Cable-

Stayed
Bridges
DevelOpment, Achievements,
and POssibilities
By Roumen V. Mladjov, S.E., P.E.

Figure 1. Russky Island Bridge.

C able-stayed structures are the youngest, fastest-developing, and

most promising bridge systems.
Cable-stayed bridges are a subcategory of suspended structures. A cable-
Origins and Precedents
The idea for the cable-stayed system was perhaps inspired by the
stayed bridge is similar to a suspension bridge in having towers and a drawbridges of medieval castles and the rope-braced masts of tall ships.
deck-girder supported by cables; however, its diagonal cables transfer the The very first documented image of a cable-stayed bridge appears in
vertical loads from the deck directly to the towers. Thus, the main deck- the Machinae Novae, a book by Fausto Veranzio published in 1615.
girder of a cable-stayed bridge works like a continuous beam on cable Predecessors for modern cable-stayed bridges appeared in the 19th century
supports (more flexible than pier supports) with additional compression in the form of different hybrid combinations of suspension systems with
force throughout the deck. A cable-stayed bridge is also a prestressed additional diagonal straight cables, as in the case of the Albert Bridge,
system as its cable-stays are additionally tensioned to counterbalance a UK (1873). The best known of these hybrid structures is the Brooklyn
significant part of the vertical loads on the main deck-girder. Bridge, New York, 1883, with a 486-meter main span (1,594 feet), for
The Strömsund Bridge in Sweden, completed in 1956 with a 182-meter which John Roebling used diagonal cables for stiffening the structure.
(597-foot) main span, is considered the first modern cable-stayed bridge. In the 1960s and 1970s, the system was developed further to replace
For the following 65 years, cable-stayed bridges have seen a dramatic many of the bridges destroyed in Germany during World War II. In
increase in both the number of new structures and in long-span achieve- this period, the system was also used for roof structures requiring long,
ments. By 1995, there were only 3 cable-stayed bridges with spans over column-free spaces in buildings. Initially, cable-stayed structures were
500 meters (1,640 feet); 25 years later, there are already 67 cable-stayed used for bridge spans of 60 to 250 meters (196 to 820 feet) but today
bridges with spans over 500 meters (including three over 1,000 meters they span much longer distances and are the only system that challenges
or 3,280 feet). Another 29 with spans over 500 meters, with some over suspension bridges in super-long spans. Their spans grew to 302 meters
800 meters (2,624 feet), are currently under construction. (990 feet) in 1959 with the Severin Bridge (Germany), to 404 meters
The efficient range of cable-stayed bridges is moving towards even (1,325 feet) in 1974 with the Saint Nazaire Bridge (France), and 856
longer spans. There is no other bridge structural system exhibiting such meters (2,808 feet) in 1995 with Michel Virlogeux’s Normandy Bridge
rapid development. Most cable-stayed bridges are visually beautiful, (France). Today, the Russky Island Bridge (Russia) has the longest span
and some are among the most impressive of engineering achievements. of this system, 1,104 meters (3,622 feet) achieved in 2012 (Figure 1).

Figure 2. Span options: main with two sides spans, asymmetric and multi-span.

38 STRUCTURE magazine
 In the United States, we can mention the second
Sunshine Skyway Bridge with a span 366-meter (1,200
feet) in 1987 (Florida), the Dames Point Bridge with a
396-meter span (1,300-foot) in Florida, and the Arthur
Ravenel Bridge with a 471-meter span (1,545-foot) in
2005 (South Carolina).

System Specifics
The main elements of a cable-stayed bridge are towers
or pylons, deck girder(s), cable-stays, anchorages, and
foundations. Tower and pylon are interchangeable terms;
lighter, slender towers are often called pylons. The classic
cable-stayed bridges are symmetric with one central span,
two side spans, and two towers; such are most cable-stayed
bridges with spans above 600 meters. The back-up cables
may extend over several side spans. Figure 3. Tower configuration options.
Asymmetric cable-stayed bridges have one main span and
one side span, with a single tower. Multiple-span cable-stayed bridges For the design of early cable-stayed bridges, engineers used a relatively
have two or more (usually equal) main spans. Several examples are small number of cables. After acquiring more experience and with
shown in Figure 2. the introduction of structural design software, engineers were able to
Some sub-divisions are used for cable-stayed bridges: extradosed, use a larger number of cable stays, reducing the demand on the deck
under-spanned (under-deck), cradle, inverted Fink truss, and tenseg- girder and leading to greater efficiency and longer spans.
rity. The cables at the towers can be arranged in parallel (harp), fan, The basics of cable-stayed bridge design are as follows: the vertical
star, or mixed configuration. Various structural solutions are used for loads on the deck are supported by diagonal cable stays that transfer
the towers: single pylons, double-leg portals (vertical, slightly angled, these loads to the towers. At the tower, the horizontal components
free-standing, or interconnected as a portal frame, with “A,” “H,” “Y,” of the cables from the main span are in balance with those from the
or inverted “Y” shaped arches). side/adjacent spans. The towers support and transfer the vertical load
The towers can be continuous above and below the deck supporting to the foundations. Similarly, the cumulative compression horizontal
both the deck and the cables, or the upper part can support only the components of the loads from the main span are in balance with the
cables while the deck-girder is supported directly by piers. Examples compression load components of the side spans. Therefore, the entire
are shown in Figure 3. bridge system is in balance with predominant compression forces in
The primary construction materials used in cable-stayed bridges are: the towers and the deck system, and with tension forces in the cable
• For decks: reinforced or prestressed concrete, composite stays. The system is self-balanced, provided that all elements are
concrete-steel, or orthotropic steel decks; designed correctly to sustain the maximum demand from the highest
• For deck-girders: beams of prestressed concrete or steel, box possible combination of loads.
girders of prestressed concrete or steel, similar to those in The challenge for the design engineer is to select an appropriate
modern suspension bridges; combination of the multiple possible variations of towers, cable-
• For towers: steel, reinforced or prestressed concrete, compos- stay arrangements, and deck systems. Like all suspended structures,
ite steel-concrete; cable-stayed bridges are sensitive to deformations and it is necessary
• For cables: high-strength steel wires, usually 270 grade (270 to check the deformed condition of the system for all load combina-
ksi, or 1,860 MPa), built from 7-wire, ⅜-inch (9.5 millime- tions, including those during the different phases of construction.
ters) strands per ASTM A886, other higher-grade steel wires, Today’s structural design software greatly assists engineers in the
carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP), or composites. calculation of cable-stayed bridges. After choosing the main param-
Prestressed concrete has been used in the past, but should be eters of the system, it is essential to establish the start-up dimensions
avoided as it has been proven unsafe on some failures such as and sections of the deck-girder, cables, and towers. A simple design
the Morandi Bridge; approach will help in setting up these dimensions.
• For piers and foundations: reinforced concrete with or For a start, the designer can use a substitution simply-supported
without piles depending on the soil. beam for determining the approximate bending moments for the
For long-span bridges, foundations on soft soils, or for bridges in main span deck-girder. The upward cable-stays pretension can offset
high seismic areas, it is preferable to use predominantly steel structures most of the moments from permanent loads on the deck. This is
to reduce the self-weight and the related earthquake forces. achieved with additional tensioning of the cables after erecting the
main elements to counteract permanent loads, resulting in minimal
vertical bending in the deck-girder. The cables should be additionally
Conceptual Design tensioned to counteract 50% of the combined temporary downward
The most important part of bridge design is the overall concept for the loads (live loads, wind, snow, ice, and earthquake). This way, the work-
structure and its elements: the selection of the appropriate structural ing bending moments of the deck-girder will vary during operation
system for the bridge considering its specific function, site location, approximately between 50% of the positive moments (from the worst
and required spans. A well-selected concept determines the efficiency temporary load combination) to 50% of the negative moments from
and economy of the bridge, saves materials, cost, and construction temporary loads. This “first step” determines the design moments for
time. Good design concepts minimize problems and future difficulties the main span deck-girder. The compression in the deck-girder due to
both in the design office and on the construction site. the horizontal components of cable stays forces is the cumulative sum

OCTOBER 2020 39
 Figure 4. Compression forces in deck-girder: at single cable (a); and total compression force for “fan” (b) and “harp” (c) cable configurations.

of these components, approximately 55 to 65% of the total vertical bridge systems, with the only competitor being suspension systems,
loads on the main span depending on the span, the number of cables, while allowing for more straightforward construction methods. An
and the height of cable connections at the tower. additional advantage of cable-stayed bridges is their larger efficient
The cumulative compression force (ΣPc ) in the deck-girder is equal span range from 100-meter spans (328 feet) to over 1,000-meter
to the sum of all compression forces Pci at cable connections (Figure 4) spans (3,280 feet).
at the deck: the tension cable force Pcable = Pv /sin α, The multitude of possibilities of the system provide engineers and
Pci = Pvi × Li where architects with many design options. The “mid-long range” structures
Ht allow more creativity, originality, and possibilities for innovative work.
Pci is the compression force in the deck-girder from the horizon- A cable-stayed bridge does not need to be extravagant. The most
tal component of the cable force, straightforward bridge with a “sincere” structure is often the best and
Pvi is the vertical DL + LL force applied at the cable connection is usually elegant and attractive.
at the deck-girder plus the vertical component of the addition- Cable-stayed bridges have a combination of elegance, slenderness,
ally-applied tension force, and a feeling of robustness. The national infrastructure’s demand for
Li is the horizontal distance from this connection to the tower, more bridges requires the priority of efficiency and economy.
and The art of engineering requires creativity and fantasy, but engineers
Ht is the height of this cable connection at the tower above the should avoid repetitive and illogical shapes. Creativity is essential, but
deck. “excessive originality” should only be found in justified exceptions
A simplified initial calculation for the cumulative compression force (e.g., Christian Menn and Michel Virlogeux).
is provided by:
ΣP × L
ΣPc = v max for “fan” configurations Pros and Cons
8Ht
The main system advantages are:
ΣP × L
ΣPc = v gr for “harp” configurations • Fast and relatively easy construction, requiring
2Ht
less time to build
where: • Less expensive
ΣPc is the cumulative compression force in the deck-girder, • Multiple design options
maximum at towers, • Large efficient span range
ΣPv is the sum of all downward vertical forces on the main • Strong and resilient structures
span deck, • Attractive appearance
Lmax is the main span length, The main system disadvantages are:
Ht is the height of the cable connections at the tower above deck, • Still inferior to suspension bridges for super-long spans
as shown in Figure 4 for fan or harp cable configuration, and • Requires checking deformations at all conditions
Lgr is the total length of the cable group for harp configuration. • Requires experience in both design and construction
The sum of the horizontal forces of all cables at the tower
(from the main span) is equal to the cumulative compres-
sion force in the main span deck-girder, balanced by an
equal force on the opposite side.
These calculations will allow the designer to establish the
initial design dimensions for the cables, deck-girder, and
tower to be used in the computer model for further adjust-
ments and refinements of the system. The deck-girder has
to be designed for the compression and bending from the
cable-stay system and the typical bridge deck design for
vertical dead and live loads. The initial approach described
above will help to achieve the desired final goal faster.

Efficiency and Economy

Cable-stayed bridges are efficient in cost, materials, and
construction time. They have better efficiency than other Figure 5. Hybrid cable-stayed and suspension bridge system for super long spans.

40 STRUCTURE magazine
 Further Development Conclusions
Like all other bridge systems, cable-stayed bridges are continuously Based on current technical progress and fast development, cable-
improved based on the development of high-strength materials and stayed bridges may reach spans 2,400 to 2,600 meters (7,600 to
new construction technologies. More valuable for engineers are the 8,500 feet) in a short while; such design will require towers about
modifications of established structural systems and newer sub-systems. 500 to 570 meters tall (1640 feet to 1,870 feet), something achiev-
In addition to the increased number of cable-stayed bridges with able, considering already completed skyscraper structures. This will
longer spans (above 600 meters or approximately 2,000 feet), there is extend the efficiency range for cable-stayed bridges to very long
increasing use of the system for pedestrian bridges. The lower loads and spans above 2,000 meters (6,561 feet). A hybrid cable-stayed-and-
shorter spans allow engineers to explore new approaches, transform- suspension system would make possible even longer spans of up to
ing the building of these bridges into a testing lab for innovation. As 3,000 to 3,400 meters (9,842 to over 11,000 feet), incorporating
such, we may consider the extradosed, under-spanned, and inverted a “pure” suspension bridge of “only” 2,200 to 2,400 meters (7,218
Fink truss sub-bridge systems, all oriented to improved efficiency. to 7,874 feet).
One area of further development is the pursuit of combinations/ Based on the efficiency and advantages of cable-stayed structures,
hybrids of cable-stayed and suspension bridge systems for achieving American engineers and transportation agencies should consider
super-long spans. The idea is to reduce the suspension span length by more cable-stayed bridges when planning new projects. Greater use
moving the suspension support points inward along the span. This of cable-stayed bridges may upgrade the infrastructure with these
not only reduces the suspension span length but the required tower efficient, faster built, and elegant structures. Making cable-stayed
height as well while allowing a longer clear span. This is obtained with bridges more popular may also help our bridge engineering
“cable-stay cantilevered alternatives” at the bridge towers, adding “on- profession regain its position of leadership in the design
deck” cable-stayed pylons (Figure 5). With 500-meter (1,640-foot) and construction of long-span bridges.■
cantilevers and cable-stayed “on-deck” pylons used on each side of a
total clear span of 3,000 meters (9,842 feet), the suspension part is
Roumen V. Mladjov’s field of expertise comprises structural and bridge
reduced to 2,000 meters (6,561 feet). Such reduction would allow
engineering and construction management; his main interests are structural
using main suspension cables of the size and type of those already performance, seismic resistance, efficiency, and economy.
used in bridges, like the Akashi-Kaikyo at 1991 meters (6,532 feet), ([email protected])
for a much longer main span.

ADVERTISEMENT–For Advertiser Information, visit STRUCTUREmag.org

SELF-CONTAINED DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS (SCDT)

AIDING IN PO ST-E A RT H Q UA K E RE S I D UA L CA PAC I T Y ASSE SSM E N T

reCOREder
Internal data collection system with memory to
record and store hundreds of events
User defined sensitivities can be adjusted to track
various magnitude and frequency of events
Boasting a 10-year battery life, the device sleeps
between triggering events and requires no data or
power connections
Date and time stamps on all recorded data including
events and aftershocks
Configurable for real-time monitoring
l
Helping engineers, owners, and property managers na n
quickly assess the safety of their structures after t er tio
a seismic event ex op
s edting
po un
exmo
5789 West Wells Park Road
West Jordan, UT 84081
801.280.0701 | www.corebrace.com

OCTOBER 2020 41