
Settings\Windows Firewall With Advanced Security).
In addition, Windows Firewall can be managed with a
number of policies, which can be found in Computer
Configuration \ Administrative Templates \ Network \
Network Connections \ Windows Firewall.
5.___________________It is the simplest—and the least capable. But with it
you can complete routine tasks, such as allowing a
program through it or blocking all incoming
connections. This Technet link true will help you get started.
162
UNDERTAKEN FINAL INSPECTION &

CHECK COMPUTER NETWORKS
Learning objectives
After reading the INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Recognized undertaken final inspection in a computer network
installation
2. Practice Undertaken final inspection on site
3. Identify the significant function of checking computer network
4. Inspect computer network
Introduction
An inspection is, most generally, an organized examination or formal

evaluation exercise. In engineering activities inspection involves
the measurements, tests, and gauges applied to certain characteristics in regard
to an object or activity. The results are usually compared to
specified requirements and standards for determining whether the item or
activity is in line with these targets, often with a Standard Inspection
Procedure in place to ensure consistent checking. Inspections are usually non-
destructive.
The Building authority requires a final inspection before an occupancy
permit can be issued. It is illegal to occupy the home before the occupancy
permit is issued. During the final inspection the building inspector
will inspect that the house is complete and that all life and safety items meet
code.
The main purpose of inspection is to provide the client with objective,
independent, and impartial information regarding the condition of the systems
and components of the home that are defective and need immediate attention
or are anticipated, that could have a deleterious effect on the building and its
occupants or
Workplace inspections help prevent incidents, injuries and illnesses.
Through a critical examination of the workplace, inspections help to identify
and record hazards for corrective action. Health and safety committees can
help plan, conduct, report and monitor inspections.
It is an inspection in the manufacturing process, and refers to
the inspection performed in the final stage of manufacturing process. ... In
the Final Inspection, the whole of the product including the requests from
customers is inspected.
How do you plan for inspections?
Planning is essential for an effective inspection.
163
What to Examine
Every inspection must examine who, what, where, when and how.
Pay particular attention to items that are or are most likely to develop into
unsafe or unhealthy conditions because of stress, wear, impact, vibration,
heat, corrosion, chemical reaction or misuse. Include areas where no work is
done regularly, such as parking lots, rest areas, office storage areas and locker
rooms.
Workplace Elements
Look at all workplace elements – the people, the environment, the
equipment and the process. The environment includes such hazards as noise,
vibration, lighting, temperature, and ventilation. Equipment includes
materials, tools and apparatus for producing a product or a service. The
process involves how the worker interacts with the other elements in a series of
tasks or operations.
What types of hazards do we look for in a workplace?
Types of workplace hazards include:
 Safety hazards such as those caused by inadequate machine guards,
unsafe workplace conditions, unsafe work practices.
 Biological hazards caused by organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi
and parasites.
 Chemical hazards caused by a solid, liquid, vapour, gas, dust, fume or
mist.
 Ergonomic hazards caused by physiological and psychological demands
on the worker, such as repetitive and forceful movements, awkward
postures arising from improper work methods, and improperly designed
workstations, tools, and equipment.
 Physical hazards caused by noise, vibration, energy, weather, heat, cold,
electricity, radiation and pressure.
 Psychosocial hazards that can affect mental health or well-being such as
overwork, stress, bullying, or violence.
After a building permit is issued, inspections are performed
throughout the building process based upon the scope of work and the local
code requirements. Some inspections are prerequisite to others and it is the
responsibility of the permit holder and owner/general contractor to ensure the
proper inspections occur as required. After final inspection is complete, and all
items have been reworked and signed-off as needed, a Certificate of Occupancy
(CO) will be issued. These inspections ensure the residential structures meet
the minimum building and life/safety requirements of the locally adopted
building code, and signify the structure is fit for occupancy.
While there are a number of inspections during the building process,
the final inspection is usually the most comprehensive. A typical final
inspection could include the following and more depending on the
requirements of the structure:
 Permits and Plans
o Permit and approved plans are accessible and on-site
164
o Permit information is correct
o All other inspections have been performed adequately
 Exterior
o All penetrations flashed and sealed properly
o Spark arresters installed on the chimney
o 6" distance from soil to wood siding/trim
o Proper grading
 Decks, Stairs and Walkways
o All deck material treated or naturally resistant to decay
o Proper fasteners for pressure treated, fire-retardant-treated wood
o Ledgers for decks bolted to structure properly
o All stairs are provided with illumination
o Stair riser height and tread width
o Handrails and guards of proper height
 Interior
o Garage door to house is weather stripped
o Sheetrock joints and fasteners taped properly
o Solid fire-rated door between garage and house
 Attics
o Attic access where required and located in accessible areas
o Proper insulation and thickness is installed
 Crawl Space
o Ventilation is unobstructed
o Vapor barrier is installed correctly and has proper thickness
o Insulation is installed against bottom of floor
 Smoke Alarms
o If required, they are properly placed and installed
o Smoke alarms on every floor
 Windows and Glazing
o Window sills are proper height
o Safety glazing installed in hazardous locations
o Window has proper pressure/energy rating per house plans
COMPUTER NETWORK
You’ve set up all your network switches, plugged in all the cables,
and configured all your computers. One task remains before you can declare
your network finished: You must verify that the network works as expected.
Here are a few simple tests you can conduct to make sure your network is
functional.
Check the physical connections.
Check that the Link light — the little red or green light next to the
RJ-45 port — is lit on every computer. You must check this light both on the
computer itself and on the switch or router the computer is plugged into. If this
light is not on, you have a connection problem — most likely a bad cable.
165
Verify that you can log on.
When you’re sure the physical connections are good, you should
attempt to log on to each of your network computers using a valid domain user
account.
Check the network configuration.
Click the Start button, type cmd and press Enter. Then, enter the
command ipconfig /all and press Enter.
This command will spit out numerous lines of information. The line you’re
looking for should resemble this:
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.125(Preferred)
If this part of the output does not show a valid IP address, you need
to check that your IP configuration is set correctly and that your DHCP server
is working.
Verify that the computers can ping each other.
Another basic test you should perform is to use the ping command
from a command prompt to make sure that the computers on your network
can contact one another.
Do several ping tests. First, make sure that TCP/IP is up and
running by having the computer try to ping itself. Open a command prompt
and type ping localhost. The output from this command will indicate whether
or not the ping was successful.
RECORDING KEY NETWORK INFORMATION
Tables to keep track of the key information that allows you to access
your network, contact your network administrator, access network storage, use
network printers, and keep track of important network servers.
Account Information
My user ID ____________________________________
My password DON’T WRITE IT HERE!
Domain name ____________________________________
My e-mail address ____________________________________
166
My Network Administrator
Name ____________________________________
Phone number ____________________________________
E-mail name ____________________________________
Favorite snack food ____________________________________
My Network Drives
Drive Letter Description
_____ _____________________________________________________________
_____ _____________________________________________________________
_____ _____________________________________________________________
_____ _____________________________________________________________
_____ _____________________________________________________________
My Network Printers
Printer Name IP Address Description
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
167
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
_________ ________ _____________________________________________
My Network Servers
Server Name IP Address Description
____________ ________ __________________________________________
____________ ________ __________________________________________
____________ ________ __________________________________________
____________ ________ __________________________________________
RECORDING KEY INTERNET CONNECTION INFORMATION

Print out and use these spaces to keep track of key information about
your Internet connection, including your Internet service provider, your TCP/IP
configuration, and information about your router.
Provider
Company name ____________________________________
168
Technical-support contact ____________________________________
Technical-support phone number ____________________________________
Website ____________________________________
E-mail address ____________________________________
TCP/IP Information
IP range ________________ to ________________
Subnet mask ____________________________________
Default gateway ____________________________________
Nameservers __________ — __________ — __________
Router Information
Make and model ____________________________________
Internal IP address (LAN) ____________________________________
External IP address (WAN) ____________________________________
Administrator username ____________________________________
Password DON’T WRITE IT HERE!
169
KNOWING THE RJ-45 PIN CONNECTIONS
If you’re wiring up your own RJ-45 connectors for a TCP/IP network, you need
this information about the connections to make sure you connect the pins
correctly:
 Pin 1: White/orange
 Pin 2: Orange
 Pin 3: White/green
 Pin 6: Green
IDENTIFYING PRIVATE IP ADDRESS RANGES
Private IP address blocks are the IP addresses administrators most often use
for private networks. Most networks use IP addresses in one of these ranges:
 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Self-Check 2.4-1
Test I. Answer the question below. (15 points)
1. Why is inspection important in the workplace?

2. What is the final inspection?
3. Write the Private IP address range.
170
PREPARE COMPLETE REPORTS

Learning Objectives
After reading the INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Define what is a report and it’s significant in the management.
2. Recognize the structure in preparing a report
3. Prepare a complete report.
4.
Introduction:
A report or account is an informational work, such as writing,
speech, television or film, made with the intention of relaying information or
recounting events in a presentable form.[1]
A report is made with the specific intention of relaying information or
recounting certain events in a way that is concise, factual and relevant to the
audience at hand. Reports may be conveyed through a written medium,
speech, television, or film. In professional spheres, reports are a common and
vital communication tool. Additionally, reports may be official or unofficial, and
can be listed publicly or only available privately depending on the specific
scenario. The audience for a report can vary dramatically, from an elementary
school classroom to a boardroom on Wall Street.
Understanding the types of writing a report involves. Being able to
identify the audience and purpose of your report. ... Understanding how good
organization of your report helps the reader find the information they want.
Being able to communicate well both in writing and using graphical data.
Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a
result of research and analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide
range of topics, but usually focus on transmitting information with a clear
purpose, to a specific audience. Good reports are documents that are accurate,
objective and complete
Management reporting plays an important role in current business
environment. It gives a clear picture to executive teams about the financial
health of an organization but doesn't provide much information that help them
to understand how the business is performing at an operational level.
WHAT IS A REPORT?
 A report is the formal writing up of a project or a research investigation

 A report has clearly defined sections presented in a standard format,
which are used to tell the reader what you did, why and how you did it
and what you found
 Reports differ from essays because they require an objective writing style
which conveys information clearly and concisely
171
STRUCTURING YOUR REPORT
How many sections?
Most reports include the following sections:
1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
8. References
9. Appendices
What goes in each section?
1. Title
 This should be short and precise. It should tell the reader of the nature
of your research.
 Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. ‘A study of….’ is not necessary.
2. Abstract
The Abstract is a self-contained summary of the whole of your report. It will
therefore be written last and is usually limited to one paragraph. It should
contain:
 An outline of what you investigated (as stated in your title)
 Why you chose to look at that particular area with brief reference to prior
research done in the field
 Your hypothesis (prediction of what the results will show)
 A brief summary of your method
 Your main findings and how these relate to your hypothesis
 A conclusion which may include a suggestion for further research
3. Introduction
The Introduction ‘sets the scene’ for your report; it does this in two ways:
 By introducing the reader in more detail to the subject area you are
looking at
 Through presenting your objectives and hypotheses
Explain the background to the problem with reference to previous
work conducted in the area (i.e. a literature review).Only include studies that
have direct relevance to your research.
Briefly discuss the findings of other researchers and how these
connect with your study.
Finally, state your aims or hypothesis.
172
4. Method
The Method section should describe every step of how you carried out
your research in sufficient detail so that the reader understands what you did.
Information on your experimental design, sampling methods, participants, and
the overall procedure employed should be clearly specified.
This information is usually presented under the following sub-headings:
 Objective
 Design
 Participants
 Procedure(s)
5. Results
Your Results section should clearly convey your findings. These are
what you will base your commentary on in the Discussion section, so the
reader needs to be certain of what you found.
 Present data in a summarized form
 Raw data
Do not over-complicate the presentation and description of your
results. Be clear and concise.
 Describe what the results were, don’t offer interpretations of them
 Present them in a logical order
 Those that link most directly to your hypothesis should be given first
Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
 Do not present the same data in two or more ways i.e. use either a table
or a graph, or just text.
 Remember that a graph should be understandable independently of any
text, but you may accompany each with a description if necessary.
 Use clear and concise titles for each figure. Say which variables the
graph or table compares.
 Describe what the graph or table shows, then check that this
really is what it shows! If it isn’t, you need to amend your figure, or your
description.
Statistical Analysis
If you conducted a statistical analysis of your results:
 Say which test you used
 Show how your results were analyzed, laying out your calculations
clearly (ensure you include the level of probability or significance p or P,
and the number of observations made n)
 Clearly state the results of the analysis saying whether the result was
statistically significant or not both as numbers and in words
6. Discussion
The Discussion section is the most important part of your report. It
relates the findings of your study to the research that you talked about in your
introduction, thereby placing your work in the wider context. The discussion
helps the reader understand the relevance of your research to previous and
173
further work in the field. This is your chance to discuss, analyze and interpret
your results in relation to all the information you have collected.
The Discussion will probably be the longest section of your report and
should contain the following:
 A summary of the main results of your study
 An interpretation of these results in relation to your aims, predictions
or hypothesis, e.g. is your hypothesis supported or rejected?, and in
relation to the findings of other research in the area
 Consideration of the broader implications of your findings. What do
they suggest for future research in the area? If your results contradict
previous findings what does this suggest about your work or the work of
others? What should be studied next?
 A discussion of any limitations or problems with your research method
or experimental design and practical suggestions of how these might be
avoided if the study was conducted again
 Some carefully considered ideas for further research in the area that
would help clarify or take forward your own findings
7. Conclusions
The Conclusion section briefly summarize the main issues arising from your
report
8. References
 Give details of work by all other authors which you have referred to in
your report
 Check a style handbook or journal articles for variations in referencing
styles
9. Appendices
The Appendices contain material that is relevant to your report but
would disrupt its flow if it was contained within the main body. For example:
raw data and calculations; interview questions; a glossary of terms, or other
information that the reader may find useful to refer to. All appendices should
be clearly labelled and referred to where appropriate in the main text
EXAMPLE:
The Informational Report Letter
The informational letter report typically provides readers with
information about a firm’s products, services, or operations.
The following informational report is a letter report to Houston’s
Texas Occupational Safety and Health Administration Inspector. While
inspecting Churchill’s plant, the marshal found its Spanish, French and
Portuguese procedures to be outdated and missing significant portions of
information. The inspector gave Churchill one month to update their standard
operating procedures and job safety procedures and have a certified
translation company translate them. The writer numbers items and underlines
job titles to delineate clearly everyone’s responsibilities. The Texas
Occupational Safety and Health Administration thus can see at a glance who is
responsible for various procedures.
174
Employees receiving the same report (in memo form) can quickly determine
their responsibilities and see, at a glance, where they should exit the building.
CHURCHILL’S
1110 Main Street
Houston, Texas 77002
Mr. Jack Pine

August 23, 2012
Texas Occupational Safety and Health Administration
32 Allumette Lane
Houston, VT 05363
Dear Mr. Pine:
SUBJECT: CHURCHILL’S JOB SAFETY AND STANDARD OPERATING

PROCEDURES
Here is the report you requested on our job safety and operating procedures. We
have followed your suggestions by clearly delineating responsibilities for all
personnel in plant safety. This report, the attached diagrams (not included here
to save space) and manuals are available at each station and have been
circulated to all employees and are also posted on all department bulletin
boards. As instructed, we hired a Houston Translation Services company to
translate all of our manuals into the languages spoken on the plan floor. We are
currently developing a plan to ensure regular updates are made to the manuals.
Specific procedures are as follows:
l. The Packaging Manager will stand in front of his department near the
packaging equipment and minders to observe employees operating the
equipment and working near the machinery. He will direct employees out the
employee entrance or through the main office, depending on the location of the
fire.
2. The Assembly Manager will be responsible for the proper shutdown of all
equipment before shifts leave end. Press operators and injection operators will
perform shutdown of ovens and extruders.
3. The Production Supervisor will go to the junction at the per-assembly and

finishing cells to ensure work areas are clutter free, proper attire is worn and
safety equipment is working prior to the startup
175
5. During the first shift, the Quality Control Manager will direct traffic at the
entrance of the cafeteria hallway to control running and keep employees
from going to the locker rooms.
On the second and third shifts, the Shift Manager will cover the area.
6. In the supplies room, the forklift operator on each shift will inspect the
forklift for any visible damage.
7. In the shipping area, the Shift Supervisor will ensure employees are
directed out of the building through the east hallway.
We hope these procedures are satisfactory since we seek the utmost safety for
our employees. Should you have any questions or further suggestions, please
call me at 832-999-9999, ext. 201. We look forward to your next inspection in
October.
Yours truly,
Sharon Smith
V.P. Operations
Self-Check 2.4-2
Test I.
1.What are the steps in making a report?
176

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CORE UNIT 2

SAINT JAMES ACADEMY OF SKILLS TECHNOLOGY, INC.

SECTOR : ELECTRONICS SECTOR

LEARNING OUTCOME NO. 1: INSTALL NETWORK CABLES

Planning and Cabling Networks

ANs - Making the Physical Connection

Device Selection Factors

Factors to Consider in Choosing a Switch

The need for speed is ever-present in a LAN environment. Newer computers

1. Just enough ports for today's needs?

When selecting a router, we need to match the characteristics of the router to

For the selection of devices, the budget is an important consideration. Routers

LAN and WAN - Getting Connected

Total Cable Length

For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the

The telecommunications room is where connections to intermediary devices

Horizontal cabling refers to the cables connecting the telecommunication

Backbone cabling refers to the cabling used to connect the telecommunication

Choosing the cables necessary to make a successful LAN or WAN connection

 UTP (Category 5, 5e, 6, and 7)

The devices in a network have different bandwidth requirements. When

Wireless networks require cabling, at some point, to connect devices,

Electromagnetic Interference/Radio Frequency Interference

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

Interference can be produced by electrical machines, lightning, and other

UTP cabling connections are specified by the Electronics Industry

2. Wear Safety Glasses and Protective Clothing

Straight-through UTP Cables

 Switch to a router Ethernet port

For two devices to communicate through a cable that is directly connected

If the Tx pin on a device is numbered 1, and the Rx pin is numbered 2, the

As a reminder, the common uses are listed again:

Use straight-through cables for connecting:

Use crossover cables for connecting:

Making WAN Connections

 Telephone line RJ11 connectors for dialup or Digital Subscriber Line

Data Communications Equipment and Data Terminal Equipment

 Data Communications Equipment (DCE) - A device that supplies the

If a serial connection is made directly to a service provider or to a device that

When making WAN connections between two routers in a lab environment,

How Many Hosts in the Network?

To develop an addressing scheme for a network, start with determining the

Network devices requiring an IP address include:

 Router LAN interfaces

Network devices requiring an IP address for management include:

There may be other devices on a network requiring an IP address. Add them to

How Many Networks?

There are many reasons to divide a network into subnets:

 Manage Broadcast Traffic - Broadcasts can be controlled because one

Counting the Subnets

Each subnet, as a physical network segment, requires a router interface as the

 A unique subnet and subnet mask for each physical segment

Designing the Address Standard for our Internetwork

Some of the different categories for hosts are:

For example, when allocating an IP address to a router interface that is the

Calculating the Subnets

Calculating Addresses: Case 1

In this section, we will use a sample topology to practice allocating addresses to

The number and grouping of hosts are: