2 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA

INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES
Reference : Croft, A., & Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for
Engineers - A Modern Interactive Approach, Pearson
Education.

A matrix is a rectangular array or block of numbers usually

enclosed in brackets.
A m x n matrix has m rows and n columns.
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 1
 If the matrix A has m rows and n columns we can write:

 a11 a12  a1n 

a a22  a2 n 
A 21

     
a  amn 
 m1 am 2

where aij represents the number or element in the ith row and
jth column.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 2

 Special Matrices
A square matrix has the same number of rows as columns.

The main diagonal of a square matrix is the diagonal

running from ‘top left’ to ‘bottom right’.

An identity matrix, denoted by I, is a square matrix with

ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
 1 0 0
 
I   0 1 0
 0 0 1
 
The transpose of A is obtained by writing rows as columns
and columns as rows, and is denoted AT.
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 3
 Equality of Matrices
If A = (aij) and B = (bij), A = B if and only if aij= bij.

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

Matrices of the same size may be added to and subtracted
from one another. To do this, the corresponding elements
are added or subtracted.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 4

 3 5  7 6
 2 1 4 2  1 , C  3 9
e.g. 1 If A    , B 
    
 3 0 2  4 2  1 5

find A + B, B + C and B - C.

A + B is not defined as A and B are not of the same size.

 3 5  7 6 10 11
B + C = 2  1  3 9   5 8 
     
4 2  1 5  5 7 

 3 5  7 6    4  1 
2  1  3 9    1  10
B–C=      
4 2  1 5  3  3 
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 5
 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Number
Any matrix can be multiplied by a number. To do this, each
element of the matrix is multiplied by that number.
 7 13 5 
 
e.g.2 If A   9 8 2  , find 2A, -A.
 4 11 8 
 
 2 * 7 2 * 13 2 * 5  14 26 10 
   
2A =  2 * 9 2 * 8 2 * 2   18 16 4 
 2 * 4 2 * 11 2 * 8   8 22 16 
   

  1* 7  1*13  1* 5    7  13  5 
   
-A =   1* 9  1* 8  1* 2     9  8  2 
  1* 4  1*11  1* 8    4  11  8 
   

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 6

 Multiplication of Matrices
If A is a n x m matrix and B is a p x q matrix. For the product
AB to exist we must have m = p.
if m = p C
A B
n m p q
nq
if m ≠ p
does not exist

Note that matrix multiplication is :

i. not commutative (i.e. AB  BA).
ii. associative [i.e. ABC = (AB)C = A(BC)].
iii. If C = AB, the element cij is found from row i of A and
column j of B, as follows:
n

cij  a b
k 1
ik kj

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 7

 4 7 6 1 2 37 33
AB  8 2 6 3 1  26 36
4 5 5 2 3 29 28
3× 3 3× 2 3× 2

3
i.e. c21   a2 k bk 1  8 * 1  2 * 3  6 * 2  26
k 1

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 8

 3 5 
 2 1 4 2 1 , find AB.
e.g. 3 If A    & B 
  3 0 2   
4 2 
 2  3  1 2  4  4 2  5  1  1  4  2 
AB  
  3  3  0  2  2  4  3  5  0   1  2  2 
24 17 
 
  1  11 

Note that when a square matrix is post- or pre-multiplied

by an identity matrix of the appropriate size the matrix is
unchanged, i.e.
AI = IA = A
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 9
 DETERMINANTS, INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 12, Blocks 3,4

Determinant
All square matrices, A, possess a determinant denoted by :
det(A), |A|.

Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix

a b  a b
If A    , then det(A) = |A| = = ad - bc
c d  c d

A matrix which has a zero determinant is called singular.

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Minors and Cofactors of a 3 x 3 Matrix
Let aij be an element of a matrix A.

The minor of aij is the determinant formed by crossing out the ith
row and jth column of det(A).

The cofactor of aij = (-1)i+j x (minor of aij)

Note that the term (-1)i+j is called the place sign of the element
on the ith row and jth column. The following may help you to

  
memorize this.
 
  
  
 
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 11
Determinant of a 3 x 3 Matrix
 a11 a12 a13 
 
Consider a general 3 x 3 matrix, A =  a21 a22 a23 
a a33 
 31 a32

det(A) can be calculated by expanding along any row or

column. For example, expanding along the first row:

|A| = a11*(its cofactor) + a12*(its cofactor) + a13*(its cofactor)

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 12

 1 4 17
2 1 3
e.g.1 Find the value of 1  1 1 and 11 24 5
1 4 2 6 31 15
2 1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1  2*  1*   3*
4 2 1 2 1 4
1 4 2
 2 * ( 2)  1 * 3  3 * 5  14

1 4 17 24 5 4 17 4 17
11 24 5  1*  11 *   6*
31 15 31 15 24 5
 1* 205  11 * 467  6 *  388   3014
6 31 15

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 13

 Alternatively, by Rule of Sarrus

Repeat the 1st and 2nd column to right hand side of 3rd
column to form a 3 x 5 matrix.

det(A) = Add the product of SOLID diagonals from left top to

right bottom and subtract the products of DASH diagonals
from left bottom to right top.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 14

 Hence
2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4
 2 * (1) * (2)  1*1*1  3 *1* 4
3 * (1) *1  2 *1* 4  1*1* (2)
 14

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 15

 Properties of Determinants
i. If every element of a given row (or column) of the square
matrix is multiplied by the same factor, the value of the
determinant is multiplied by that factor
ii. If |B| is obtained by interchanged any 2 rows (or columns) of
|A|, then |B| = -|A|.
iii. Adding or subtracting a multiple of one row (or column) to
another row (or column) leaves the determinant
unchanged.
iv. If A and B are 2 square matrices and that AB exists, then
det(AB) = det(A)det(B).
v. If 2 rows or 2 columns of a square matrix are equal, the
determinant of the matrix is zero.
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 16
 Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse matrix of a square matrix A, usually denoted by A-1,
has the property :
AA-1 = A-1A = I

|A| = 0, A does not have an inverse.

Note that if
|A|  0, A has an inverse

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 17

 Finding the Inverse of a Matrix
The followings are steps to find the inverse of a matrix A when
|A|  0,
i. Find the transpose of A, denoted AT.
ii. Replace each element of AT by its cofactor. The resulting
matrix is called the adjoint of A, denoted adj(A).
iii. 1adj ( A)
A 
A

Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 18

 2 1 3 
 
e.g. 2 Find the inverse of A   1  1 1 
 1 4  2
 
det(A) =14
T
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
  
 4 2 1 2 1 4 
  2 14 4 
 1 3 2 3 2 1  
adj ( A)       3 7 1 
 4 2 1 2 1 4  5  7  3
 1 3 2 3 2 1   
  
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
  2 14 4 
1 
A   3 7 1 
1

14  
 5  7  3 
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 19
 3 1 0 
 
e.g. 3 Find the inverse of B   5 2  1 .
 1 6  3
 
det( B )  14
T
 2 1 5 1 5 2 
  
 6 3 1 3 1 6 
0 3  1
 1 0 3 0 3 1   
adj ( B)        14  9 3 
 6 3 1 3 1 6  
 1  28  17 1 
0 3 3 3 1 
  
 2 1 5 1 5 2 
0 3  1
1 
B   14  9 3 
1

14  
 28  17 1 
Introduction to Matrix Algebra Page 20
 TE CHNI Q UE S O F S O LV I NG
AL G E BRAI C E Q UATI O NS

Reference : Croft, A., & Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for

Engineers - A Modern Interactive Approach, Pearson
Education.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 21

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

When a system of linear equations is solved, there are 3

possible outcomes:
i. a unique solution
ii. an infinite number of solutions
iii. no solution


2 x  3 y  3  2 3 3   x  3
i.      (unique solution)
0 x  y  1  0 1  1  y  1


Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 22

 
ii.  2 x  3 y  3   2 3 3

4 x  6 y  6  0 0 0   (infinite number of solutions )
 

iii.  2 x  3 y  3   2 3 3   (no solution )

  0 0  1
0 x  0 y   1  

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 23

CRAMER’S RULE
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 13, Blocks 1, 2

Cramer’s rule is a method that uses determinants to solve a

system of linear equations.

i. Two equations in 2 unknowns

 a1 x  b1 y  k1

If a2 x  b2 y  k 2
k1 b1 a1 k1
k 2 b2 a2 k 2 a1 b1
then x  a b , y  a b , provided that a b2
0
1 1 1 1 2

a2 b2 a2 b2
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 24
 ii. 3 equations in 3 unknowns

 a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1 a1 b1 c1

If a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2 where a2 b2 c2  0
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3 a3 b3 c3
then
k1 b1 c1 a1 k1 c1 a1 b1 k1
k2 b2 c2 a2 k 2 c2 a2 b2 k2
k3 b3 c3 a3 k3 c3 a3 b3 k3
x , y , z
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 25

 e.g.1 Using Cramer’s rule, solve for x, y.
 2x  5 y  3

7 x  2 y  9
a1  2, a2  7, b1  5, b2  2, k1  3 & k 2  9
k1 b1 3 5
k2 b2 9 2 39
x    1
a1 b1 2 5  39
a2 b2 7 2
a1 k1 2 3
a2 k2 7  9  39
y   1
a1 b1 2 5  39
a2 b2 7 2

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 26

 e.g.2 Using Cramer’s rule, solve for x, y and z.
 5 x  3 y  4 z  35

 2 x  5 y  3z  12
 3x  2 y  2 z  10

35 3 4 5 35 4 5 3 35
 12 5 3 2  12  3 2  5  12
10 2 2 3 10 2 3  2 10
x , y , z
5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4
2 5 3 2 5 3 2 5 3
3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2
 282 141  987
x  2, y  1, z 7
 141  141  141
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 27
 INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

Writing System of Equations in Matrix Form

 a1 x  b1 y  k1
Note that 
a2 x  b2 y  k 2

 a1 b1  x   k1 
can be written as      
 a2 b 2  y   k2 

This is called the matrix form of the simultaneous equations.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 28

  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1

Similarly, a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3

 a1 b1 c1  x   k1 
    
can also be written as  a2 b2 c2  y    k 2 
a c3  z   k3 
 3 b3

i.e. the general matrix form of a system of equations:

AX = B

where A, X and B are matrices.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 29

 Solving Equations Using the Inverse Matrix Method

Consider the matrix form: AX = B

A-1AX = A-1 B

I X = A-1 B

X = A-1 B

i.e. X can be found if A-1 exists.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 30

 e.g.3 Redo example 1 and example 2 using the inverse
matrix method.
 2x  5 y  3  2 5  x   3 
       
7 x  2 y  9  7  2  y    9 
2 5   x  3 
Let A    , X    & B   
7  2  y   9
  2  7    2  5 
T
2 5
A  39, adj  A      
7 2   5 2   7 2 
1 adj  A 1   2  5
A     
A 39   7 2 
1   2  5  3 
X  A1 B     
39   7 2   9 
1  39    1
      
39   39   1 
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 31
  5 x  3 y  4 z  35  5 3 4  x   35 
e.g.4      
 2 x  5 y  3 z  12   2  5  3  y    12
 3 x  2 y  2 z  10   3  2 2  z   10 
     
 - 16 - 14 11 
 
A  141, adj  A   5 22 23 
 - 19 1 - 31
 
 - 16 - 14 11 
1 adj  A 1  
A    5 22 23 
A 141  
 - 19 1 - 31
 - 16 - 14 11  35 
1 1   
X  A B  5 22 23   12 
141   10 
 - 19 1 - 31 
  282   2 
1    
  141     1
141    
  987   7 
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 32
 Class Practice

1. Solve the simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule:

x+y=5
2x 3y = 6

2. Solve the simultaneous equations using inverse

matrix method
6x  5y + z -11= 0
2x + 3y - z +5= 0 Given Adj A =
x + 2y – 4z +12= 0
and Det = -22
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
Reference : Croft & Davison, Chapter 13, Block 3

Introduction
Gaussian Elimination is a systematic way of simplifying a
system of equations.
A matrix, called an augmented matrix, which captures all the
properties of the equations, is used.
A sequence of elementary row operations on this matrix
eventually brings it into a form known as echelon form (to be
discussed later).
From this, the solution to the original equations is easily found.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 34

 Augmented Matrix

Consider the system of equations,

 a1 x  b1 y  k1

a2 x  b2 y  k 2

it can be represented by an augmented matrix:

 a1 b1 k1 
 
a b k2 
 2
 2

coefficien ts constants
this vertical line can be
omitted as in your textbook

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 35

 Similarly, the following system of equations:

 a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  k1

a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  k 2
a x  b y  c z  k
 3 3 3 3

can also be written as an augmented matrix:

 a1 b1 c1 k1 
 
 a2 b2 c2 k 2 
a c3 k3 
 3 b3

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 36

e.g.1 Write down the augmented matrices for the followings
 3x  9 y  7 3 9 7 
a.   
 7  12 23 
7 x  12 y  23  

 9 x  7 y  65 z  15  9  7 65 15 
  
b.  5 x  12 y  2 z  64  5 12  2 64 
 4 x  22 y  3 z  7   4 22 3 7 
  

 17 x  3 y 6 17 3 0 6
 
c.  4 x  8 y  3z  12  4 8  3 12 
  0 3 5 7 
  3 y  5z  7  

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 37

 e.g.2 Solve the system with the augmented matrix:

a.  1  7 15   x  7 y  15  x   1 
     
 0 1  2 
   y  2  y    2

 1  2 1 5 x  2 y  z  5  x   2 
      
b.  0 1 3 1  y  3z  1   y     2
0 0  z  1 z  1 
 1 1      

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 38

Row-Echelon Form of an Augmented Matrix
For a matrix to be in row-echelon form:
i. Any rows that consist entirely of zeros are the last rows of
the matrix.
ii. For a row that is not all zeros, the first non-zero element is a
one, called a leading 1.
iii. While moving down the rows of the matrix, the leading 1s
move progressively to the right.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 39

 e.g.1 Determine which of the following matrices are in row-
echelon form.

 1 2 5 78  1 4 1 5 
   
a.  0 1 8  14  Yes b.  0 0 1 2  No
 0 0 1 22   0 1 1 27 
   

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 40

 Elementary Row Operations

The elementary operations that change a system but leave

the solution unaltered are:

i. Interchange the order of the equations.

ii. Multiply or divide an equation by a non-zero constant.

iii. Add, or subtract, a multiple of one equation to, or from,

another equation.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 41

 Note that a row of an augmented matrix corresponds to an
equation of the system of equations.

When the above elementary operations are applied to the

rows of such a matrix, they do not change the solution of the
system.

They are called elementary row operations.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 42

 Gaussian Elimination to Solve a System of Equations
i. write down the augmented matrix.
ii. apply elementary row operations to get row-echelon form.
iii. solve the system.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 43

  2x  y  2z  8
e.g.2 Use Gaussian Elimination to solve  x  3 y  3 z  4
 4x  2 y  z  1


2 1 2 8 
 
The augmented matrix is  1  3 3  4
 4 2 1 1 
 
 1  3 3  4
  Interchange row 1 and row 2
2 1 2 8 
 4 2 1 1 
 
 1  3 3  4  row 2 – 2*row 1
 
 0 7  4 16  row 3 – 4*row 1
 0 14  13 17 
 

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 44

 1  3 3  4 
  row 3 – 2*row 2
 0 7  4 16 
 0 0  5  15
 

1  3 3 4 
  row 2 / 7
0 1  7
4 16
7
0 0  row 3 / -5
 1 3 
Hence z 3
4 16
y z  or y  4
7 7
x  3 y  3z  4 or x  1

The solution is x z   1 4 3
T T
y
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 45
  4 x  3 y  5
e.g.3 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 
 3 x  2 y  3
 4 3  5
 
3  2 3 
 
 4 3  5
 
 0 1  3  3R  4 R
  1 2

 1 3 4  5 4  R1 4
 
0 1  3 
 
x  3 y 4   5 4

 y  3
 x  1 
    
 y    3
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 46
 Class Practice
47

Use Gaussian elimination to solve  2x  5 y  3


7 x  2 y  9

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Page

Equations
  2 x  4 y  z  12

e.g.4 Use Gaussian elimination to solve 2 z  3x  5 y  8
 x  3y  2z  2
 2 4  1 12  
 
3 5 2  8
 1 3 2 2  1 3 2 2 
  
 1 3 2 2  R1  R3 0 1 4 7 1 7 
  0 0 1
  3 5 2  8   2  R2  27 
 2 4  1 12 
  x  3 y  2z  2

1 3 2 2   y  4z 7  1 7
   z  2
 0 14 8  2  3R1  R2 
 0 2 5  8  2R  R
  1  x  3 
3
   
1 3 2 2   y   1 
   z    2
0 1 4 7  1 7  R2 14    
 0 0  27 54  R2  7 R3

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 48
 Gaussian Elimination to find the Inverse of a Matrix
i. write down in a form of [ A I ] .
ii. apply a sequence of elementary row operations to
reduce A to I.
iii. Performing this same sequence of elementary row
operations on I, we obtain A-1.

Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 49

 1  2 2
 
Suppose A   2  3 6 
1 1 7
 
1  2 2 1 0 0 1  2 2 1 0 0
   
A I   2  3 6 0 1 0    0 1 2  2 1 0  R2  2 R1
 1 1 7 0 0 1   0 3 5 1 0 1  R  R
    3 1

1  2 2 1 0 0   1  2 0 11  6 2  R1  2 R3
   
 0 1 2  2 1 0    0 1 0 8  5 2  R2  2 R3
 0 0 1  5 3  1 3R  R  0 0 1  5 3  1
  2 3  
 1 0 0 27  16 6  R1  2 R2
 
 0 1 0 8 5 2 
 0 0 1  5 3  1
 
 27  16 6 
1
 
Hence A   8 5 2 
  5 3  1
 
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 50
 ,
Example
51

•Using Gaussian Elimination to find the inverse of

A=

Matrix Algebra Page

 1 2 1 1 0 0  1 2 1 1 0 0 
   
A I   1  1 1 0 1 0    0 3 0 1  1 0  R1  R2
 3 0 2 0 0 1   0 6 1 3 0  1 3R  R
    1 3

1 2 1 1 0 0 
 
  0 3 0 1 1 0 
 0 0 1 1 2  1 R  2 R
  3 2

1 2 0 0 2 1  R1  R3
 
  0 1 0 1 3  1 3 0  R2 3
0 0 1 1  1
 2
 1 0 0  2 3  4 3 1  R1  2 R2
 
  0 1 0 1 3 1 3 0 
0 0 1  
 1 2 1
 2 3  4 3 1   2  4 3 
1
  1 
Hence A   1 3  1 3 0    1  1 0 
 1  3
 2  1  3 6  3 
Techniques of Solving Algebraic Equations Page 52
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Reference : Croft, A., & Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for

Engineers - A Modern Interactive Approach, Pearson
Education.

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 53

EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Reference: Croft & Davison Chapter 13 Block 4

Consider the system

 a b  x   0  or simply, AX  0
     
 c d  y   0 

If A  0 the system has non-trivial solutions.

If A  0 the system has only the trivial solution.

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 54

e.g.1 Determine which system has 3x  y  z  0
non-trivial solution x  2 y  2z  0
4 x  y  3z  0
 3 1 1 
 
A   1 2 2
 4 1 3
 
3 1 1
det( A)  1 2 2 0
4 1 3

Therefore, the system has non-trivial solution

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 55

e.g.2 Determine which system has 3x  y  z  0
non-trivial solution x  2 y  2z  0
5 x  y  3z  0
 3 1 1 
 
A   1 2 2
 4 1 3
 
3 1 1
det( A)  1 2 2  6
5 1 3

Therefore, the system has trivial solution

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 56

 If A is an n  n matrix and X is a vector (n  1 matrix) then
there is usually no geometric relationship between the vector
X and the vector AX (figure below).

AX

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 57

 But if X is an eigenvector of A then
AX =  X
i.e. AX is a scalar multiple of X.

AX

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 58

 Characteristic Equation and Eigenvalues

Consider the system

 a b  x   x AX  X
       or
 c d  y   y

We seek values of  so that the system has non-trivial

solutions.
The system can be written as  A  I X  0
The system has non-trivial solutions if A  I  0

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 59

 A  I  0 , a polynomial equation in  , is called the
characteristic equation.

The values of  which cause the system AX  X to have

non-trivial solutions are called eigenvalues.

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 60

 Example
61

 Find the eigenvalue for the following matrix

4 5
det  A  I    2  7  2  0
2 3

  7    7 2  412 7  41
Hence   
21 2

Matrix Algebra Page

Eigenvectors
Suppose that  , an eigenvalue, satisfies the system

AX  X .

For each eigenvalue there is a non-trival solution (unique up to

a non-zero scalar multiple) of the system. This solution is called
an eigenvector.

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 62

e.g.1 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
5 4
A   
1 2
5 4
det (A-I) =  2  7  6  0
1 2
Hence   6 or   1
5  6 4   1 4 
When   6 , ( A  I )      
 1 2  6  1  4
i.e. x  4 y  0 or x  4 y . In general, x  4t , y  t

 x   4
The eigenvector is    t  
 y 1
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 63
  1 ,  5 1 4   4 4 
When ( A  I )      
 1 2  1  1 1 
i.e. x  y  0 or x   y . In general, x  t , y   t

 x  1 
The eigenvector is    t  
 y    1

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 64

e.g.2 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

 3 1
A 
 1 5

e.g.3 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

1 2 0 
 
A   1 1 1 
 3 2  2
 

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 65

e.g.2 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
 3 1
A   
 1 5
3 1
det (A-I) =  2  8  16  0
1 5
Hence   4 (repeated )

3  4 1    1 1
When   4 , ( A  I )      
  1 5  4    1 1
i.e.  x  y  0 or x  y . In general, x  t , y  t
 x  1
The eigenvector is     t , for any number t
 y  1
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 66
e.g.3 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
1 2 0 
 
A   1 1 1 
 3 2  2
 
1  2 0
det (A-I) =  1 1   1 0
3 2 2
1   1 1 1
1    2 0
2 2 3 2
1   2  3   2  1  0
1   2  3  2  0
1     1  2  0

Hence   1 or - 2
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 67
e.g.3 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A

1  1 2 0  0 2 0 
   
When   1,  A  I     1  1  1 1    1  2 1 
 3    3  
 2 2 1  2 3 

i.e. y  0 and  x  z  0 or x  z

In general, x  t , y  0, z  t

 x  1
   
The eigenvector is  y    0 t , for any number t
 z  1
   
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 68
e.g.3 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A

1  1 2 0  2 2 0
   
When   1,  A  I     1  1  1 1    1 0 1 
 3     3 2  1
 2 2 1  

i.e. x  y  0 or x   y and  x  z  0 or x  z

In general, x  t , y  -t , z  t

 x  1 
   
The eigenvector is  y     1t , for any number t
z  1 
   
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 69
e.g.3 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A

1  2 2 0   3 2 0
   
When   2,  A  I     1  1  2 1    1 1 1 
 3     3 2 0
 2 2 2   
2
i.e. 3 x  2 y  0 or x   y and  x  y  z  0 or z  x  y
3
3 5
In general, x  t , y  - t , z  t
2 2
 x  1 
   
The eigenvector is  y     3 2 t , for any number t
z  5 2 
   
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 70
 APPLICATION
Stiffness method is commonly used to analyse a structure as
matrix analysis can be used to solve the problem.

For a typical beam element, the relationship between the

member end moments and member end rotations is given by
 i, qi  j, qj

i j

4 EI 2 EI
qi  i   j  4 EI 2 EI 
L L
  qi   L L    i   2 EI  2 1    i   k    
q    2 EI 4 EI   j  1 2  
2 EI 4 EI  j   L   j 
qj  i   j  L L 
L L

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 71

  i 
where [ ]    - displacement matrix
 j 
 kii kij 
[k]    - stiffness matrix
k
 ji k jj 

 qi 
[q]    - force matrix
q j 

By assembly the stiffness of the whole structure, it will

become a very Structure Stiffness Matrix.
By imposing appropriate boundary conditions and end
moments, the displacement of the whole structure can be
solved, i.e. 1
[ ]  [ K ] [Q]
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 72
 Class Practice
73

 Find the eigenvalue for the following matrix

5 3
det  A  I    2  9  14  0
2 4

Hence   2 or 7

Matrix Algebra Page

 Class Practice
74

 Suppose for matrix A

 the characteristic function is

 Find their eigenvectors.

Matrix Algebra Page

 Hence   1 or 2 (repeated )

  3 1  4  3    4  4  3
   
When   1,  A  I    5 6 1 3    5 5 3 
 3    3 
 3 2 1  3 1 

i.e. z  0 and x  y  0 or x   y

In general, x  t , y  -t , z  0

 x  1 
   
The eigenvector is  y     1t , for any number t
z  0 
   
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 75
 Hence   1 or 2 (repeated )

3 2  4  3    5  4  3
   
When   2,  A  I    5 62 3  5 4 3 
 3    3 
 3 2 2   3 0 
 5x  4 y
i.e. x  y  0 and 5 x  4 y  3 z  0 or z 
3
t
In general, x  t , y  -t , z  
3
 x  1 
   
The eigenvector is  y     1 t , for any number t
 z   1 3
   
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Page 76