THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 423 – BRIDGE ENGINEERING

TEST ONE (1) – ANSWER KEY (SOLUTIONS) Thursday 25th August, 2022.
Total Score: 100 Marks
INSTRUCTION: Answer ALL Questions.
Time Allowed: 1 hour 50 minutes.

QUESTION ONE (25 Marks)

(a) Describe what bridge is and (b) briefly discuss ALL the structural elements in detail.

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as a body of water,
valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each
serve a particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of
the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and
the funds available to build it. (3 marks)

1. DECK: Deck is the portion that carries all the direct traffic load. Some basic decks can be made of concrete and
also from metal. These include travel or walking paths, drainage systems, curbs, expansion components, sidewalks
and approach slabs. (1 marks)

2. SUPERSTRUCTURE: The portion which supports the deck slab and girder and connects one sub structure to
the other. That means all the elements of the bridge attached to a supporting system can be categorized as
superstructure. (2 marks)

3. SUBSTRUCTURE: The parts of the bridge which support the superstructure and transmits all the structural loads
of the bridge to the foundations. For example piers, abutments etc. (2 marks)

4. FOUNDATION: Foundation is the portion which transmits loads to the bearing strata. Foundation is required to
support the piers, bridge towers, portal frames. Generally, piles and well foundations such as H-pile, bore pile, pipe
pile or precast concrete piles are adopted. (2 marks)

5. GIRDER OR BEAM: Beam or girder is the part of superstructure which bends along the span. The deck is
supported by beams. Girders joins all the pile caps together by extending over them. Girders are also referred to as
beams, and give support to the deck. This can be a single span, or even multiple spans joining all the bents,

WEEK 7 TEST NO. 1 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS PREPARED BY: MS. WANTEPE 1
dependent on the length of the bridge. Girders usually have a truss design to improve stress and load resistibility.
Hence, pressure is quickly passed towards the foundation. Girders are mostly made from metal or concrete.
(2 marks)

6. BRIDGE TOWER: It is the vertical supporting part used for cable stayed or suspension bridge. High strength
concrete and Insitu method are adopted to construct the bridge tower. (2 marks)

7. PIER CAP: Pier cap is the topmost part of a pier which transfers loads from superstructure to the pier. It is also
known as headstock. It provides sufficient seating for the girders and distributes the loads from the bearings to the
piers. (2 marks)

8. PIER: Pier is the part of the substructure that supports the superstructure and transfers loads of super structure
to the foundations. Piers are necessary when there are multiple spans in a bridge where they (piers), are mounted
at the end of each to give sustance from forces and vibrational effects, and acts as supporting points for bridge.
Moreover, pier is suitable for spanned bridges with maximum width of deck up to 8 m (2 traffic lanes). The shape
and size of pier mainly depend on aesthetics, site, space and economic constraints of the construction. Usually,
bridge pier is constructed by in situ method with large panel formwork. (2 marks)

9. BEARINGS: Bearings are structural members capable of transferring loads from the deck to the substructure.
These displace stresses and load to the piers through the girders to allow movement between parts of a bridge. The
movement can be linear as well as torsional. Bearings provide allowance between these parts. The main purpose of
providing a bearing is to permit controlled movement and decrease the stress involved. (2 marks)

10. PILE CAP AND PILES: Pile is a slender member driven into the surrounding soil to resist the loads. Piles are
usually laid to give support to a bridge and make up the initial foundation. The piles help the weight and stresses
applied by the bridge to be transmitted evenly through the ground making it stable and strong. Pile cap is a thick
reinforced concrete slab cast on top of the group piles to distribute loads. Pile caps provide additional load
transferring capacity to the piles. They are known as pile caps as they are placed right on top of the pile foundation.
Caps are often made of very heavy concrete to give maximum strength to the upper part of the bridge. When piles
and caps are set together, they are called bents. Multiple bents form the foundation for the substructure.
(2 marks)

11. BRIDGE ANCHOR: Bridge anchor is only used in suspension and cable-stayed bridges to resist the pull from
suspension cable or counter span of the bridge. (2 marks)

12. SUSPENSION CABLE: It is used in suspension and cable-stayed bridges for the hanging, supporting and
counter balancing of the bridge deck. (2 marks)

All the basic components are placed inside three main bridge areas – Foundation (which holds the shallow or deep
base of the bridge and transfers it’s load to the bearing strata, this includes foundations below the main span of the
bridge and the abutments below starting points of the bridge), Substructure (piers, abutments, spandrels, caps,
bearings, and other components that holds the upper construction) and Superstructure (all the parts of the bridge
that are mounted on top of the supporting substructure system, it covers elements such as decking, girders, slab,
and everything placed above the main deck such as posts, steel truss system, bridge girder, cable-stayed system,
cable suspended systems and more).

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QUESTION TWO (25 Marks)

a) State and discuss (with diagrams), at least four types of bridges, their main components, and trace (and
describe) their load paths.

(1) Arch Bridge - bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges transfer the
weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side.
Principal forces being compression in the arch and the truss elements. (3 marks)

(2) Beam Bridge - Made up of simply supported horizontal Beams I-beams, trusses, or box girders.
End supports are known as abutments and intermediate supports are known as piers. Weight on top of the
beam pushes straight down on the abutments at either end of the bridge. Types of construction could
include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them. Principal forces being bending
and shear in the girders. (3 marks)

(3) Suspension Bridge - Deck, the load-bearing portion, is hung below suspension cables on vertical
suspenders. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, and vertical suspender cables. The
suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the bridge is
transformed into a tension in these main cables. Principal forces are in tension in the suspension cables
and compression in the supporting towers. (3 marks)

(4) Cable-stayed Bridge – Used in longer span bridges and consists of one or more columns (referred to as
tower or pylons), with cables supporting the bridge deck whereby the stay cables are anchored securely.
For example, the Glebe-Point Bridge in Sydney. The principal forces being tension in the stay cables and
compression in the supporting towers. (3 marks)

(5) Cantilever Bridge - horizontal beams supported on only one Support.

Simple cantilever: formed by two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of the obstacle to be
crossed, meeting at the center. Balanced cantilever: cantilever spans is to counterbalance each cantilever
arm with another cantilever arm projecting the opposite direction.

b) Bridges are classified according to several characteristics. State and discuss at least 4 main
characteristics of bridge classification.
1) Bridge Classification by Structural Form – bridge classification according to its structural form is still
the common way. This is necessary because the structural for is the most important factor that
affects the whole service life of the bridge, including design, construction, repair, and maintenance.
Bridges with different structural forms have their load transfer path and suitable range of
application. Generally, bridges can be classified into beam bridges, rigid-frame bridges, truss
bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and suspension bridges. (4 marks)
2) Bridge Classification by Usage – bridges are categorized by what it is designed to carry, such as
road traffic, railway traffic, pedestrian, a pipeline or waterway for barge traffic, or water transport.
(3 marks)
3) Materials of Constructions – selection of bridge superstructure is closely related to the use of
construction materials. Base on the materials used for superstructure construction, the modern
bridges can be roughly divided into concrete bridges and steel bridges, with different structural
forms. Steel construction requires less materials and contributes to reducing a bridge’s
environmental impact. Steel bridges are generally built in large spans such as arch bridges, truss
bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and suspension bridges. (3 marks)

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 4) Span length – Is another way to classify for bridges. For example, for medium-span bridges, the
continuous girder bridges, the truss bridges, and the arch bridges can be considered as an
alternative. For large span bridges longer than 500m, the cable-stayed bridge and the suspension
bridges are promising solutions. A cabled-stayed bridge is the successor to the suspension bridge
for spans up to 600 m, and the largest span of cable-stayed bridge 1104m. However, for super
bridges with span length larger than 1000 m, a suspension bridge is still the best choice. (3 marks)
5) Geometric shape span –
6) Deck location-

QUESTION THREE (25 Marks)

a) State and explain in detail about the various types of loads considered in bridge design in PNG.
1. Live Loads:
Vehicle loadings, Pedestrian Traffic 5kPa (2marks)
2. Dead Loads: (Self weight), superimposed dead loads, (2 marks)
3. Others: (3 marks)
(a) flood/drag forces, Debri Mat, Log impact,
(b) Wind loadings – wind load on a bridge may act horizontally (traverse to the direction of span or
along the direction of span), vertically upwards (causing uplift, and wind loads on vehicles. Wind
load effect is not generally significant in short-span bridges; for medium spans, the design of sub-
structure is affected by wind loading; the super structure design is affected by wind only in long
spans. For the purpose of the design, wind loading on bridge superstructure is considered in
accordance to the PNGS Wind Loading Codes and Section 16 of AS5100.2 – 2004. The only
difference is in the ARI in which the PNG values are used and the wind speeds are based on the
PNG Wind Loading Code.
(c) earthquake loads,
(d) Temperatures (or thermal forces) – The free expansion or contraction of a structure due to
changes in temperature may be restrained by its form of construction. Effects of temperature is
also considered in the design of bridges with allowance provided for free expansion (expansion
joints) in bridge superstructure.
(e) Shrinkage/Creep, Bearing and construction loads, and Load Combinations.

b) Define the term impact factor and briefly explain the impact effect of moving live loads on the
bridge. (3 marks)
Impact factor is the dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of the live load
from one wheel to another when a vehicle is moving on the bridge. The impact load is determined as a
product of impact factor, I, and the live load.
c) Briefly explain the following forces acting on the bridge with their design steps;
i. impact effect of moving live loads (5 marks)
As defined above, this load is included in the design of the bridge for moving vehicular loads. For
local effects, such as design of deck, the axle/wheel loads are considered consisting of standard
A14 axle loads or two W70 wheel loads placed 1.8 meters apart. And for design of overall bridge
superstructure, a 12 kN/m uniformly distributed lane load is also considered. E.g., For a two-lane
bridge it is 40% for a T44 vehicle. It is applied together with the T44 vehicle load (Table 6.7.2
AS5100.2 – 2004). For each T44 vehicle stopping on a bridge, a longitudinal braking force of 200
kN (≈0.45 x 432 kN) shall be applied on road surface level. For other vehicle loads the baking force
is approx. equal to 0.45 x vehicle load.

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 ii. Flood water current force in the bridge longitudinal and traverse direction. (5 marks)
Flood or Drag Forces on a bridge superstructure, pier, and abutment is also considered in design
of bridge. It is estimated according to AS 5100.2 – 2004. The ultimate limit states define the
capability of a bridge to withstand, without collapse, any flood or a magnitude up to and including
that with a 2000-year average return interval, which produces the most severe effects. Where
critical design condition occurs at an average return interval of less than 2000 years, an ultimate
load factor not greater than 2.0 shall be applied. The water forces on the piers are dependent on
the pier shape, the water velocity and the direction of the water flow. The design drag forces
parallel to the plane containing the piers
iii. Wind forces. (5 marks)
Wind loadings on the bridge superstructure is considered in accordance to the PNGS wind
loadings codes and Section 16 of AS5100.2-2004. The designed wind speed shall be derived from
the appropriate reginal basic design wind speeds, after adjustment for
(i) Average return interval
(ii) Geographical location
(iii) Terrain category
(iv) Shielding, and
(v) Height above ground.

QUESTION FOUR (25 Marks)

(a) Apart from construction, Department of Works (DOW) requires that bridge investigation and design report is
undertaken in two phases. State the two phase and discuss in order how the investigation phase report (IPR) is
undertaken. (10 marks)

1. Investigation Phase Report (IPR) (7 marks)

a. In an investigation phase report, the first step is to conduct a desktop study including a literature
review. This includes survey maps, geological maps, past reports, literature on rainfall, vegetation
soils, geology, geomorphology, previous records of flood for the river or nearby river/streams, etc.
b. Conduct a bridge site visit to determine possible sites for the location of the new bridge crossing
either by road or helicopter if funds permit. Assess the site to collect any relevant data for the
study. This may include: measure channel width, measure existing flow, note site geology/soil
type/vegetation, prepare site map of proposed bridge site, take photographs, take soil samples,
and levels, note any changes in road alignment, seek advice/input/assistance from local
authorities, etc.
c. Base on the site visit, a bridge site is selected and the survey team is advised to undertake a
bridge site survey in accordance to the Department of Works (DoW) standard and survey
instructions. Contour plots of the bridge site will then be supplied to the bridge team to undertake
further investigation, analysis and design.
d. During the site visits geology and geomorphological investigation will be undertaken of the
catchment area. A low-level geotechnical investigation may also be undertaken during the site
visits to enable the team to recommend and design the best foundation systems to support the
bridge.
e. Hydrological and hydraulics study including river fluviology is also undertaken during these visits
and the data collected during the field visits will be analyzed in the office. This investigation will
enable the design team to recommend the level at which to locate the bridge superstructure to
ensure it is well clear of the worst (1 in 100 year) flood (usually clearance of 2m) and propose any
river training works for abutment protection, etc.

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 f. Using structural analysis software (Microstran/STAAD Pro), the bridge is modelled with T44 vehicle
load, and a non-linear static analysis is obtained for relevant structural responses for design.
Various bridge options may be investigated; however, the design criteria of bridges are as follows:
i. it can be a single (1) or double (2) lanes (i.e., 3.5 m or 7.5 m or 7.5 m kerb to kerb)
ii. T44 or other vehicle loading; W70 wheel loads,
iii. RC vehicle barriers on both sides for bridge deck on National Roads
iv. Pedestrian walkway on both sides/ or on one side only, and
v. A 5kPa pedestrian live load is applied
The analysis consists of non-linear static analysis and also a dynamics analysis of the bridge to
obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes of the bridge. (NB: The structural analysis can be
undertaken by hand methods in the absence of suitable software or computer facilities)
g. Undertake appropriate designs and cost estimates for various bridge option (prepare BOQ based
on DOW Bridge and Road Specification) and make recommendations on the bridge option to be
adopted.
h. Write up the investigation phase report and submit to client.

2. Final Design Phase Report (3 marks)

While waiting for approval to progress to Final Design, detail geotechnical investigation shall be undertaken
to enable the final design of the bridge including detailed cost estimates. Moreover, a detailed BOQ shall be
prepared in accordance with the DOW standard specification for Road and Bridges. Write up any special
conditions, including reinforcement bar bending schedules.

(b) Discuss the three major stages of a bridge project and factors considered in designing a bridge. (15 marks)

1. Investigation stage - Unlike the building structure constructions, bridge projects require an intensive investigation
based on the feasibility, requirement or necessity, population benefited, economic development expected,
topography, hydraulic data and soil characteristics prior to the approval and design stages. After all such
investigations being over, the design stage commences. (4 marks)

2. Design stage - The design stage, consists of mainly three elements; hydraulic design, geometric design and
structural design. Hydraulic design accounts for calculation of flood discharge, scour action near the bridge
supporting structures, characteristics of river channel to fix the level of the bridge, clear water way of the bridge and
thus the bridge spans. Foundation depth based on hydraulic characteristics is also a point to be considered. In
geometric design, vertical and horizontal alignment and curvatures required are to be established. Traffic flow
characteristics, projected traffic over one or two decades is to be considered. Thus, the geometric design concerns
more with transportation engineering point of view. Structural design involves the selection of component types and
providing an economical solution for the purpose intended based on strength and serviceability point of view. At the
end of design stage estimations, drawings and approvals are vital roles to be performed. (6 marks)

3. Construction stage - At the construction stage, one cannot start the construction of bridge all of a sudden without
certain preparatory works. Apart from primary construction surveys, river training works, coffer dam construction,
approaches for machinery and equipments, storage and security for materials are important elements of bridge
project under construction stage. Material and manpower management are also vital tasks for construction
managers at this stage. There are design specific and bridge type specific construction technologies that could be
adopted at this stage (like slip form, cantilever form techniques etc.). (5 marks)

ALL THE BEST & HAPPY STUDIES!!!!!!!

WEEK 7 TEST NO. 1 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS PREPARED BY: MS. WANTEPE 6