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Chapter 25
Constructed Wetlands:
Description and Benefits of an Eco-
Tech Water Treatment System

Alexandros I. Stefanakis
University of Brighton, UK

ABSTRACT
Constructed Wetlands are an alternative, promising technology for water/wastewater treatment and pol-
lution mitigation. They belong to the wider category of natural treatment systems. The main principle is
to exploit natural materials (gravel, sand, plants) and naturally occurring processes under controlled
conditions for treatment purposes. Constructed Wetlands have been characterized as an environmentally
friendly, sustainable technology which provides multiple economic, ecological, technical and societal
benefits. It is a rising technology which can be effectively used for domestic, municipal and industrial
wastewater treatment, as also for sludge dewatering and drying. This chapter presents an overview of
this eco-technology; its different types, main design considerations and various advantages over con-
ventional treatment methods.

INTRODUCTION

The use of natural processes is not something new in waste/wastewater processes. Practically, most known
technologies and techniques are based on these processes, such as sedimentation, filtration, biological
activity etc, and are often constructed with complex and energy-consuming mechanical equipment.
The difference that separates natural treatment systems from conventional ones is that only natural
components are used for the treatment. Naturally occurring processes are utilized under a controlled
environment, without the input of external energy source, unless perhaps for pump operation. Among
the various natural treatment systems such as facultative and oxidation ponds, Constructed Wetlands
(CWs) appear as one of the most promising eco-tech treatment methods, which have been attracting
increasing worldwide interest. Their excellent treatment performance, coupled with an environmentally
friendly character and reduced overall costs are gradually placing Constructed Wetlands in the forefront

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-1210-4.ch025

Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Constructed Wetlands

of the scientific and marketing interest. This chapter discusses the multiple environmental, economic
and technical advantages of these treatment systems and includes a brief description of their design and
the wide range of their applications. These characteristics aim at presenting current research progress
on sustainability issues in innovative wastewater treatment systems.

Background

Wetlands are considered today as natural systems with great ecological significance which provide
habitat for numerous species and support their life. Natural Wetlands includes various benefits such as
groundwater aquifer enrichment, control of flood incidents, absorption of carbon dioxide, heat storage
and release, sediment trapping and other (Stefanakis, Akratos & Tsihrintzis, 2014). Their values can be
translated in ecological, social, cultural and economic units (De Grot, Stuip, Finlayson, & Davidson,
2006). It was gradually realized that natural wetlands had always been capable of providing water purifi-
cation and improving water quality, at least up until the point where industrial contamination had become
so intensive. This observation initiated the investigation of re-assessing existing wetland purification
potential. Natural wetlands have been utilized as disposal sites for secondary or tertiary wastewater ef-
fluents for many years, even some thousands years ago. Sewerage collection systems were constructed
in the Zakros and Knossos Palaces during the Minoan era in the Greek Island of Crete, where nearby
torrents and wetlands were used as disposal sites (Angelakis, Koutsoyiannis, & Tchobanoglous, 2005;
Stefanakis et al., 2014). In modern times, the transition from Natural to Constructed Wetlands (CWs)
was based on the potential exploitation of naturally occurring processes in a controlled environment for
beneficial human and environmental usage and the healthy perpetuation of the natural environment. In
this context, man-made Constructed Wetlands are designed to mimic and, thus, enhance the functions
and operations of natural wetlands. While Constructed Wetlands generally offer the same functions and
values as natural wetlands do, they also may appear as a more ecologically endowed system. Studies
have shown that Constructed Wetlands possess a higher value in terms of flood and stormwater control,
water quality improvement and biodiversity restoration (Ghermandi, Van den Bergh, Brander, De Groot,
& Nunes, 2010). This may be because they are more easily integrated into the built infrastructure by
urban planners, engineers, and landscape architects.
Today, the term “Constructed Wetlands” (also known as ““Treatment Wetlands” or “Reed Beds”)
refers to engineered systems which are designed to exploit under controlled conditions the processes that
occur in nature (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Constructed Wetlands belong to the wider category of natural
treatment systems which primarily rely on natural processes and/or natural components for wastewater
treatment, where intensive use of external energy input can be avoided. Natural treatment systems are
mainly classified into terrestrial, aquatic and wetland systems. Aquatic systems include stabilization or
oxidation ponds and terrestrial systems slow rate systems and soil aquifer treatment (Stefanakis et al.,
2014). Constructed Wetlands are in the middle of these two categories. The technology of Constructed
Wetlands began with laboratory experiments in the Max Planck Institute in Germany in the 1950s. The
first system in Europe was constructed in the 1960s and in the USA in the 1970s-1980s. Despite these
early experiments and attempts, until the end of the 1980s Constructed Wetlands technology was not
widely tested or utilized. Failure incidents of some of the first systems due to inadequate design, indicat-
ing lack of experience, and competition from conventional treatment methods in use for more than 80
years, were considered as the main initial obstacles for this limited expansion. However, over the last 20

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Constructed Wetlands

years the interest for alternative treatment methods has increased and the Constructed Wetlands technol-
ogy has experienced a tremendous increase in both research and applications, due to the simultaneous
increase of environmental awareness and sensitivity. Stefanakis et al. (2014) reported that the number
of published scientific papers on Constructed Wetlands during the decade 2000-2010 has more than
doubled, compared to the previous decade (1990-2000).
Constructed Wetlands represent one of the most interesting and attractive developments in environ-
mental/ecological engineering. The philosophy behind this type of wastewater system is based on the
decentralized approach in contrast to what had been regarded as the centralized approach of conventional
biological treatment methods which dominate the wastewater market. This new approach also introduces
new parameters and views in wastewater treatment, such as sustainability and overall environmental
impact. The following section of this chapter presents an overview of constructed wetland classification,
technology and description of its principal characteristics, with a focus on its advantages and benefits
and its various wastewater treatment applications.

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS TECHNOLOGY

Classification

Constructed Wetlands can be classified according to their functions and aims in three main application
areas (Knight, 1997; Stefanakis et al., 2014):

• Habitat creation: these systems are designed to provide a revitalized wildlife habitat and to
enhance the pre-existing ecological benefits of the technology such as attracting animals such
as birds and creating a green area, while addressing the water/wastewater treatment and mitiga-
tion. In this category, four different types of CWs exist: ponds, marshes, swamps and ephemeral
wetlands.
• Flood control: these systems operate as runoff receivers during flood incidents and increase the
storm water storage capacity in urban areas.
• Wastewater treatment: systems designed and operated to receive and treat wastewater of differ-
ent origin.

Another widely used classification of CW systems is based on the main characteristics of the system
such as the direction of the water flow and the type of vegetation used, as it is depicted in Fig. 1. Thus,
based on the flow path across the CW system, there are two general types (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009;
Stefanakis et al., 2014):

A. Free water surface constructed wetlands (FWS CWs) and

B. Subsurface flow constructed wetlands (SF CWs).

A further classification of SF CWs can be made depending on the flow path direction; horizontal
(HSF CWs) or vertical (VFCWs).

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Constructed Wetlands

Figure 1. Classification of Constructed Wetlands.

The type of vegetation used in CWs is one of the major characteristics of the system. Thus, based
on the vegetation type, CWs can be also classified as (a) emergent macrophyte wetlands, (b) submerged
macrophyte wetlands and (c) floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) (Vymazal, 2007; Stefanakis et al.,
2014). CWs with rooted emergent macrophytes are the most widely used.

Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands (FWS CWs)

This type of CWs is widely used in North America, almost exclusively for wastewater treatment appli-
cations (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009). They are shallow basins or channels containing a soil layer (30-40
cm thick), in which the macrophytes are planted. Most common plants species used are common reeds
(Phragmites australis), cattails (Typha spp), bulrush (Scirpus spp) and herbs (Juncus spp) (Vymazal,
2013; Stefanakis et al., 2014). The bottom of the basin (as in all CW systems) is covered by a geo-textile/
geo-membrane or clay material in order to prevent wastewater leakage to the groundwater. Above the
soil layer there is a water column (20-40 cm deep or deeper) which is exposed to the atmosphere and the
solar radiation (Vymazal, 2013). Appropriate water level control at the outlet of the system regulates the
depth of the water column; usually there is flexibility in the depth adjustment. The water flows through
the plant stems and comes into contact with the top layer of the soil and the plant parts, which allows
for the pollutant removal through various physical, biological and chemical processes. FWS CWs tend
to attract mosquitos, especially when the water remains almost stagnant. This system performs well for
suspended solids (SS) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) removal. Removal of nitrogen (N) and
pathogens is satisfying, but phosphorus (P) removal is usually limited (Vymazal, 2007; Kadlec & Wallace,
2009; Kotti, Gikas, & Tsihrintzis, 2010; Stefanakis et al., 2014). FWS CWs have been applied for the
treatment of primary and secondary municipal effluents, storm water and highway runoff and agricultural
wastewater (Vymazal, 2013; Stefanakis et al., 2014). This type of CWs has higher area demands when
compared with other types for the same wastewater characteristics (origin, flow). Since these systems
have an open water surface they tend to resemble natural wetlands at a greater level.

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Constructed Wetlands

Figure 2. Schematic Representation of Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands.

Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands (HSF CWs)

HSF CWs are more widely used in Europe than in the USA (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2009a). These
systems are basins containing gravel material, usually planted with common reeds (Phragmites austra-
lis) or other species such as Typha (e.g., latifolia, angustifolia) and Scirpus (e.g., lacustris, californicus)
(Vymazal, 2011). The substrate used is rocks of different origin and composition. Unlike FWS CWs, in
this CW type there is no water surface exposed to the atmosphere; the water level is kept 5-10 cm below
the gravel layer surface and water flows through the pores of the substrate media and comes into contact
with the media grains, the plant roots and the attached biofilm (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Thus, respective
health risks due to possible human contact with the wastewater and mosquito issues are limited in this
CW type (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009). The substrate layer thickness varies from 30 to 80 cm (Akratos &
Tsihrintzis, 2007; Kadlec & Wallace, 2009). The bottom of the bed is usually covered with an imperme-
able geo-membrane and has a slight slope (1-3%) to allow the water flow. As for FWS CWs, the uniform
distribution of the wastewater across the wetland width at the inflow point is a key parameter for the
proper function of the system (Akratos & Tsihrintzis, 2007), while step-feeding of the wastewater along
the wetland length has been found to enhance the system performance (Stefanakis, Akratos, & Tsihrintzis,
2011a). HSF CWs have the advantage of lower area demands compared to FWS CWs, although capital
costs might be higher (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). This CW type has been proved
to be very effective in the treatment of municipal wastewater, removing SS and organic matter (BOD5)
at high rates, although nutrient removal (nitrogen, phosphorus) is usually lower (Akratos & Tsihrintzis,
2007; Vymazal, 2007; Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Various modifications of the
system design have been proposed in order to improve the performance such as effluent recirculation
(Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2009a), wastewater step-feeding (Stefanakis et al., 2011a), water level raising
(Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2009a) and effluent treatment with zeolite gravity filters (Stefanakis, Akratos,
Gikas, & Tsihrintzis, 2009a). HSF CWs have been also applied for the treatment of industrial wastewater,
e.g., mine drainage, dairy, swine, olive mills, landfill leachate, cork effluent, contaminated groundwater,
hydrocarbons etc. (Vymazal, 2009; Santos et al., 2012; Stefanakis et al., 2013).

Figure 3. Schematic representation of Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands.

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Constructed Wetlands

Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands (VFCWs)

Until recently, this type of CWs was the least developed and applied. At the early stages of CW tech-
nology, FWS and HSF CWs were the dominant types, mainly due to higher overall costs for VFCWs
construction and operation. However, the interest in VFCWs was gradually increased with time; espe-
cially when the higher oxygen transfer capacity of this CW type was realized compared to the horizontal
flow beds. Thus, over the last 15 years research on VFCW systems was substantially intensified. Today,
there are various modifications of VF systems which are either already applied or under investigation.
VFCWs are mainly used in Europe, and especially in Denmark, Austria, Germany, France, and the
United Kingdom (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). The most common setup is a basin
containing several layers of gravels and sand with increasing gradation from top to the bottom (Stefa-
nakis & Tsihrintzis, 2009b; 2012a; Stefanakis et al., 2014). The total thickness of the substrate varies
from 30 to 180 cm (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Usually, the top layer of the bed is a sand layer. Plants are
established in the top gravel layer or in the sand layer (if any). As for the other CW types, common
reeds (Phragmites australis) and cattails (Typha latifolia) are the two most widely used plant species.
The bottom of the bed is covered by a geo-membrane/geo-textile material and has a slight slop of 1-2%.
VFCWs also contain perforated vertical aeration tubes which are connected at the bottom of the bed with
the drainage collection pipeline system. These aeration tubes allow for the better aeration of the deeper
parts of the bed (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012a). The wastewater is applied in batches on top of the
bed and drains vertically by gravity, while it should be uniformly distributed across the entire surface
of the bed (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012a; Stefanakis et al., 2014). VFCWs have smaller surface area
demands compared to HSF and FWS CWs. Due to the better aeration capability, VFCWs are very ef-
fective in organic matter (BOD5) and ammonia nitrogen removal, usually more effective than HSF CWs
(Vymazal, 2007; Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Phosphorus removal remains limited
and alternative modifications have been proposed for performance improvement, e.g., an additional stage
with gravity filters containing bauxite, zeolite or other material for effluent treatment (Brix & Arias,
2005; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012b). Their overall effectiveness enabled the use of this CW type for
the treatment of wastewater with different origin, e.g., domestic, municipal, industrial, agro-industrial
and landfill leachate (Stefanakis et al., 2014).

Figure 4. Schematic representation of Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands.

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Constructed Wetlands

Floating Treatment Wetlands (FTWs)

This type is the latest version of CW technology, combining both a traditional CW system and a pond
(Van de Moortel, Meers, Pauw, & Tack, 2010). These systems consist of a floating element (usually
made of a plastic material) on which the plants are established; thus, it could be stated that these systems
optically look like floating islands. As in the other CW types, the plants develop a deep and dense root
system within the underlying water column (Tanner & Headley, 2011; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Since the
combined system of the porous plastic basis and the plants floats on the water surface, the system is not
affected by fluctuations of the water level. FTWs have been used for water purification in rivers, chan-
nels, lakes etc., as also for stormwater, domestic and municipal wastewater treatment (Van de Moortel
et al., 2010; Stefanakis et al., 2014).

Sludge Treatment Wetlands (STWs)

These systems represent a special and very promising application of CW technology, for the treatment
and management of excess sludge that is produced in conventional wastewater treatment plants. STWs
appear as alternative systems to mechanical dewatering methods such as centrifuges or filter presses.
They resemble vertical flow constructed wetlands (Fig. 4) in the design and construction, but they are
modified systems for wastewater sludge dewatering and drying (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012c; Stefa-
nakis et al., 2014). As the vertical flow systems, STWs are rectangular or trapezoidal excavated basins
filled with substrate materials planted with reeds (Nielsen, 2003). Usually the basin contains 1-2 gravel
layers and on top a sand layer (Nielsen, 2005), although there have been systems designed without a top
sand layer (Stefanakis et al., 2009b; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012c). The total thickness of the porous
media layers varies between 30-70 cm (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Sludge is applied on top of the bed in
feeding cycles: a typical feeding scheme is 2-10 days of sludge feeding followed by 1-3 weeks of resting
(Nielsen, 2003; Stefanakis et al., 2009b; Stefanakis and Tsihrintzis, 2012c). The bottom of the beds can
be either constructed with concrete or excavated and covered with a liner, typically with a material of
low-permeability as for the other CW types (i.e., HDPE geo-membrane covered in both sides with geo-
textile or clay) (Stefanakis et al., 2014). The bottom layer also contains a network of perforated plastic
pipes for the collection of the drained water that flows vertically through the bed body. This bottom
pipe network is connected with the atmosphere with vertical perforated plastic aeration pipes which are
extended above the top layer and are open on their top end. STWs achieve high rates of sludge dewa-
tering (volume reduction up to 96%; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012c; Stefanakis et al., 2014), through
evapotranspiration and draining processes (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2011).

Figure 5. Schematic representation of Floating Treatment Wetlands.

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Constructed Wetlands

Design Considerations of Constructed Wetland Facilities

CW beds are generally considered as easy to build and operate; however, the proper design of a CW facil-
ity is not as easy as it seems. Since it is a relatively new technology, there are not unanimously accepted
guidelines or a widely applied setup. System design tends to differ not only from country to country but
also among designers and experts/engineers. Personal experience is usually a key parameter. However,
there are general rules and some basic design considerations which are used during the design process,
including meteorological, topographical and operational parameters such as (Stefanakis et al., 2014):

• Climatic conditions of the area where the system will be installed,

• Topographical information in order to choose the most appropriate installation site,
• Geological structure of the area,
• Availability of the necessary land,
• Current and future wastewater flow and volumes,
• Any legal limits that apply in the area for the effluent quality – desired treatment performance
• Possibilities/desire for effluent reuse options,
• A nearby water body-effluent receiver,
• Total costs.

As it is obvious, most of these general parameters are common prior the implementation of any treat-
ment technology. There are three main design parameters for constructed wetland systems which should
be taken into account: (a) unit area demand (m2/pe), (b) organic and hydraulic loading and (c) oxygen
transfer capacity (Stefanakis et al., 2014). The unit area demand expresses the surface area demand (m2)
per person equivalent (pe). This parameter is generally accepted and serves as a good indication of the
overall land area demands. Apparently, this parameter is affected by the climatic conditions. However, it
is common than even for the same region different values are proposed based on the individual experi-
ence. Generally, VFCWs have lower area demands (1-2 m2/pe) than HSF CWS (5-10 m2/pe) (Stefanakis
et al., 2014). Organic (e.g., g BOD5 or COD/m2/yr) and hydraulic (m3/m2/d or m/d) loads are also used
and give a good idea of the system load. These parameters are very helpful in the determination of the
optimum loading which will cause no operational problems. Finally, the oxygen transfer capacity (OTC)
provides important information concerning the oxidation potential of the system, especially for organic
matter decomposition and ammonia nitrogen nitrification.
Another important parameter which is mostly applied in horizontal CWs (either surface or subsur-
face) is the hydraulic retention time (HRT), which is described as the ratio of volume (m3) to flow rate
(m3/d). Its value is crucial since it defines the available time for direct contact of the wastewater and the
wetland elements (porous media grains, plant roots, biofilm) and, thus, the extent of the various removal/
transformation processes. The selection of an appropriate HRT is directly related to the system surface
area (and so to the unit area demand) and performance. Currently, there are many published studies and
results from pilot and full-scale installations. For example, typical HRT in HSF CWs varies between
5-20 days, depending on the climatic conditions, the level of treatment etc. Dimensions of horizontal
beds are also important; usually HSF and FWS CWs have a rectangular plan view with a varying width
to length ratio of 1:3-5. Longer length than width is preferred in order to ensure plug flow hydraulics.

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Constructed Wetlands

Generally, designing and sizing a wetland bed varies from simple “rule of thumb” to more complex
models. The plug-flow first order k (known as the kC* model) is often used, as also Monod-type equa-
tions (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009). A simple equation which is often used for the calculation of the required
surface area for BOD5 removal is the following:

Q [ln ( Co / Ce )]
A=
KT d n (1)

where, A = the surface area of the bed (m2), d = the saturated depth of the bed (m), n = the substrate
porosity (decimal fraction), KT = the first-order areal rate constant (m/d), Q = the average daily flow rate
(m3/d), Co the mean influent BOD5 concentration (mg/L) and Ce the required effluent BOD5 concentra-
tion (mg/L). For example, for a bed depth of 0.6 m at 10°C, K gets the value 5.2. K values depend on
the biodegradability of the wastewater. Usually, BOD5 is used as the main target parameter, but other
pollutants such as suspended solids (SS), ammonia nitrogen and total phosphorus have also been used.
The parameters used for the evaluation of CWs performance are the same pollutant indicators as for every
wastewater treatment technology, such as organic matter (BOD5 and COD), nitrogen compounds (total
nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite), phosphorus (total phosphorus, ortho-phosphate), coliform
bacteria (E. coli, feacal coliforms) and heavy metals. Physical characteristics (e.g., dissolved oxygen,
electrical conductivity, pH etc) are also used to describe CWs operating conditions.
In Sludge Treatment Wetlands, the design is based on the quality of the raw sludge and the local cli-
matic conditions, as well as on the annual sludge production of the wastewater treatment plant (Stefanakis
et al., 2014). As for other CW types, the design and dimensioning of STWs follows mostly empirical
observations and personal experience of the designer. Again, there are no commonly accepted guide-
lines and the design varies from country to country. The basic design parameter is the sludge loading
rate (SLR; kg dm/m2/yr), which expresses the annual dry mass (dm/yr) or dry solids (ds/yr) that will be
applied to the bed per surface unit (m2). It is directly related to the climate of the installation area. For
example, proposed SLR for Denmark is 60 kg dm/m2/yr for activated sludge and 50 kg dm/m2/yr for
sludge with higher fat content (Nielsen, 2003). Higher SLRs have been proposed for the Mediterranean
basin: up to 90 kg dm/m2/yr in Greece (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012c), as also 45 kg dm/m2/yr in Italy
(Bianchi et al., 2011) and 55-110 kg dm/m2/yr in Spain (Uggetti et al., 2009; Uggetti, Ferrer, Molist,
& Garcıa, 2011). Stefanakis et al. (2014) presented an overview of SLRs applied in various countries
around the world. The operational life time of STWs can last up to 30 years and more and it is divided
in 2-3 phases of 8-12 years, based on the applied SLR. After the completion of each phase, the bed is
left to rest for some period (a few months up to 1 year), then the accumulated sludge residual is removed
and a new feeding cycle begins (Nielsen, 2003; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012c; Stefanakis et al., 2014).
Two important design features of CW facilities are the plant species and the substrate media. The
most common emergent plant species used are common reeds (Phragmites australis) and cattails (Typha
latifolia) and also Scirpus spp, due to their wide presence in most parts of the world. However, other
locally available species may also be used, for example in tropical regions bamboo has been tested in
CW systems. Generally, the selected species should be well adapted to the local climatic conditions,
tolerant against the various pollutants and with uptake capabilities of certain constituents such as nitro-
gen. It should be noted that indigenous species are always preferred for use in CWs and not exotic ones,
to avoid ecological risks such as invasion of the new species and/or diseases (Stefanakis et al., 2014).

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Constructed Wetlands

The selection of an appropriate substrate media is also important for the CW system and, as plants,
is connected with the system performance. The grain size should be carefully selected, especially for
subsurface systems, since clogging problems due to low porosity and high hydraulic loads might occur
and affect the system efficiency. An ideal substrate would also have the capacity of removing some
constituents from wastewater by various processes (e.g., ion exchange, adsorption, precipitation). The
substrate layer is also where the plants are established, thus, it supports plant growth and enhances sys-
tem stability, provides filtration effects and together with the plants supports the various transformation/
removal processes (Vymazal, 2007; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Media used in CW systems include natural
materials (e.g., minerals, rocks and soils), synthetic materials (e.g., synthetic zeolites, activated carbon)
and industrial by-products (e.g., slags, blast furnace) (Stefanakis et al., 2014).

Facility Layout

A full-scale CW facility comprises of several treatment stages. The first treatment stage is usually the
pre-treatment stage. In this stage, large material (e.g., papers, leaves, plastics etc.) and coarse particles
are firstly removed using mechanical equipment (e.g., screens and bars), along with a portion of the SS
and organic matter. Most common pre-treatment methods are septic or Imhoff tanks and primary sedi-
mentation tanks, although anaerobic digesters and stabilization ponds have also been used (Stefanakis
et al., 2014). This pre-treatment stage is very important in CW facilities, since a good performance
limits the clogging potential of the following CW beds. In case of industrial or agricultural wastewater,
pre-treatment can be more complex and intensive due to the heavier loads of these wastewater types.
Different CW types can be combined in the second and third (or even fourth if necessary) treatment
stages of a full-scale facility, usually HSF CWS and VFCWs (Stefanakis et al., 2014). These combined
systems are also known as hybrid CW systems. The concept is to exploit the specific treatment advan-
tages of each type in one facility and reach higher treatment efficiencies. For example, low nitrification
capacity of HSF CWs (due to limited OTC) is counterbalanced by VFCWs (good nitrification capacity,
high OTC). Additionally, HSF CWs can be used to provide denitrification of the nitrified effluent from
VFCWs. The most common combination is a two-stage system of a first VFCW bed followed by a HSF
CW. Stefanakis et al. (2014) presented several possible combinations of CW types in hybrid systems
that have been tested, e.g., VF-HSF, HSF-VF, HSF-VF-HSF, VF-HSF-HSF, VF-HSF-FWS.
The two-stage VFCW system gains increasingly interest since it has been proved very effective. VF-
CWs operate with parallel beds in each treatment stage. The presence of parallel VFCWs beds is neces-
sary to ensure the continuous operation of the facility, since VFCWs usually operate with intermittent
wastewater application (2-4 days of feeding followed by 2-8 days of resting) (Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis,
2012a; Stefanakis et al., 2014). The number of parallel beds in the third treatment stage is lower, since
the pollution load is respectively lower due to the prior treatment in the second-stage CW beds. A modi-
fication of the two-stage VFCW system has been developed in France, also known as the French system
(Molle, Liénard, Boutin, Merlin, & Iwema, 2005; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012a). This setup includes
two stages of VFCWs but no pre-treatment stage (only screens are used). The wastewater is applied di-
rectly on the surface of the first-stage VFCW bed. The key here is that the first-stage beds contain only
coarser material (no sand), in order to avoid clogging and gradually accumulate sludge on the surface.
The advantage of the French system is that it may have lower costs since no pre-treatment is applied.
A final post-treatment stage is not a basic element in the design of CW facilities but it is often ap-
plied when stringent effluent quality criteria have to be met, especially concerning pathogenic micro-

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organisms. Of course, the goal is not to produce a final effluent appropriate for use as potable water,
but to further improve the effluent quality and reach higher sanitation levels, in order to minimize or
even eliminate the environmental impact. This final stage could include disinfection methods such as
chlorination, ozonation or UV radiation. Maturation ponds or a final FWS CW system have also been
used as a final treatment stage. A post-treatment stage could also improve the overall system efficiency,
e.g., in phosphorus removal.
Facilities of Sludge Treatment Wetlands are similar to those of VFCWs. A STW facility consists of
several beds which are alternately loaded with sludge. The presence of several beds allows for the ap-
plication of feeding and resting periods in the beds and provides flexibility in the loading cycles applied
which may vary during winter and summer months (Stefanakis et al., 2014). The number of beds in a
STW facility depends on the sludge production of the wastewater treatment plant, the chosen SLR, the
cycles of feeding/resting periods and the climatic conditions. For example, Uggetti et al. (2009) used
3 beds, Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis (2012c) 4 beds and Nielsen (2003) 18 beds, which correspond to 400
and 123,000 pe served, respectively.

Advantages of Constructed Wetlands Technology

As an alternative, ecological treatment technology, CWs provide a series of multiple significant advantages
compared to conventional treatment methods such as activated sludge systems. Conventional treatment
systems are in use for more than 100 years now, serving a different approach of wastewater treatment
than CWs. The approach of conventional treatment systems consists in the construction of large, central-
ized facilities and respectively extended sewer networks for the collection and transport of wastewater.
It is not difficult to understand that big end-of-the-pipe centralized plants and the accompanied sewer
network represent high required investments. These facilities are also expensive in their operation and
maintenance. Of course, this type of facilities appears as the only solution to provide wastewater treat-
ment for large cities, capitals, and other populated urban areas. For these cases, high investment costs are
considered as reasonable and unavoidable. However, the question is whether this approach of centralized
treatment systems is even applicable in smaller cities, communities and rural areas. Over the last years,
an alternative approach of wastewater treatment has risen; the decentralized approach.
Although there have been in the past huge investments in infrastructure for centralized plants, gradual
population increase was not accompanied by respective increase in budgets to meet the needs for new
wastewater treatment facilities. Insufficient funding was even more realized due to the aging of existing
infrastructure, which means that additional investments are needed not only for new installations but also
for the refurbishment and technological upgrade of existing facilities. This means that new, innovative
and cost-effective methods are more welcome than in the past and the approach of decentralized treat-
ment becomes gradually more attractive. CWs belong exact to this category and serve this philosophy.
They are point-of-use treatment systems which can deliver effluents of the desired quality. They can be
installed in many areas and regions with reduced overall costs. However, the CW technology should not
be viewed as a direct and total competitor of conventional treatment systems. A complete replacement
of centralized facilities with CW systems is practically infeasible, since the required land area would
be very high; a demand which cannot be met in large densely populated urban areas. But CW systems
appear as an ideal solution for small and medium communities, small cities, villages, single households
or block of flats and generally rural, mountainous and remote areas, where sewer network does not exist

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Table 1. Main characteristics of conventional treatment systems (CTS) and Constructed Wetlands (CWs)
(Stefanakis et al., 2014).

Conventional Treatment Systems Constructed Wetlands

Infrastructure Many and complex mechanical parts No mechanical parts (maybe only pumps)
Usually lower construction costs than CTS
Investment High construction costs
(especially if there is available land)
Operational costs High Very low to zero
Land area demand Low High demand (e.g., 2-10 m2/pe)
Application scale Small - medium Medium - large
Similar with CTS, small fluctuations may appear
Performance Continuous effluent of high quality
with temperature variations
Use of non-renewable materials during construction
Almost exclusive use of renewable sources (solar,
Raw materials (concrete, steel, etc.) and operation (electrical power,
wind, etc.) - “ecological” character
chemicals)
Energy consumption High Low
Greenhouse Gas
High Very low
Emissions
Need for periodical check only (e.g., on a monthly
Need for daily monitoring
Operation basis) – autonomous operation,
Useful lifetime up to 25-30 years
Prolonged lifetime (>30 years)
Staff during operation Demand for specialized personnel No specialized personnel needed
High maintenance needs and costs - regular damages Low maintenance cost (only small mechanical parts
Maintenance
due to large/complex mechanical equipment – pumps)
Odors Large open air tanks, odor production Small problems only in free water surface systems
Insects Usually no significant problems Small problems only in free water surface systems
Response to flow Higher/shock inflow rates negatively affect the
Robust to high flow variations
variations performance
Robustness to toxic
Toxic pollutants may lead to system breakdown Robust to some toxic constituents
substances
Large daily volumes of sludge production, which
By-products Zero production of by-products
needs handling and management on a daily basis
Appearance Unattractive, “industrial appearance” Aesthetically accepted, green view

and the construction of a conventional treatment plant is economically unfeasible. For these areas, CW
technology provides many technical, economic and ecological benefits, which are summarized in Table 1.
CWs are in general easy to build, simple to operate and provide treatment robust to flow fluctua-
tions and pollutant concentrations. They appear as an ideal solution especially for small communities
and settlements and for onsite treatment, where current requirements and needs for effective wastewater
treatment are high. CWs facilities can satisfy general effluent discharge limits (e.g., BOD5 < 30 mg/L,
COD < 100 mg/L, total nitrogen < 15 mg/L), while effluents of even higher quality can also be achieved
(Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014).
Although conventional treatment systems provide effective wastewater treatment for many decades
now, they have certain disadvantages. Typical facilities of this type have an industrial appearance and
are unattractive, thus, they are usually installed away from residential areas. Centralized plants include

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large and complex mechanical equipment such as ventilators for aeration, pumps etc., while extensive
use of non-renewable materials (concrete, steel) takes place for the construction of the various basins,
tanks and equipment. This means that construction of such facilities can be expensive and non-environ-
mentally friendly, despite the fact that the aim is environmental-oriented (wastewater treatment). On the
other hand, CW facilities do not include mechanical parts. The only mechanical equipment is pumps to
transfer the water from one stage to the other, which - however - can be avoided with a proper design
and exploitation of the topography of the installation area. Moreover, conventional treatment plants are
energy-intensive systems and they require a large energy input for their operation. Facilities having many
complex mechanical parts and equipment may also require high maintenance demands. This means that
operational costs of such facilities are also high. On the contrary, minimum operational costs probably
represent the main advantage of CW facilities. In CWs, the energy input needed is very small, usually
only for the pumps that may exist in the facility. Energy requirements for the treatment processes are
covered by renewable energy sources used by plants (solar, wind energy). At the same time, maintenance
needs are also low, since the operation of a CW facility is practically autonomous; at the stage of full
operation, a typical maintenance scheme applied is one visit at the site on a monthly basis. There may
also be far less need for specialized personnel to run the CW facility, contrary to conventional plants
where specialized staff is necessary. Global experience from many countries and professionals has
shown that operational costs of CW facilities can be up to 90% lower compared to conventional plants.
Moreover, CWs operate without the need for the addition of any chemical substances, which is not the
case in conventional treatment plants.
Additionally, the treatment in CWs does not generate any by-product. Produced sludge is accumulated
within the system. On the other hand, in conventional treatment plants large amounts of excess sludge
are produced on a daily basis. This excess sludge needs to be managed, dewatered and stabilized in order
to be further exploited. Although the sludge volume represents only a small portion (1-3%) of the total
treated volume, its management and handling can reach up to 50% of the total facility costs (Stefanakis
et al., 2014). It is then realized the significant advantage of CWs of no by-product production. To be
accurate, though, it should be noted that occasional sludge removal (e.g., 2-3 times/years) should take
place if there is a pre-treatment stage (e.g., sedimentation or Imhoff tank), but this cost is by far lower
than the sludge production and handling cost in conventional systems. The only product that could
potentially be viewed as by-product in CW facilities is the plant biomass. Usually, the produced plant
biomass is harvested and collected once annually. However, this biomass can be exploited as biofuel for
energy production or for compost production. Additionally, in most CW systems problems with mosquito
and odor production are very low, especially in systems with subsurface flow, which is not the case in
conventional treatment facilities where the open wastewater tanks for settling and/or aeration attracts
mosquitos and insects and produce odors.

Disadvantages of Constructed Wetlands

Despite the various advantages of this technology, CWs have also some downsides which should be
taken into account. The major one is that CWs require a larger land area compared to a conventional
treatment facility. Although continuous research managed to reduce the total footprint of CW facilities
and optimize their design (e.g., the use vertical flow systems and lately of aerated systems), area de-
mands are still higher (e.g., 3-10 times) for CWs than for conventional systems (Stefanakis et al., 2014).
Furthermore, false design could also result in odor problems and the appearance of a water surface in

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subsurface systems. However, it should be noted that if properly designed and constructed, CWs gener-
ally do not create odor issues.
Since the wetland technology still remains relatively new, the CW system is often viewed using the
“black box” approach and simple regression equations are used for the design (Button, Nivala, Weber,
Aubron, & Müller, 2014). On the other hand, it is known that most of the pollutant removal mechanisms
are based on microbial processes (Faulwetter et al., 2009), which means that a better understanding of
the fundamental processes taking place inside the system is necessary, in order to provide an optimum
design and performance (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Thus, the design of CWs is still largely based on
empirical data and professional experience. This also explains the fact that there are not yet widely ac-
cepted design guidelines for CW systems. Additionally, optimum performance is usually reached after
one or two years of operation, when the plants are fully developed, while there might be some seasonal
variations in the overall efficiency.
It should be noted that all the above mentioned drawbacks are currently under investigation by the
scientific community. Intensified research over the last 10-15 years has managed to abate most of these
issues and further improvements are anticipated in the future.

Sustainable Character of Constructed Wetlands

Based on the above, it is obvious that CW systems possess various and multiple characteristics which
attach to this treatment technology an ecological character. They are often characterized as sustainable
systems. Low energy consumption and use of natural materials (gravel, soil, sand and plants) are the
two main treatment parameters in CWs. One of the largest projects using the wetland technology is
the Everglades restoration project, where CWs were used to remove nutrients from agricultural runoff
entering the Everglades (Guardo et al., 1995). This project is the largest restoration project in the USA
for stormwater treatment and presented in the most emphatic way the sustainable dynamic and treatment
capacity of CWs. Similar projects of sustainable design using the wetland technology have been developed
for the removal of nonpoint-source pesticide pollution in river catchments (Schulz & Peall, 2001) and
diffuse pollution at the catchment scale (Harrington, O’Donovan, & McGrath, 2013), the protection of
coastal zone from human activities and pollution in China (Zuo, Wan, Qin, Du, & Wang, 2004), stream
restoration (Wang, Gao, Guo, Li, & Zhang, 2012; Palmer, Filoso, & Fanelli, 2014), among others.
However, in order to characterize a technology as “green” there are specific factors which should
be met such as effective treatment, robustness, no by-products, recycle/reuse of materials, minimum
energy consumption – use of renewable energy sources, minimum/no use of chemicals and minimum
environmental nuisance (Brix, 1999). The sustainable character of a treatment system is defined by its
economic viability, technical feasibility, environmental protection and social acceptance (SunSanA,
2008). Additionally, it should close the flow cycle of materials, i.e., provide the option for safe reuse of
the treated effluents. The approach of sustainable sanitation systems integrates aspects such as public
health and hygiene, protection of the environment and natural resources, technological and operational
parameters, financial parameters and socio-cultural aspects (SunSanA, 2008; Langergraber, 2013).
Health aspects are of crucial importance since they would determine the level of exposure risk to
pathogenic microorganisms and other hazardous compounds. CW systems have been found to be effective
in pathogens elimination (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). In VFCWs reported elimi-
nation rates reach up to 3 logs (i.e., 99.99%) (Stefanakis et al., 2014), while in FWS CWs respectively
high rates are reported due to direct UV radiation and disinfection (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009).

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The level of environmental protection and natural resources preservation in CW systems is also high.
Effective treatment and high removal efficiencies significantly decrease the pollution load that reaches
the final receivers (surface and ground water bodies), thus, limiting the risk for ecosystem and aquatic
life degradation. Moreover, the construction of CW systems takes place with natural materials (gravel/
sand, plants) which are locally available worldwide and minimum use of synthetic or non-renewable
materials takes place. This means that the production and provision of raw materials for CWs construc-
tion does not include significant energy-consuming and pollution generating processes. The minimum
energy consumption in CW facilities also saves natural resources and minimizes pollution generation,
especially when the energy source is non-renewable (e.g., fossil fuels). These environmental benefits
can be translated to low levels of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4 and N2O) (Langergraber, 2013;
Stefanakis et al., 2014).
Quantification of these gas emissions for various wastewater treatment methods during both con-
struction and operation phases is important for the estimation of the ecological impact and the global
warming potential. Studies report that CW systems have a slightly lower environmental impact during
the construction phase compared to other conventional methods (e.g., activated sludge, trickling filters),
but a much lower impact for the operation phase (Georges, Thornton, & Sadler, 2009). Life cycle analy-
sis studies on CW systems and comparison with alternative scenarios of using conventional treatment
methods have also shown that the global warming potential of CWs is lower in terms of CO2 emissions
(Stefanakis et al., 2014). It is also interesting that in CW systems the major portion of the environmental
impact occurs during the construction phase than the operation phase (Dixon, Simon, & Burkitt, 2003;
Machado et al., 2007), while in conventional treatment plants the environmental impact of the operational
phase is higher than the impact of the construction phase (Dixon et al., 2003; Ortiz, Raluy, Serra, &
Uche, 2007; Renou, Thomas, Aoustin, & Pons, 2008; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Among the various CW
types, FWS systems produce the lowest CO2 emissions, VFCWs the lowest CH4 emissions, while N2O
emissions are reported to be comparable in all CW types (Mander et al., 2014). It should be noted that
hybrid CW systems, where different CW types are combined, achieve higher removal efficiencies and
minimum greenhouse gas emissions at the same time. The ecological character of CWs is also enhanced
by the fact that they promote biodiversity, they provide habitat for various wetland organisms, water
savings and multiple hydrological functions (Langergraber, 2013).
Similar results are reported for sludge dewatering in Sludge Treatment Wetlands (Stefanakis et al.,
2014). The comparison with conventional centralized facilities such as centrifuges, including all param-
eters of sludge management (transport, construction, raw materials, energy consumption), has shown
that STWs have the lower environmental impact (Uggetti et al., 2011). As for CWs for wastewater
treatment, the main impact occurs during the construction phase due to the raw materials used, while
respective impact for the operational phase is minimum. If the basin for the CW is simply excavated or
recycled concrete is used, when the impact of the construction phase can be reduced. Centrifuges have
the highest environmental impact, since their operation requires a high energy input. The contribution
of STWs to global warming is negligible. It is reported that the overall environmental impact of Sludge
Treatment Wetlands is 500 times lower when compared with centrifugation technique and 2000 times
lower compared to sludge transport to a centralized facility (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Moreover, studies
have shown that the final sludge product after treatment in STWs (biosolids) is a well stabilized and
non-phytotoxic valuable material which is safe for reuse and recycle, e.g., as fertilizer in agriculture
(Stefanakis et al., 2011b; Uggetti et al., 2011; Stefanakis & Tsihrintzis, 2012d)

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Constructed Wetlands

CW systems are in general easy to build and simple in the design and operation (Kadlec & Wallace,
2009). This facilitates the efficient installation of CW facilities, especially in remote areas. Proper design
and construction of a CW system allow it to perform in an effective and reliable manner. Problems such
as bed clogging, water runoff from the surface or limited plant development may be caused by inadequate
design or construction (Stefanakis et al., 2014). Typical problems such as pump/valve failure may occur
in CW systems as in conventional plants (Langergraber, 2013). Increased maintenance time and more
advanced skills may be required only in case of more complex CW modifications such as aerated beds.
The economic aspect is also an important factor in order to characterize a treatment method as
sustainable. The major costs during the construction phase of CWs are, in general, for the earthworks
(excavation and fill of the basin), the filter media to be used as substrates, the plants and the bottom liner
(e.g., geomembrane/geotextile) (Kadlec & Wallace, 2009; Stefanakis et al., 2014). Most of items are
usually locally available, which can decrease transportation costs, especially for short distances. The liner
and mechanological equipment (e.g., pumps) may represent a high portion of the costs if they are to be
purchased or imported. Labor costs also vary from country to country. Generally, construction costs of
CW facilities are comparable or slightly lower with those of conventional treatment plants (Langergraber,
2013; Stefanakis et al., 2014). For small-scale applications (e.g., up to 1,000 pe) CWs offer an economic
advantage in terms of investment but as the population served increases, the investment costs become
comparable mainly due to the higher land requirements. However, the main economic benefit of CWs
are the significantly reduced costs for operation and maintenance due to lower energy consumption and
technical equipment used (Brix, 1999; Dixon et al., 2003; Langergraber, 2013; Stefanakis et al., 2014).
The social aspect of CWs as treatment systems is increasingly enhanced. The green, aesthetical
appearance of CW facilities compared to the conventional treatment plants (Fig. 6) makes them more
acceptable by the society. Many enterprises (e.g., industries, municipal-private companies) choose the
CW technology for the treatment of wastewater produced in their premises as a mean to enhance their
green profile and incorporate the CW installation to their corporate social responsibility plan.

Providing Clean Water for Better Health

Being a wastewater treatment technology, the main goal of Constructed Wetland systems is to purify
wastewater and provide a final effluent of high quality. Degradation of the natural environment and
ecosystems is a result of the various human activities and the respective production and uncontrolled
discharge of wastewaters to surface- and groundwater. Wastewater treatment is today an absolutely
necessary process not only to protect the natural environment and the habitat, but also to protect human
health. Water pollution is an existent threat to human health, since surface water bodies (e.g., rivers,
lakes) as well as groundwater and aquifers are used as potable water supplies. Therefore, it is crucial that
wastewater generated by the various and multiple human activities is treated and purified prior the final
discharge, in order to reduce and eliminate the pollutant load. Under this frame, eco-friendly systems
such as Constructed Wetlands play a significant role. Their ability to provide wastewater treatment and
sanitation in a sustainable way adds credits to their role in the protection of the ecosystems and human
health. The further exploitation of the treatment potential of the Constructed Wetland technology will
bring additional benefits for the society, since it will contribute to the issues of human health protection
and natural environment conservation without causing an additional environmental impact.

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Constructed Wetlands

Figure 6. Typical view of a Constructed Wetland facility.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The CW technology is a relatively new technology, although first attempts were made almost 50 years
ago. Actual interest and increasing research and applications mainly occurred only during the last 20
years and have been intensified over the last decade. This means that design optimization and basic
understanding of the fundamental processes are still under investigation. Currently, there are not widely
accepted design guidelines, although some general parameters and assumptions are used by the majority
of researchers and engineers. Thus, the challenges in the field of CW technology are to further improve
the design of the system and optimize their performance. Design optimization is crucial since it may
allow for the decrease of the required surface area or footprint of the wastewater treatment facility.
Furthermore, future studies under varying climatic conditions will assist in the development of design
guidelines for extended regions. Additionally, the use of CWs for the treatment of more complex water
sources such as industrial wastewater is another field of great interest. While it is has been proven that
domestic and municipal wastewater can be effectively treated in CWs, recent applications for various
industrial wastewater, such as tanneries, textile mills, landfill leachates, olive oil mills etc., reveal the great
potential of the CW technology. Also, the development of reliable modeling tools for the performance
prediction and design improvement of CWs will be a major step forward. Finally, it is realized that the
various economic and environmental benefits of CW technology make them appropriate systems for water
sanitation in developing countries, a topic which is expected to be further developed in the near future.

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Constructed Wetlands

CONCLUSION

The technology of natural treatment systems and especially of Constructed Wetlands is appearing today
as one of the most attractive alternative technologies for wastewater treatment and sludge dewatering.
These treatment systems provide multiple economic, environmental, technical and societal benefits over
the conventional treatment methods such as activated sludge. Following the decentralized approach, the
technology of Constructed Wetlands is particularly appropriate in areas where the implementation of
a conventional treatment method is economically infeasible, such as in small-medium settlements and
communities, rural, mountainous and remote regions and for onsite treatment for single households
or block of flats. Especially for small-scale applications (i.e., up to 1,000 pe), Constructed Wetlands
possess significantly lower investment costs. Their main economic advantage comes from their opera-
tion phase due to the minimum energy requirements and the low needs for maintenance and personnel.
Constructed Wetland systems have been proved to provide very effective treatment of domestic and
municipal wastewater. Their overall effectiveness enables their application for various industrial and
agro-industrial wastewaters with very promising results. As natural treatment technology, Constructed
Wetlands can be characterized as sustainable systems, fulfilling sustainability criteria such as effective
sanitation, contribution to public health and hygiene aspects, environmental protection, protection of
natural resources, simple, reliable and robust operation and social acceptance. The potential of this treat-
ment technology is today widely recognized and further future expansion of the technology is anticipated
in both developed and developing countries.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand. An organic pollution indicator which expresses the part of
organic pollution which can be removed biologically (using microorganisms).
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand. An organic pollution indicator which expresses the total organic
pollution which can be removed by using a strong oxidant agent.
CH4: Chemical formula of methane. Atmospheric methane represents one of the greenhouse gases.
N2O: Chemical formula of nitrous oxide. It is a greenhouse gas and an air pollutant.
Facultative Pond: A pond type of natural systems where wastewater is treated biologically under
low oxygen conditions. The wastewater remains in this open-air pond for a prolonged period and then
is transferred to the next treatment stages.
HDPE: High-density polyethylene, a material made from petroleum. It is used in the production of
geomembranes that cover the bottom of tanks, constructed wetlands etc to prevent leaching of liquids
to the groundwater.
Imhoff Tank: A V-shaped tank used as primary treatment for wastewater. Its design aims at the
removal of solids and the separation from the liquid wastewater, as also the accumulation of sludge at
the bottom.
Landfill Leachate: The liquid which percolates from landfill sites and which contains several con-
taminants, sometimes toxic chemicals.
Log: Logarithm, the mathematical operation that is the inverse of exponentiation. It is used to express
the bacteria removal during wastewater treatment. Thus, 1log removal mean 90% kill of bacteria, 2log
99%, 3log 99.9%, 4log 99.99% etc.
Macrophytes: Aquatic plants that grow in water (or near water sources). Can be emergent, submer-
gent or floating.

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OTC: Oxygen Transfer Capacity. An indicator of the oxygen amount that can be transferred to
wastewater with different treatment technologies.
Oxidation Pond: A pond type of natural systems for wastewater treatment. They are large, shallow
basins where wastewater is treated through natural processes such as bacterial activity, sunlight and algae.
Mechanical aeration can also be used to increase the levels of oxygen required for the treatment processes.
Plug Flow: A flow type of a fluid inside a pipe, where it is assumed that the fluid has a constant
velocity across the cross-section of the pipe and no back mixing takes place.
Zeolite Gravity Filter: Filters containing a natural rock (zeolite) which operate with gravity (i.e.,
the use of pumps is avoided). These filters are used in wastewater treatment to remove pollutants mainly
through filtration and other processes.

This research was previously published in Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health and Environmental Sustainability
edited by A. Elaine McKeown and George Bugyi; pages 281-303, copyright year 2016 by Information Science Reference (an
imprint of IGI Global).

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