Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222

Design and Characteristic Analysis of Supersonic Nozzles for High Gas Pressure Laser Cutting

H. C. Man*, 1. Duan, T. M. Vue

Department ofManufacturing Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Abstract
A new method for the design of a supersonic nozzle tip for high gas pressure laser cutting is presented. The design is based on the
theory of gas dynamics in that the potential energy of high stagnation pressure is converted totally into effective velocity energy so that a
high momentum of the exit jet can be obtained for improving the capability of removing molten debris quickly and minimizing the heat-
affected zone of the cut edges. Another purpose is to increase the cutting speed and minimize gas consumption under high pressure
cutting conditions. The behavior of the exit jet under the condition of stagnation gas pressure ranging from 4 - 16 bar are investigated by
means of a computer simulation test. The results of theoretical analysis and of the simulation test show that for a supersonic jet, each
sectional diameter and curve contour of the supersonic nozzle must be designed strictly according to the theory of gas dynamics. An exit
jet with high momentum, good uniform and a tidy boundary can be obtained and the tolerance of the working distance between the
nozzle tip and the workpiece can be increased.
Keywords: high gas pressure, laser cutting, supersonic nozzle

Introduction some extent. By using inert gas pressure ranging from 8 to 25

bar, the molten metal in the cut kerf is blown away by the sheer
Amongst the many process parameters in laser cutting, the force of the gas stream. Because of the absence of oxygen in the
cut-assist gas pressure and gas flow pattern are of prime gas stream, no viscous oxide is formed inside the cut kerf and, as
importance to the cut edge quality. In the conventional oxygen- pure molten metals are normally of relative low viscosity at
assisted laser cutting process in which oxygen is used for the temperature above the melting point, they can be blown away
generation of exothermal energy during the oxidation process, relatively easily. However, there are several problems
the oxygen pressure normally ranges from 0.5 to 4 bar with a accompanying current high pressure inert gas laser cutting, which
nozzle diameter of 0.8 - 1.5 mm. Oxygen-assisted laser cutting is hinder the wide application of this process, the latter having the
used mainly for ferrous alloys because ferrous oxides are of low capability of producing shiny and oxide-free cut edges with a
viscosity and can be easily blown away from the cut kerf. The cut minimum heat-affected zone. The main problems are: (i) too high
edges of laser cut ferrous alloys normally consist of a thin layer a gas consumption rate; and (ii) too low a tolerance of the
of ferrous oxide but this, together with the edge quality, is working distance between the nozzle tip and the workpiece.
normally acceptable in most applications. However, amongst the The main cause of these problems is the poor design of the
ferrous alloys, laser cut edges of stainless steels are normally cutting nozzle tip. When the high pressure inert gas process was
inferior to those of other carbon steels. This is because the developed, the main research efforts were directed onto the
chromium content in the stainless steels forms molten chromium integrity of the lens system and the whole nozzle assembly under
oxides during the laser cutting process and these oxides have a the high pressure regime. However, the design of the nozzle tip
high viscosity and tend to cling to the cut edge as dross if the was still the same as those used for low pressure oxygen-assist
cut-assist gas pressure is not sufficiently high to blow it away. laser cutting technology. To date, no literature on the design of a
Similar problems arise in the laser cutting of aluminium and nozzle tip used for high inert gas pressure can be found. This
titanium alloys because the molten oxides of these alloys are also paper attempts to discuss our a new design of nozzle tip for high
of high viscosity. Thus high cut-assist gas pressure is normally inert gas pressure laser cutting.
required to obtain a better cut edge quality. Indeed, using
conventional low pressure oxygen-assisted laser cutting, alloys of
Cr, AI, T j are classified as difficult materials to cut. 1. Defects of the Traditional Laser Cutting Nozzle used for
Recent development in high pressure inert gas laser cutting high gas pressure
[1 - 5] has helped to alleviate the above-mentioned problems to
Most commonly used cutting nozzles for the laser cutting
process are of parallel, conical and convergent types, as shown
• To whom correspondence should be addressed in Fig. I, in which the gas passages belong to the subsonic and

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218 H.e. Man et al.!Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222

nozzl

normal shock
disk
oblique
shock
Fig.! Commonly used cutting nozzles: (a) parallel; jet boundary
(b) convergent; (c) conical

transonic type[6 - 8]. From the requirement of high cutting speed

and good cutting quality under circumstances of high gas Fig. 3 Jet coming from subsonic and transonic
pressure, there exist serious defects in these kinds of nozzles. nozzles under conditions of high pressure
2
When the gas pressure Po <1.89kg/cm (0.185MP a ) (absolute
pressure ), velocity V and flow Q increase with the increasing of
2
inlet pressure Po, but when Po reaches 1.89 kg / cm (0.185MP a )
, V attains a maximum value ( i.e. the local sonic velocity, Mach
number M = I). A further increase in Po also increases the flow surface of
Q, but the gas velocity will remain constant, as illustrated in Fig. workpiece
2. At the same time, when the exit pressure PI is greater than
the ambient pressure Ph (back pressure), the speed of the exit jet
Fig. 4 interference of the gradient ofthe gas
flow Q density with the laser beam focusing
velocity V
Therefore, it can be seen that only increasing the inlet
pressure Po (in order to obtain a high jet energy) would cause a
sonic deterioration of the cutting characteristics in these kinds of
velocity subsonic and transonic nozzles.
When a supersonic nozzle is used as a laser cutting nozzle,
the condition of the exit jet can be greatly improved because this
nozzle has good gas dynamic characteristics. Especially under
!.89 2 3 4 the conditions of a correct design, the potential energy of Po can
inlet pressure Po , kg/cm 2 (absolute pressure) be changed totally into the effective speed energy, so that the
Fig. 2 Relationship between velocity, flow and pressure velocity of the jet used in laser cutting will surpass the sonic
speed and increase with the increase of inlet pressure Po. A
at of the exit ofa transonic nozzle (after [10])
higher momentum of the jet can be obtained to improve the
may reach supersonic speed, which causes the transversal capability of removing the molten debris. This factor will lead to
expansion of the jet in an explosive fashion. The exit gas a great increase of laser cutting speed and a reduction of the heat-
particles are accelerated radially and displaced from their affected zone. On the other hand, the jet boundary exiting from
equilibrium positions, thereby creating a pressure reduction in the the supersonic nozzle is long and sharp-pointed, which is
core of the jet that causes the particles to reverse their direction suitable for precise cutting and for the cutting of thick plate.
of motion. As a result, periodic intermittent shock waves are
formed which makes the jet thinner in some sections and thicker
2
in others. JfPoexceeds 5 - 6 kg/cm (0.49 - 0.588MPa ), there
will be some strong oblique shocks and even normal shock 2. Operating Theory of Supersonic Nozzle
waves, which result in loss in energy ( some energy is changed
into heat) and turbulent flow of the jet, as illustrated in Fig. 3. A theory of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics can be
The above phenomenon may interfere seriously in the applied to the flow in a short duct of small divergence and
focusing of the laser beam because non-uniform jet flow curvature on the basis of the assumption that the gas is a perfect
produces gradients of gas density that result in a change of the gas, without viscous stress, and that the transversal gradients of
refractive index in the gas field, which leads to secondary pressure ( P ), velocity of flow ( V ), temperature ( T ) and gas
focusing or diverging of the laser beam, as illustrated in Fig. 4. density ( p ) are negligible. The physical parameters of a perfect
The result of interference can affect obviously the melting gas are constant and uniform on each cross-sectional area ( A )
efficiency and change the mode of the laser beam ,which causes and the flow of perfect gas is an isentropic and adiabatic process,
poor cutting quality and low cutting speed. On the other hand, without energy loss and heat exchange [6].
the decrease in the energy of the jet caused by the normal shock The laser cutting supersonic nozzle is generally of small
can reduce the momentum of the jet so that the capability of divergence and non-curvature as well as having a short duct. The
removing molten debris quickly is degraded. This will also gas velocity in the duct is so fast that heat exchange has no time
result in an increase of the HAZ and in the roughness of the cut to occur and therefore the motion of gas in the duct is an
edges. Finally, the range of distance between the nozzle tip and adiabatic process. On the other hand, the development of
workpiece is too sensitive to be tolerable in some laser cutting boundary layers will have little influence on the flow because no
processes. matter how much the velocities in the boundary layer have been
 H.e. Man et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222 219

reduced by friction forces, the retarded layers have no difficulty sectional area A remains constant, i.e. dA = O. Also, dv = 0 , dp
in following the favourable pressure gradients of the expansion, = 0, dp = 0 and M=1 can be obtained from Eqns. (1)-(3). The
so that the affect of friction can be approximately neglected. evaluation above shows that the cross-sectional area A will reach
Under these conditions, the motion of the gas in a laser cutting a minimum value, known as the throat sectional area A e (critical
nozzle can be considered as a barotropic and isentropic process, value ), and the velocity V in the throat section will achieve sonic
and the equations of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics can be speed, Le. V = a (critical velocity).
applied in the design of the supersonic nozzle. If A was continuously reduced in order to attain supersonic
The differential relationships between the change of speed speed there would be M = via> 1. This conclusion is impossible
and pressure and the change of cross-sectional area and density from Eqn. (I) which requires dA > 0 when M> I, so that V
are easily established by one-dimensional gas dynamics keeps at sonic speed, called the shock phenomena.
equations [6 - 8], these relationships being: In order to make the jet exceed sonic speed after passing the
dA 2 dv throat section, the cross-sectional area of the nozzle must increase
-=(M -1)- (1) continuously and the P and p decrease correspondingly to keep
A V Eqns. (1) - (3) established. Therefore, the supersonic nozzle
must be a kind of converging--diverging nozzle which consists
dA of three sections: convergent (subsonic zone), throat (critical
(2) zone) and divergent (supersonic zone).
A

dp 2 dv
-=M (3) 3. Design Theory of a Supersonic Nozzle
p V
Just as pointed out above, the supersonic nozzle should
p VA = const (4)
consist of three sections: convergent, throat and divergent.
where A is cross-sectional area; V is the velocity of the gas; P is However, in the real supersonic nozzle, there is a stable section
pressure; M is Mach number (M = via ); k is the ratio of specific before the convergent section in order to make the flow uniform
heats; a is the speed of sound; and p is the density of the gas. and non-turbulent. Thus, the nozzle should consist of four
From these equations, bearing the name of Hugoniot, it is sections: stable, convergent, throat and divergent, as shown in
possible to draw the following important conclusions. Fig. 5.
(i) If M < I, the sign of dv is opposite to the sign of dA and the
sign of dp is identical to the sign of dA, Le. in the subsonic
throat
motion of a gas, the speed of flow decreases with increasing section
cross-sectional area and pressure of the stream, which is the
condition of a subsonic diffuser, and conversely, the speed
increase with decreasing cross-sectional area and pressure, which
is the condition of a subsonic nozzle.
(ii) If M > I, the sign of dv is identical with the sign of dA but
+--Lo-~-Ll L2
opposite to the sign of dp, Le. in the supersonic motion of gas in
stable convergent divergent
a convergent duct the flow is retarded, which is the condition of a section
section section
supersonic diffuser, whilst in a divergent duct, the flow is
Fig. 5 Conceptual diagram of a supersonic nozzle
accelerated which is the condition of a supersonic nozzle.
(iii) If M = 1, then dA = 0; the corresponding section of the duct
will be critical. The condition dA =0 is identical with the
necessary condition for the area to have a stationary value. It is In order to produce an exit jet with high momentum, good
easy to see that this stationary value must be a minimum, for if uniform and a tidy boundary, as well as with low turbulence and
the critical section of the duct had maximum area, a subsonic energy loss, the dimensions of each section in supersonic nozzle
stream would slow down and a supersonic stream would need to be designed correctly and calculated precisely on the
accelerate, which could not, either way, lead to sonic flow at the basis of gas dynamics. The methods of design are as follows.
critical section: thus when M = 1, the velocity of flow reaches
3.1 Stable section
sonic speed and the cross-section of the duct must be minimum,
called the critical area or throat section (A e). The function of the stable section is to make the incoming
By applying these characteristics, a supersonic nozzle can be flow from a tank more uniform and non-turbulent and its
made to produce a gas jet with supersonic speed. When the velocities at every point of the stable section nearly parallel with
stagnant gas in a nozzle starts to accelerate, the speed of flow the axis without transverse velocity components. The diameter
increases slightly, but the density of gas p can be considered as Do of the stable section depends on the diameter De of the throat
constant, i.e. V « a, M « 1. From Eqn. (4), it is easy to draw section. In theory, the greater is Do the better, but in reality, Do is
the conclusion that with the increase of V, A must be reduced in limited by the nozzle structure and manufacturing method as well
order to keep Eqn. (4) established so that the nozzle must be first as by the focal length and diameter of the laser beam.
converged. With a further increase in V, the stagnation pressure The length L o of the stable section should be sufficiently
begins to decrease significantly and causes a decrease in density long to ensure the incoming flow is stable. For this reason, it is
of the gas that can offset part of the increase in speed V. usually about 10 times as great as the throat diameter De.
According to Eqn. (4), the convergence of the cross-sectional However, in practice, L o is often limited by the focal length and
area A becomes slow, i.e. the value of dA is low. When the diameter of the laser beam. Therefore, L o is determined according
increase in V is just offset by the reduction in p, the cross- to real conditions.
220 H.e. Man et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222

3.2 Convergent Section In gas dynamics, the value of the throat diameter is
determined by the need of the cutting flow according to the range
The function of the convergent section is to accelerate gas of cutting thickness, and then, by the equation of computing flow
flow, but at the same time, to keep the flow uniform and parallel. . If the gas absolute temperature To = 273°K at the inlet section,
The characteristics of the convergent section are mainly under the consideration of a choking effect at the throat section
determined by two factors, one being the converging ratio, Le. and selecting the flow coefficient f.1 = 0.93, a computing equation
A o I A e ( A o is the convergent inlet area, A e is the throat area ) can be obtained as follows:
which accelerates the gas flow and ensures the speed of flow to
reach sonic speed, whilst the second is the convergent curve
which maintains the velocity of flow uniform. D, ~ 1.43~ PoV+ I (=) (7)
From theory of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics [6 - 8],
the equation of A o I A e can be attained as follows: where V is the cutting gas volumetric flow under standard
3
k+1
conditions (m I h); and Po is the gas pressure at the inlet
(kg I mm\
A M((I + ~ M~)J 2(k-l)
3.4 Divergent Section
-o- - -
e 2
(5)
A M k-I 2 The function of the divergent section is to further accelerate
e 0 (l + --Me) the flow, which latter has achieved sonic speed at the throat
2 section, by means of expansion, until the exit jet reaches an
where k is the ratio of specific heats (for air, N 2, k = 1.4; for Ar, expected Mach number. This section is the most important
k = 1.658 ) section in the supersonic nozzle. The dimensions of the exit area
There are numerous theories about the design of a can be calculated by means of Eqn. (8) according to the given
converging curvature. However, most of them are quite inlet pressure Po , which latter can be calculated using Eqn. (9)
complicated. In this paper, a simpler but more practical equation and the exit velocity of flow [8]:
[10] is applied in the design of the convergent section, which is
derived from the conclusion of an ideal axial incompressible
symmetry flow:
Al Me [( I
+ ~ M~)] 2~~1,)
2
(8)
(6)
~= M k-I 2)
I (I+--M
2 e

(9)

x
a = - (Shown in Fig. 6 ) where A, is the exit area; A e is the throat area; Po is the pressure
L, in the tank expressed as inlet pressure (absolute pressure); P, is
where R is the radius of an arbitrary convergent cross-sectional the pressure at exit (absolute pressure); Me is the Mach number
area; Re is the radius of the throat sectional area; Ra is the radius in the throat section; M, is the Mach number at exit.
of the stable sectional area; L j is the length of the convergent The curvature of the divergent section must be designed
section; and x is the length of an arbitrary convergent section. rigorously by calculation on the basis of gas dynamic theory,
This type of converging curvature has an advantage that the which has features that enable not only the exit supersonic speed
velocity of flow entering the throat section is quite uniform. of the jet to be uniform and parallel, but also the jet boundary to
be tidy and limpid, so that the energy loss reaches the lowest
value.

D/2

I+-----L, ------+~I R.: C

Fig. 6 Curve contour in the convergent seeton I
X
Fig. 7 Three-dimensionally symmetricall-diverging
3.3 Throat Section
In the calculation of the three-dimensional dynamic curve
The design of the throat section is relatively important section, there is a simpler and more practical method, which is
because it is a transitional cross-sectional area which transfers Foelsch's analytical calculation [9]. Fig. 7 shows a conceptual
the subsonic speed into the supersonic speed. Just as mentioned diagram of a design on the divergent section using Foelsch's
above, the cross-sectional area closer to the throat section can method. The throat section consists of a circular arc of radius R.
not be varied quickly, so that a circular arc with quite a large In the divergent section, the expansion curve contour consists of
radius is provided over the region of transition in gas dynamics. a circular arc CD extended from the throat section and a straight
 H.e. Man et 01. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222 221

(a)

e'
i?9},r---~----....:::::~~~~::........-----
b' c' d'

(b)

(c)

Fig. 8 Configuration of the exit jet for Dc/D, =1.3 M, =2 and k=l ..II. for different
pressure ratios: (a) Ft/P,=l; (b) Pb /P,=O.8; (c) Ft/P,=O.5

line DA with length equal to R, the arc AB being the are two families of expansion waves from exit points a and a',
compression curve contour. The normal distance from A to X which stretch out as an isentropic process until the exit pressure
axis is the radius of exit cross-sectional area of the nozzle. decreases to the back pressure Ph' Then, these waves are reflected
Finally, a modification of the coanda layer effect should be by the boundary of the free jet ( bcd and b'c'd' )to form two
considered. families of compression waves. The velocity and pressure Pz in
region 2 keep constant ( i.e. Pz = Ph ), the pressure P3 in region 3
being less than Ph because of the expansion ( P3 =: 0.25 bar), but
4. Characteristic Analysis on a Supersonic Jet the velocity in this region 3 increases. Without consideration of
viscous effect, there exists a relationship of PI - Ph = Ph - P3 •
The behaviour of the exit jet coming from two-dimensional Finally, these compression waves begin to move towards the
supersonic nozzle is investigated by means of a computer axial line of jet to the reflected points e and e' of the boundary.
simulation test under the conditions of stagnation gas pressure Po In the meanwhile, the pressure of the jet gradually recovers the
ranging from 4 - 16 bar, (as shown in Fig. 8). The results show value of PI ( region 4 ). If there were no loss of energy in the
that for supersonic jet, after each of the sectional diameters and process, this alternating change would continue, so that the
curve contours of the supersonic nozzle have been designed configuration of the exit jet would appear as an undulating
strictly based on the theory of gas dynamics, the velocity, movement.
momentum and configuration of the exit jet depend mainly on When the difference between PI and Ph is greater, i.e. Ph / PI
the given Mach number and working pressure ratio. = 0.5, the situation of the exit jet is quite complicated, as shown
When the exit pressure PI (nozzle tip pressure) is slightly in Fig. 8(c). Some stronger oblique shock and normal shock (
greater than the back pressure Ph (i.e. Ph =: 1 bar, PI =: 1.25 bar, Mach shock disk) emerge at the cross region of the compression
Ph / PI= 0.8, M = 2), the shape of exit jet is as illustrated in Fig. waves because when PI ~ 2 bar, the pressure P3 must be equal to
8(b). The exit jet forms expansion waves with its streamlines or less than the absolute vacuum pressure in order to keep the
turning outwards through an angle e at the nozzle tip a a'. There relationship of PI - Ph = Ph - P3 established. However, this is
222 H.G. Man et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (/997) 217-222

impossible in fact, and as a result a normal shock disk must be be equal to the computed value, as a large deviation would result
produced. The normal shock disk can cause loss in energy which in a poor exit jet.
reduces the momentum of the exit jet, produce turbulent flow of
the exit jet which would interfere seriously the focusing of laser References
beam, and shorten the effective length of the exit jet. The shorter
this length, the more sensitive is the distance between the nozzle [1] H. C. Man, Technical review of CO2 laser cutting systems
tip and the workpiece. and processes, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. on Power Beam Tech.,
When Pi = Pb' i.e. Pb / p]= 1 (the" design" pressure ratio) , Stratford-Upon-Avon, The Welding Inst. U. K., (1990) pp.
the characteristic lines ac', ad' and a'c, a' d coincide separately 248-257.
with ab' and a'b. The shape of the exit jet is illustrated in Fig. [2] S. E. Nielsen, Laser cutting with high pressure cutting gases
8(a), an exit jet with high momentum, good uniformity and a tidy and mixed gases, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Lasers in
boundary being obtained. Manufacturing, IFS (Conferences) Ltd., Bedford, UK, (1986)
From the above analysis, an important conclusion is obtained p.25.
that for a supersonic nozzle used in high pressure laser cutting, as [3] J. M. Weick, W. Bartel, Laser cutting without oxygen and its
soon as the ratio between the exit diameter D] and the throat benefits for cutting stainless steel, Proc. 6 the Int. Conf.
diameter Dc is determined, the exit Mach number M i is fixed Laser in Manufacturing, by IFS (Conferences) Ltd., Bedford,
and the ratio between the inlet pressure Po and the exit pressure UK, (1989), p. 81 .
PI is also defined, the value of Po also being defined by [4] J. Fieret, M. J. Terry and B. A. Ward, Overview of flow
equation (9) since PI = Pb ;; 1 bar. For instance, when Pi = Pb ;; 1 dynamics in gas-assisted laser cutting. Fourth Int.
bar, if D] / Dc = 1.3, M= 2, Po is about 7.8 bar, and if D] / Dc = Symposium on Optical and Optoelectronic Applied Science
1.62, M= 2.5, Po is about 17 bar . Any greater deviation from the and Engineering, Topical meeting on high power laser, 30
computed value of Po can result in a characteristic deterioration March - 3 April, The Hague, The Netherlands, (1987),
of the exit jet. p.818.
[5] B. A. Ward, Supersonic characteristics of nozzles used with
lasers for cutting, Proc. Int. Congo on application of lasers
5. Conclusions and electro-optics, Boston, MA, USA, (Nov. 1984). p.730.
[6] Howard W. Emmons, Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics,
1. Subsonic and transonic nozzles are not suitable for high Princetion, New Jersey, Princetion University Press, (1958).
pressure laser cutting because a normal shock disk, turbulent [7] Ascher H.Shapiro, The Dynamics and Thermodynamics oj
flow and a short effective length of the exit jet cause a Compressible Fluid Flow, New York, Chichester Brisbane,
deterioration of the cutting characteristics under the conditions of Toronto, Singapore, (1953).
Po >5bar. [8] Maurice I. Zucrow Joe D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics. 605
2. A supersonic nozzle has good gas dynamic characteristics so Third Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10016, USA, (1976).
that it is suitable for high pressure laser cutting. However, it [9] K.Foelsch, The Analytical Design of an Axially Symmetric
should consist of four sections: stable, convergent, throat and Laval Nozzle for a Parallei and Uniform Jet J. Aero. Sci. 16
divergent. Each of the sectional dimensions must be designed (31) (1949), p. 32.
strictly on the basis of the theory of gas dynamics. [10] I.C.Crown, Supersonic Nozzle Design, No.1651 NACA
3. In order to obtain a good exit jet, the inlet pressure Po should Tech. Note (1948).