CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW, ORIENTATION AND

DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
“The adoption of the principles of sustainable development to tourism has been rapid
and widespread, although implementation of the practice has been much more limited.”
Butler (1998, p. 27)

2.1 Introduction: Conceptualizing the sustainability of community-based

ecotourism

The purpose of this chapter is to review the relevant literature relating to the focus of the field of
study, the sustainability of community-based ecotourism (CBE). The various impetuses and the
conceptualization of the study are discussed in this section. The definitions, and a detailed
discussion of these, follow from section 2.2 onwards.

This research is about the sustainability of community based ecotourism. Community-based

ecotourism is a specific type of ecotourism in which the community has much greater decision-
making responsibilities and significant benefits accrue to the community members. Specifically,
the research is focused on the contribution of an evaluation framework to aid the assessment of
CBE ventures. The research focus has emerged from three strong current trends. The first
impetus for the investigation of the sustainability of community-based ecotourism is provided by
development theories and in particular the emergence of the new paradigm in development
theories: sustainable development. The second impetus is found in the devolution of natural
resource management responsibilities which has led to the emergence of community-based
natural resource management (CBNRM). CBNRM has resulted in communities receiving
management responsibilities and rights to benefit both directly and indirectly from the natural
resources. Community-based ecotourism provides valuable opportunities for communities to
benefit significantly through tourism. The third impetus for the investigation relates to the
worldwide increase in tourism arrivals and receipts which has sparked a significant increase in
tourism in Africa and southern Africa alike. As tourists become more aware of the impact of their
activities they demand more sustainable tourism products. The important role that tourism
ventures may play in poverty alleviation has led to the emergence of pro-poor tourism, the forth
impetus. Community-based ecotourism ventures have been earmarked for the significant role
they may play in terms of poverty alleviation.

Figure 2.1 provides the conceptual framework indicating how the theoretical aspects of the
literature review are related. The aspects mentioned that provide impetus for the research of the
sustainability of CBE and the resultant development of indicators are discussed in detail in the
paragraphs that follow.

8
 Changes in development theory & emergence of sustainable development

Contextual Background

1. Establish context
Devolution of
Natural
Resource
Management

communities conservation 2. Establish

goals &
strategies

Trends in management 5. Evaluating 3. Identify &

tourism results select
indicators

4. Collect data

Pro-poor tourism
tourism

Community-based ecotourism Developing and using indicators

Sustainability of community-based ecotourism

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the literature review

The emergence of sustainable development has had a profound influence on the way people
now perceive themselves as an integrated part of the environment: people are increasingly
aware that their activities have a significant impact on the environment. In an attempt to
minimize these impacts, sustainable development has called for the measurement and
mitigation of these impacts and the use of indicators as a means of measuring the impacts has
been recommended. All human activities, including our travel and tourism decisions, are now
being investigated and carefully considered for their impacts on the environment.

Community-based ecotourism ─ a very specific form of ecotourism ─ has come forward as a

valuable tool for poverty alleviation, biodiversity conservation and the delivery of responsible
and sustainable tourism offerings. Ecotourism is a form of tourism where the needs of the
tourist, the community and the conservation of the environment are mutually interdependent.
This mutual interdependence is facilitated through the management of the ecotourism venture.
Within a southern African context a large number of CBE ventures have emerged as a result of
the devolution of natural resource management responsibilities to communities. Together with
this, communities also receive the right to utilize the natural resources for the alleviation of
poverty and the generation of income for rural communities. Ecotourism provides an excellent
opportunity for these communities to benefit from natural resources. Ecotourism ventures

9
managed by communities for the benefit of communities are called community-based
ecotourism ventures. The tourist offerings of CBE ventures have to be considered within the
larger context of global and African tourism trends. The rapid rate at which international tourist
arrivals and receipts to Africa, and more particularly southern Africa, have increased, have
created very favourable circumstances for CBE ventures to capitalize on. The international
demand for sustainable nature-based tourism products also creates an important niche market
that CBE ventures can now fill. However, it is fundamental that these CBE ventures take place
in a sustainable way in order to ensure their longevity.

In an attempt to improve the sustainability of CBE ventures a measuring tool is needed to

establish their present sustainability. Sustainable tourism indicators have been identified as
such a tool. The implementation and measurement of sustainability using indicators takes place
within a specific contextual social, political, policy, climatic and infrastructural background over
which the CBE ventures have no control. The development and use of sustainable tourism
indicators through a cyclic adaptive learning approach provides for stakeholder engagement
and continuous improvement. The resultant sustainability after the implementation of the
sustainable tourism indicators provides important feedback for the management of CBE. The
feedback needs to be carefully considered by the management of the CBE venture so that
appropriate actions may be implemented to improve their sustainability performance. Through
the communication of the results of the sustainability investigation and the associated actions
taken for the improvement of the sustainability, community members become involved and
empowered. Sometimes the results of the sustainability investigations may even result in
changes in the contextual background. An example of this would be that governments bring
about changes in policy as a result of the favourable results being achieved through
sustainability investigations. The development and implementation of sustainable tourism
indicators through stakeholder engagement and involvement within rural areas is a very
expensive and time-consuming process. An alternative time- and cost-efficient approach is
needed for investigating the sustainability of CBE ventures within rural settings. This study aims
to develop a framework for monitoring the sustainability of CBE in southern Africa.

The sections that follow provide a more in-depth description and explanation of the components
identified in the conceptual framework.

2.2 Changes in development theories and the emergence of sustainable

development

Community-based ecotourism (CBE) is being embraced as a potential economic saviour for

many rural communities. CBE promises rural development through the provision of jobs, new
business opportunities and skills development as well as the opportunity to secure greater
control over natural resource utilization (Ashley & Roe, 1997). Massyn (2007) points out that

10
“[t]ourism enterprises based on Africa‟s natural attractions are today widely regarded as
important drivers of development, particularly in remote areas with rich resource endowments
but few other formal economic opportunities”. In order to comprehend this growing interest in
CBE it is important to provide a brief explanation of the evolution of development theories.
Recent advances in development thinking provide a stimulus for this heightened interest in
CBE and the sustainability thereof, as indicated by the World Bank (2001, p. 267):
At the start of a new century, poverty remains a global problem of huge
proportions. Of the world‟s 6 billion people, 2.8 billion live on less that $2 a day and
1.2 billion on less than $1 a day. Eight of every 100 infants do not live to see their
fifth birthday. Nine of every 100 boys and 14 of every 100 girls who reach school
age do not attend school. Poverty is also evident in poor people‟s lack of political
power and voice and in their extreme vulnerability to ill health, economic
dislocation, personal violence and natural disasters. And the scourge of HIV/AIDS,
the frequency and brutality of civil conflicts and rising disparities between rich
countries and the developing world have increased the sense of deprivation and
injustice for many.

The sentiments expressed above suggest not only that development and inequality are global
phenomenon but also that development interventions taken since World War II have failed to
deliver broad-based development in many developing countries. Instead there has been a
deepening inequality both between and within countries (Haynes, 2005, Dwivedi et al., 2007).
The assumption that developing countries would inevitably become developed over time has
been totally disproved.

It is commonly agreed that the starting point of „development‟, as it has become known, is the
inaugural speech of President Truman on 20 January 1949. Although this was a turning point in
modern development thought, it should be remembered that development is in fact much older
than this. Truman‟s speech for the first time created an economic division between developed
and developing countries (Morse, 2004; Mowforth & Munt, 2009). After World War II
development theory became a prominent new sub-discipline of political science. During this
period many developing countries were emerging from colonial rule. These countries had to
grapple with pressing economic and human development problems and still do today.

Development implies growth and expansion and, as Weaver (1998, p. 34) states, it “implies
progression toward some kind of desirable outcome”. During the industrial revolution
development was strongly connected to increased speed, volume and size. Frank and Smith
(1999), however, indicate that the concept of growth in terms of development is being
questioned and that there is a general realization that „more‟ is not always better, since it
generally results in a lowering of levels of consumerism. According to Frank and Smith (1999)
the term „development‟, therefore, may not always mean growth and expansion, but it will
always imply change. Stewart (1997, p. 1) states that “development may be defined as positive
social, economic and political change in a country or community … [D]evelopment is concerned
with positive change in existing human societies, and the success of development efforts is
measured by the results seen in society.” The question arises: What is actually meant by

11
„positive change‟? Stewart (1997) answers this question by saying that positive change is a
process that occurs through a consultative and democratic process, whereby people identify
and act on what they perceive as good within their particular context, while being aware of their
particular constraints and opportunities. Development should be seen as “releasing the
community of the poor from the poverty trap so that they can take responsibility for their own
destiny” (Swanepoel & De Beer, 1997, p. xiii). Since development should lead to an
improvement in the economic and spiritual welfare of the individual or community involved, it
should lead to the eradication of poverty.

Potter et al. (2004, p. 81) regard development theories as “sets of apparently logical
propositions, which purport to explain how development has occurred in the past, and/or should
occur in the future”. Development theories may be normative or positive, normative referring to
what should be the case in an ideal world, while positive referring to what has actually been the
case. The distinction between the different development theories is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
Each of the major groupings of development theory will be discussed briefly in the section that
follows, and the recent development of the alternative and bottom-up approach, which provides
a theoretical backdrop for this study, will be discussed thereafter.

The advances in development thinking have not gone through a strict sequential temporal
process, but have rather tended to stack up over time, allowing different theories to coexist.
Older theories have thus not been discarded and replaced with new ones. Potter and Lloyd-
Evans (1998) have proposed four major approaches to development theory: (1) the classical-
traditional approach, (2) the historical-empirical approach, (3) the radical-political economy-
dependency approach, and (4) the alternative and bottom-up approach, as described below.
The classical-traditional approach originates from classical and neo-classical
economics and has generally dominated policy thinking at the global scale. Economic
development is seen as the core element in development thinking.
The historical-empirical approach seeks to generalize about development through
empirical and real-world observation over time. This approach gives rise to descriptive-
positive models of development. It deals primarily with the colonial and pre-
independence periods, also providing grounded theory discussions of development in
the context of historical realities in developing countries. However, it still provides
insight into contemporary patterns and processes of development.
The radical-political economy-dependency approach, also referred to as the
indigenization of development thinking, produces ideas that relate to the conditions that
are encountered in the Third World, rather than ideas emanating from Europe.

12
 NORMATIVE THEORY
(what should be the case)

Alternative and bottom-

up approaches
bottom-up self-
another reliance
development
development

post-modernity
neo-populism basic needs

Civil Society
ecodevelopment,
social capital
sustainable development
Classical- participation collaborative
traditional approach empowerment NGOs planning
popular
dualism The modernity movements
Enlightenment

modernization
top-down theory
New/Right
stages of
hierarchical growth

ECONOMIC diffusion HOLISTIC

neo-liberal Radical-political (including
(focus on the neo-classical policies economy-
economic social,
approaches Dependency approaches
dimensions political,
alone) dependencia or moral
dependency theory dimensions)
world-systems
New World Group
theory

articulation of
Marxism the modes of
production
Historical-empirical neo-
approaches Marxism

trickle-down
cumulative
causation
mercantile
model
transport
evolution

plantopolis core-
periphery

POSITIVE THEORY
(what has been the case)

Figure 2.2: Development theories (Potter et al., 2004, p. 83)

The alternative and bottom-up approach results from the need for self-reliance to be
seen as central to the development process. Emphasis is also placed on internal rather
than external forces of change. The meeting of basic needs, while developing in an
ecologically sensitive way, and the advancement of public participation, are the central
driving forces of this approach. Since the mid-1970s there has been growing criticism of
top-down approaches to development and the fact that development does not only refer
to economic development but encompasses a broad range of issues. In 1975 a major
new paradigm came to the fore in which a stronger emphasis was placed on rural-
based strategies for development. This approach is commonly referred to as

13
 „development from below‟. This involves meeting basic needs through becoming more
self-sufficient and self-reliant, often done through the mobilization of indigenous natural
and human resources. The last advance in this theory has been the emergence of
environmental consciousness and the concept of sustainable development. The
fundamental component of this approach is that developing countries no longer have to
look to developed countries for a blueprint on which to base their development.
Developing counties should look towards their own ecology and culture to seek
solutions for their own development (Potter et al., 2004).

Brohman (1996) summarizes six main common elements of alternative development strategies:
a move towards direct redistributive mechanisms, specifically targeting the poor
a focus on local small-scale projects often linked to community-based development
programmes
an emphasis on basic needs and human resource development
a refocusing away from growth-oriented definitions of development, towards more
broadly based human-oriented frameworks
a concern for local and community participation in the design and implementation of
projects
an emphasis on self-reliance, reducing outside dependency and promoting
sustainability

Modernization and dependency theory, which came to the fore in the 1970s, did not deliver the
expected development results, and this, together with the rise in environmentalism, led to the
consensus that a new approach to development was needed. Since the 1990s sustainable
development has become increasingly prominent as a dominant development approach,
leading to the demise of other development approaches (Woodhouse & Chimhowu, 2005). With
the emergence of sustainable development the pursuit of economic growth is no longer the only
core value of development strategies (Dwivedi et al., 2007).

Sustainable development originated from the modern-day environmental movement whose

th
origins stem in part from 19 -century Europe where the traditional approach that humans have
dominion over nature was replaced with a „preservation ethic‟ (Hall & Lew, 1998). Influential
publications in the 1960s and 70s such as Carson‟s (1962) Silent Spring, Hardin‟s (1968) The
Tragedy of Commons and Schumacher‟s (1973) Small is Beautiful, made the world aware of the
detrimental effects that human activities were having on the environment. Through the work of
international organizations such as the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) humans started to be
understood as part of nature and not separate from it. These organizations started to take steps
to embrace social and environmental issues and to group them under one umbrella. This paved

14
the way for the integration of social and environmental concerns that are critical for sustainable
development.

During the post-World War II period, and up to the 1970s, development policies had an almost
exclusive economic focus. Development policies of the time were based on the idea that
humans could overcome poverty through economic development, which would lead to an
eventual trickle-down effect to the poorest people in society. Large-scale industrialization and
agricultural development projects were often not suited to the environment and the culture of the
countries where they were imposed. Development initiatives often left developing countries with
debt, thus widening the gap between the rich and the poor, and a seriously degraded
environment rather than an improvement in quality of life (Woodhouse & Chimhowu, 2005).

The failure of economic development theories and the associated environmental degradation,
together with the growth in the environmental movement, laid the foundations for the emergence
of sustainable development. In 1972 the United Nations (UN) conference on the Human
Environment was held in Stockholm. This was the first time global environmental issues were
discussed in a systematic and comprehensive manner. At this meeting, representatives of
developing nations made it clear that environmental issues would not be part of their agenda
until active steps were taken to alleviate poverty and bring about greater equity in trade
relations, effectively linking environmental degradation and poverty alleviation (Miller & Twining-
Ward 2005; Dwivedi et al., 2007). Although the Stockholm Conference was of limited scope it
started a new wave of environmentally conscious international conventions and treaties such as
the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and the 1980
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. The UN General
Assembly adopted the recommendations of the Stockholm Conference and established the UN
Environmental Programme (UNEP) to serve as an environmental monitoring agency (Dwivedi et
al., 2007). Several years later the Stockholm Conference also led to the establishment of the
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).

Sustainable development was first popularized by the Brundtland Commission Report of the
WCED entitled „Our Common Future‟ (WCED, 1987), in which the integration of economic and
environmental issues was highlighted. The report made statements that warranted serious
attention, such as “Failure to manage the environment and to sustain development threatens to
overwhelm all countries. Environment and development are not separate challenges, they are
linked. Development cannot subsist upon a deteriorating environmental resource base” (WCED,
1987, p. 37). The Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987, p. 43) defines sustainable development as
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

15
Five years after the Brundtland Report, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) took place in Rio de Janeiro and popularly became known as the „Rio
Earth Summit‟. According to Woodhouse and Chimhowu (2005) this event may be seen as the
high point of the environmental movement worldwide. In the 20 years between the Stockholm
Conference and the Earth Summit, the world had changed significantly. The cold war had
ended, the Soviet Union had broken apart, globalization was rapidly expanding, scientific
advances had emerged at an accelerated rate, the Internet had emerged and many
environmental disasters had taken place, spilling over national borders, proving that national
borders have become meaningless with respect to environmental issues (Khator, 1995; Dwivedi
et al., 2007). The Rio Earth Summit also had a much higher level attendance: while the
Stockholm Conference was attended by two heads of state, 134 NGOs and a handful of
journalists, the Earth Summit was attended by 166 heads of state, 7 892 NGOs and over 8 000
journalists. The Earth Summit emphasized that environmental protection could no longer be
seen as a luxury but as a necessity alongside economic and social issues. The Rio Earth
Summit also succeeded in putting together five documents, one of which was Agenda 21, which
outlines the basis for implementing sustainable development at local, national and international
level into the twenty first century (UN, 1993). The Earth Summit also led to the creation of a new
UN Agency, the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), which was
tasked with collecting data on the environment and development and monitoring progress
towards the goals of Agenda 21.

Despite the apparent success at Rio, the UNCSD reported to the follow-up meeting (Earth
Summit+5) that very little progress had been achieved and that things were still moving in the
wrong direction (UNCSD, 1997). The meeting called for improved international co-operation and
stronger political will. Three years later, in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
were signed by all 191 UN Member States. The MDGs listed eight goals that are to be achieved
by 2015:
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
Achieve universal primary education;
Promote gender equality and empower women;
Reduce child mortality;
Improve maternal health;
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases;
Ensure environmental sustainability; and
Develop a global partnership for development.

The emphasis of the MDGs on poverty and human development rather than on the environment
illustrates a shift in focus from Stockholm and Rio. The World Summit of Sustainable
Development (Rio+10) in Johannesburg in 2002 continued this trend, building on the Agenda 21
and the MDGs. The main areas addressed in the Rio+10 Plan of implementation were poverty,
production and consumption, protecting and managing the natural resource base, sustainable
development in a globalizing world, health, and the means and framework for implementation.

16
Like the MDGs, the Rio+10 Plan of implementation was outcomes-based and placed an
emphasis on establishing partnerships, networks and implementing change through clear goals,
targets and indicators. The use of indicators as a means of gauging progress towards the
attainment of sustainable development has gained momentum over the last 20 years (Bell &
Morse, 1999, 2003; Morse, 2004). The Rio+10 Conference achieved general agreement that
three main pillars of sustainability exist, namely environmental protection, social development
and economic wellbeing. Through the all-encompassing nature of sustainable development
(multi-disciplinary, multi-scale, multi-perspective) it has perhaps become the culmination of all
development theories (Morse, 2004). Development theory would never be the same again.

Miller and Twining-Ward (2005) highlight four important lessons from the emergence of the
concept of sustainable development. First, sustainable development is not a social, economic
and environmental problem but a combination of all three and, as a result, requires
interdisciplinary modes of enquiry. Second, complex systems such as those involved in
sustainable development are inherently unpredictable and therefore require approaches based
on non-linear science. Third, because of the evolutionary nature of sustainable development,
policies and actions need to be continually modified and adapted to evolving conditions.
Fourthly, in order to reduce the vulnerability of the Earth system to abrupt change, monitoring is
required from local to global scales, enhancing systems knowledge and extending human
foresight.

The emergence of sustainable development has promoted the sustainable development of

tourism. Agenda 21, together with the seventh session of the UNCSD in 1999, promoted a wider
focus on the sustainable development of tourism to include economic and social aspects. The
development of the alternative approaches to development theory not only resulted in the
emergence of sustainable development but also in a move towards the devolution of
responsibility and the increased focus on the community. This is corroborated by Murphy
(1985), who advocates greater community involvement in tourism. To further explain and
understand CBE it is important to understand that CBE is both a type of community-based
natural resource management (CBNRM) and a specific type of ecotourism (Kiss, 2004).
CBNRM needs to be investigated further so as to sketch the background and theoretical context
of studying the sustainability of CBE in southern Africa.

2.3 Community-based natural resource management and common property

theory

Governments‟ inability to successfully and efficiently protect and manage natural resources
outside protected areas has led to the devolution of resource management rights and
responsibilities back to communities (Woodhouse & Chimhowu, 2005). Over the last two
decades various southern and east African countries have begun transferring rights to

17
resources back to communities through programmes called Community-based Natural
Resource Management (CBNRM). CBNRM encourages community participation and the
decentralization of benefits of wildlife use, increases local benefits and further stimulates
communities‟ interest in resource conservation. In many cases this has led to promising results
with rural communities gaining rights over land and the associated resources (Massyn, 2007;
Sebele, 2010). Once communities fully participate and derive benefits, they develop a sense of
ownership over resources and will use their resources sustainably as a result (Mbaiwa, 2007).
According to the Government of Botswana (2000 in Sebele 2010, p. 138), “CBNRM is a
development approach that supports natural resource conservation and the alleviation of
poverty through community empowerment and the management of resources for long-term
social, economic and ecological benefits.” Although CBNRM was originally conceived as an
alternative conservation approach the rural development side has become more prominent.

CBNRM owes it roots to the southern African region where there was a realization amongst
natural resource managers that people living within or in close proximity to protected areas
would only conserve and use their resources in a sustainable manner when they could derive
benefits from them (Swatuk, 2005). Originally conceived around wildlife use, CBNRM quickly
diversified into other resources such as veld products, rangelands, coastal and marine
resources, resource conservation, craft production, the sustainable use of resources and
community-based tourism (Sebele, 2010). Arntzen et al. (2003 in Sebele, 2010) define CBNRM
as entailing projects and activities “where a community (one village or a group of villages)
organize themselves in such a way that they derive benefits from the utilization of local natural
resources and are actively involved in their use and conservation. Often (but not always),
communities will receive exclusive rights and responsibilities from government”. CBNRM has
come about as a result of a shift from a preservationist conservation paradigm to a more
integrated approach that recognizes the need for the empowerment of communities by linking
their economic and social development to natural resource management (Mbaiwa, 2004).

CBNRM is, in various forms, an established policy goal of rural development, especially in
Africa. It is also a simple and attractive one – that communities, defined by their tight spatial
boundaries of jurisdiction and responsibilities, by their distinct and integrated social structure
and common interests, can manage their natural resources in an efficient, equitable, and
sustainable way. The natural resources in question are usually, though not exclusively, common
pool resources. Common pool resources (CPR) include natural and human-constructed
resources in which i) exclusion of beneficiaries through physical and institutional means is
especially costly and ii) exploitation by one user reduces resource availability to others (Ostrom,
Gardner & Walker, 1994). In southern Africa these are typically forests, open woodland or
grasslands for livestock grazing, wood supply, medicines, and famine foods; farm land for
gleaning, grazing after harvest, and crop residues; wildlife for game meat and safari incomes;
fish in fresh-water lakes; and aquifers, tanks, and irrigation channels for domestic and livestock

18
water supply and irrigation (Adams, 2004; Blaike, 2006). Before investigating CBNRM further,
the key concept of community needs to be explored.

The concept „community‟ is core to investigating both CBE and CBNRM in this study. Through
consulting a number of sources (Welsh & Butorin, 1990; Andercrombie, Hill & Turner, 1995;
Pearsall, 1998; Frank & Smith, 1999; Naguran, 1999; Denman, 2001; Mann & Ibrahim, 2002),
two important aspects providing meaning for a „community‟ were discerned. First, a community
is a group of people living together in a particular geographical area or a specific place.
Members of a specific geographical area, for example, are the citizens of a specific country, the
inhabitants of a city, or members of a tribal area. Second, a community may be a grouping of
people having particular characteristics in common, such as religion, race, profession, interest
or attitude. Examples of these may be the Catholic community, the Chinese community, the
scientific community, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), a local joint land
management or ownership association, or a non-government organization (NGO) such as the
Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS) or the Namibian Community Based Tourism Association
(NACOBTA). To summarize, it can be said that a community has to be united by at least one of
the abovementioned aspects defining a community, namely geographical location or common
characteristics and interests („communities of interest‟) and acting and making decisions
collectively.

For the purposes of this study a community is defined as

a group of people from either a specific geographical area or a group of
people sharing common characteristics or interests, or both, and who
take collective action and make collective decisions.

How the community is defined will depend on the social and institutional structures in the area
concerned, but the definition implies some kind of collective or common responsibility and
approval by representative bodies. In many places, particularly those inhabited by indigenous
peoples, there are collective rights over land and resources (Denman, 2001). CBE and CBNRM
should therefore foster sustainable use and collective responsibility.

The collective management of common property resources always leads to the debate around
the „Tragedy of the Commons‟, where Hardin (1968) argues that common ownership of a
resource cannot succeed, as individuals take advantage of the situation for personal gain,
leading to the degradation and over-utilization of the common property resource. In a different
opinion on common property, Bromley and Cernea (1989) indicate that common property
regimes are not a free-for-all, as perceived by some, but are actually structured ownership
arrangements within which management rules are maintained, generally through traditional
authorities. Any resource degradation that does occur on the common property should therefore
be seen as a breakdown of the managing institutional arrangements governing the common
property. The undermining of the traditional authorities as a result of colonization and

19
nationalization have in many common property regimes been converted to open access regimes
which have in fact resulted in the „Tragedy of the Commons‟ or, more appropriately, the
„Tragedy of Open Access‟ (Johnson, 2009). Property may be owned in one of four ways: by the
public/state; by an individual; by a group; or through open access. Within open access there are
no enforced property rights, while the other three ownership types all own the resource rights
and may exclude other users (Ostrom et al., 1999; Johnson, 2009).

Due to the failure of the state to manage the sustainability of natural resources, together with
the recent emphasis on alternative and bottom-up development approaches, new approaches
to the management of non-privately owned resources have emerged. These new approaches to
natural resource management have largely involved the devolution of power from the state to
local communities. This may be labelled as co-management or CBNRM. Co-management
involves the co-operative management between communities and the state. CBNRM enables
the community to manage the resources on which they depend. These two approaches
represent a significant shift in natural resource management (Jones & Carswell, 2004). Of
particular importance in terms of this study is CBNRM where the community has substantial
control over the management of resources. CBNRM has embraced the theory and principles of
Common Property Theory (Boggs, 2000).

In recent times there has been a growing promotion of local resource management. Common
Property Theory (CPT) has been central to this shift. CPT argues for the success of commonly
owned resources and identifies several broad criteria crucial for success in commonly managed
natural resources. These include autonomy and the recognition of the community as an
institution, with land tenure rights, rights to make rules regarding resource use and the means to
implement and enforce these rules so that the result may lead to increased benefits for the
community involved (Ostrom, 1990; Bromley, 1992).

Ostrom (1990, cited by Fabricius, Koch and Magome, 2001, p. 17) documented these widely
accepted principles for establishing lasting common property institutions:
Clearly defined boundaries: Individuals or households who have the right to use
resources must be clearly defined, as must the boundaries of the resource itself.
Rules governing use or provision of the resource: Rules for using the resource or
providing it to resource users, such as restricting time, place, technology and how much
can be used, must be appropriate to the resource itself, including availability.
Collective-choice arrangements: Most individuals affected by the operational rules
can participate in changing the rules.
Monitoring: Monitors of the rules and the use of the resource are either resource users
themselves or accountable to the users.
Graduated sanctions: Resource users who break the rules are likely to face various
degrees of punishment, depending on the seriousness of the context of the offence.

20
 Punishments are decided by the other resource users, by officials accountable to them,
or by both.
Conflict resolution mechanisms: Resource users and their officials have rapid access
to low-cost local mechanisms to resolve conflicts among users or between users and
officials.
Recognition of legitimacy: State supports, or at least does not challenge, the rights of
the resource users to devise their own institutions.
Nested enterprises (for common property resources that are part of larger
systems): Resource use or provision, monitoring, enforcement, conflict resolution and
governance activities are organized in multiple layers of nested institutions, where rights
and responsibilities are clearly defined.

These rules are valuable and have been used to promote common property associations in
southern Africa (Jones, 1999). Fabricius et al. (2001, p. 17) state that “more rigorous social
analysis of the processes of political and economic change at the country level, and the specific
social, political and biological conditions at the local level, is required, rather than adopting sets
of rules in a blueprint fashion”.

Another set of important guiding principles for CBNRM are suggested by Van der Jagt and
Rozemeijer (2002), the National CBNRM Forum (2005) and Thakadu (2005). The guiding
principles when followed will provide greater chances of success in CBNRM.

1. Decision-making authority must be at community level: CBNRM is about a community‟s

utilization of natural resources. This utilization is likely to be done in a more sustainable manner
if the community has the authority to decide how and when to use these resources, and who
should be involved in the process. More decision-making power will encourage (but not
guarantee) more accountability to ensure an environmentally tenable use of the natural
resources. History has shown that centralized authority (the State) has definitely not
encouraged sustainable use of natural resources at community level.
2. Decision-making must be representative: The decision-making structure, which is usually
laid down in the Constitution of the community organization, must encourage broad dialogue
and participation of all community members. Procedures to meet and to make decisions must
be transparent (on paper) and time and other resources have to be made available to give
every community member an equal opportunity to contribute to the discussion. This is not
simply an issue of equity: strategically it is important that all community members agree, or at
least not disagree, to be able to implement decisions and have these adhered to.
3. The ‘community’ must be as small as is practical: It is obvious that distributing benefits
and making representative decisions is easier in a small community. It is also obvious that the
„right‟ size of the community will depend on the value of available natural resources (to allow
benefits to exceed the costs of management). The trick, as usual, is to strike the balance. The

21
other trick, especially in cases whereby a „community‟ consists of several villages, is to design
layered decision-making structures with as much decentralized authority at village or even sub-
village level as practical.
4. Leadership must be accountable: Truly representative decision making and equal benefit
sharing are prime guiding principles in CBNRM but not always very realistic. Organizations (and
villages) cannot function without „representatives‟ or leaders consolidating the various interests
and making decisions on behalf of their constituency. In practice this always means that some
people win and some people lose. This cannot be avoided. What can and should be avoided is
leadership not listening to their „voters‟ and/or not justifying the decisions made. Leaders, the
board, committees, etc. must be accountable and responsible for their decisions. Accountability
must be laid down in procedures and regulations as the membership is entitled to an
explanation of decisions regarding the use of their resources.
5. Benefits must outweigh costs: A community is more likely to exercise management
authority and show responsibility for the use of natural resources when it feels the benefits of
doing so. However, it is sometimes difficult to define costs (of meetings, discussion, missed
opportunities, etc.), and benefits are not always easy to measure. Sums of money and
employment numbers are quantifiable, but improved skills, enhanced cultural identity, pride and
strengthened community organization are not. The facilitator can clarify costs and benefits, but it
is up to the perception of community members to decide whether community management pays
or not.
6. Benefits must be distributed equitably: Communities are very complicated structures. The
variety of groups in a community (poor/rich, men/women, different ethnic groups, etc.) all make
use of natural resources and all these groups are entitled to benefits. This is not simply an issue
of equity – strategically all groups should assume their respective management responsibilities.
If one group of resource users is excluded from the benefits, why should that specific group
abide by community plans and regulations?
7. Benefit distribution must be linked to natural resources conservation: The bottom line
of any CBNRM intervention is the conservation of the natural resources, meaning, at a
minimum, maintenance of the quality of the environment. Re-investing CBNRM benefits in
natural resources (e.g. a management plan to reduce land-use conflicts, riparian woodland
protection, purchase of valuable species, etc.) can increase the value of the environment and
may yield higher returns. In the case of benefits being utilized in some other fashion, the impact
of such an investment on the natural resource conservation should be well understood.
8. Planning and development must focus on capacity building: The M in CBNRM stands for
management. The ability of a community (organization) to manage its natural resources is not
something that can be acquired through a two-week course. On the contrary, developing this
management capacity is something that never stops. Committee members and community
leaders come and go, as do community members. It should be clear to the community that the
capacity to make informed decisions on the use of natural resources is the key to sustainable

22
CBNRM. This means that the community has to make sufficient resources (money and time)
available to build this capacity in a planned manner.
9. Planning and development must be co-ordinated: Communities in CBNRM never operate
in a vacuum. Any community making natural resource management decisions or devising plans
to re-invest benefits has an impact upon other stakeholders (e.g. district council, government
department, neighbouring village). CBNRM activities have conservation, rural development and
good governance dimensions that reach beyond natural resource use and beyond the
community. For these to be sustained, the community must recognize other stakeholders and
seek recognition from them. Co-ordination in planning and developing CBNRM-related activities
is important to gain this status.
10. The CBNRM process must be facilitated. Applying the above principles in the community
capacity-building process requires skilled third party facilitation. It is of paramount importance to
have a partner that is detached from the community (to effectively act as an „honest broker‟), yet
is committed to facilitating the CBNRM process at community-level in the long term.

CBNRM can only be considered a success once it incorporates environmental, economic and
social sustainability principles in practice (IUCN, 2003). Environmental sustainability implies the
application of natural resources utilization that does not result in the degradation of the resource
base through adverse impacts on the ecosystem, habitats, or species being harvested. It
therefore entails environmentally sound harvesting processing and consumption patterns, which
take into account optimization of resource use. In other words, environmental sustainability
entails utilization of the resource base while maintaining its biological viability and ecosystem
integrity. Economic sustainability places emphasis on resource growth, efficiency in utilization
and equitable distribution of gains leading towards maximization of community welfare within
constraints inherent to the resource base. This implies that gains have to outweigh the costs of
exploitation clearly so that stakeholders may benefit equitably. This is important because
incentives to manage the resource efficiently must be adequate and apparent to the
communities managing it. Improvements in rural incomes and enhancement of food security
among communities should be promoted. Social sustainability in natural resource management
refers to that mode of resource management that takes into account local basic needs and
practices. Social needs do not merely mean physiological needs, although these are central and
dominant concerns. In addition, natural resources management and utilization must be
equalitarian, benefiting all members of a community dependent on the resource without any
unnecessary social differentiation. This does not merely mean giving benefits to communities,
although this is an integral element without which all natural resources management remains
empty. It implies, rather, the devolution and decentralization of natural resources management
to local level institutions so that people are able to decide how they want to use the resource
and determine who should use it. When CBNRM is able to take care of local needs and involve
them in its management, it may be said to be socially sustainable (IUCN, 2003).

23
The success of CBNRM may depend on the value of the resource to the community, the
population densities and the extent to which proprietorship or ownership is transferred to
communities (Jones & Carswell, 2004). Regarding the success of community-based ventures,
Boggs (2000, p. 10) says:
There are few examples of long term success of community based initiatives as
these have a high incidence of degeneration through time. Many of the
problems ... can be regarded as temporary. Understanding these issues and
dealing with them while they are young and not yet habit forming is essential for
success.

CBNRM projects must therefore be judged on the extent to which empowerment and the
development of successful common property resource management institutions are achieved
(Jones, 1999). CBNRM projects – and more specifically in this case CBE projects – need to be
evaluated in order to understand the issues that may affect their long-term success. The over-
arching principle in CBNRM is that every situation or context is unique, and has to be understood
in terms of its political history, ecological processes, community dynamics, and the capacity of role
players to play their roles constructively.

2.4 Tourism
The study of southern Africa‟s CBE cannot be discussed without having a clear understanding
of the context of the southern African tourism industry within a global context as well as an
African context. An account of tourism and worldwide tourism trends on a broad level provided
an important background for the investigation of CBE in southern Africa.

2.4.1 Defining tourism and the tourism product

Tourism is a relatively recent phenomenon. Although tourism can be traced back to Sumerian
times (4000 BC), tourism did not really take off until after World War II. Since then, however,
developments have been rapid and today‟s world is difficult to conceive without tourism (Bennett
& Strydom, 2005). According to Keyser (2002) there are three primary reasons for the growth in
tourism: the ability, mobility and motivation to travel. Ability refers to having sufficient time and
money to travel, mobility relates to advances in the efficiency and reliability of transport, and
motivation to travel relates to an increased awareness of travel and a willingness to travel. In
order to truly understand the phenomenon of tourism it has to be defined in order to appreciate
what it actually means. Middleton (1994, p. 8) quotes the Tourism Society‟s definition: “Tourism
is deemed to include any activity concerned with the temporary short-term movement of people
to destinations outside the place where they normally live and work, and activities during their
stay at these destinations.” Cooper et al., (1993) add to this definition the facilities created to
cater for the needs of the tourist. Tourism therefore encompasses the following four important
elements: the daily activities and routines outside normal work and life, travel to and from the
destination, the activities undertaken during the stay at the destination, and the facilities
provided to cater for the needs of the tourist.

24
The success of tourism in any destination is dependent on the tourism product that is available
to attract and cater for the tourist in that specific area. The tourism product is made up of five
important components, all of which need to be present for tourism to be successful in a
particular area. The five components are discussed below.
Tourist attractions: Attractions form the very basis of tourism, and are the major pull
factor. As Ferrario (1981) indicates, attractions are things that are interesting or unusual
to see or do. Three kinds exist: natural, man-made, or socio-cultural attractions.
Tourist facilities: Facilities themselves do not generate or attract tourists to a particular
area, but their absence can dramatically hinder the development of tourism. Tourist
facilities include all the accommodation, recreational, transport and other services and
facilities that are necessary to meet the needs of the tourist.
Accessibility: All the elements that influence the cost, speed and ease of access of a
tourist destination determine its accessibility. These include the transport infrastructure,
equipment, operation and management of this transportation infrastructure.
Image: The image of a tourist destination relates to the expectations and perceptions
that a prospective tourist may have of a particular destination. It is the major function of
a tourist marketer to sustain, alter and develop a particular image that will entice tourists
to a particular area or destination.
Price: Price includes all the fees and charges that are associated with a visit to a tourist
destination.

The tourism product in its broader sense goes far beyond the individual destination or tourist
enterprise. The need for co-operation and collaboration between the various role players in a
destination region is evident. Despite differences between specific enterprises the entire tourist
destination region is often seen as a collective experience (Bennett & Strydom, 2005).

2.4.2 Worldwide tourism trends

Aronsson (2000, p. 14) contends that “[t]he travel and tourism industry is currently one of the
largest industries in the world together with the oil industry and building and construction”. It is
estimated that the tourism industry employs more than 130 million people worldwide and makes
capital investments in excess of US$400 billion annually.

The tourism industry worldwide has been monitored over the last 57 years using two primary
indicators, namely tourist arrivals and tourist receipts. The tourist arrivals and the tourist receipts
will both be discussed in the following sections.

2.4.2.1 Trends in international tourist arrivals

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO) the number of international tourist arrivals
shows a substantial growth from a mere 25.3 million arrivals in 1950 to 846 million in 2006,

25
 1
corresponding to an average annual growth rate of 6.5% (WTO, 2007b) .. It is important to note
from Figure 2.3 below that the percentage share of international arrivals that Africa receives is
minimal. It is however encouraging to notice that the international arrivals to Africa is increasing
annually, growing from 5% per annum in 1990 to 7.6% per annum in 2004, and it has recently
been reported by the WTO (2007b, 2009) that the growth rate for 2006 was 11.2% and for 2007
it was 8.4%. In 2008 there was a slight decline in the rate of increase to 3.7%. These growth
rates are the fastest in the world and almost double the world annual growth in international
arrivals for 2006 recorded at 6.1%. International rates of increase in tourism arrivals also
showed a slowing of the growth rates to 6.0% in 2007 and 2.0% in 2008. As the major
contributor to the African growth rate, sub-Saharan Africa showed an 8.3% growth in
international tourist arrivals in 2007 (2.7% in 2008).

Figure 2.3: International tourist arrivals for the World and Africa between 1950 and 2008
(WTO data)

In an African context, international arrivals have increased from 15.2 million in 1990 to 37.3
million in 2005 (Figure 2.4). According to the WTO (2009) they increased again to 38.7 million in
2
2007. Important for the study at hand is the fact that the southern African region‟s proportional

1
All percentages have been rounded off to 1 decimal place.
2
The World Tourism Organization has divided Africa into 5 tourism regions, namely North Africa (4
countries), West Africa (14 countries), Central Africa (8 countries), East Africa (17 countries) and Southern
Africa (5 countries). According to the WTO classification the southern Africa region consists of Botswana,
Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland.

26
share of international arrivals in Africa increased from 14.9% in 1990 to 32.6% in 2007. The
main reason for this may be the democratic reforms that South Africa has undergone since
1990, with its first truly democratic elections being held in 1994. These political reforms have led
to the opening up of the southern African region to international tourism as well as the creation
of worldwide curiosity leading to increased arrivals amongst tourists wanting to visit „Nelson
Mandela‟s rainbow nation‟. West African arrivals also increased from 8.8% to 10.0%, while east
Africa arrivals remained constant from 18.6% (in 1990) to 18.0% (in 2007), in north Africa
arrivals also decreased from 55.1% of African international arrivals in 1990 to 37.7% in 2007.
The increased arrivals for southern Africa bode well for the tourism industry in this region.
However, with increased arrivals increased pressure on the tourism attractions and facilities will
be experienced; therefore this increased tourism pressure needs to be managed carefully. As a
result of the non availability of Africa‟s sub-region specific data for the 2008, this discussion only
focused up to and including 2007.

45000
Southern Africa
40000 East Africa
Central Africa
35000
West Africa
Tourist arrivals (1000)

North Africa
30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Figure 2.4: International tourist arrivals for Africa between 1990 and 2007(WTO data)

2.4.2.2 Trends in international tourist receipts

International tourism expenditure on aspects such as accommodation, food and transport is an
important pillar for the economies of many countries, creating much needed employment and
economic opportunities. The WTO estimates that worldwide, international tourist receipts have
grown from US$2.1 billion in 1950 to US$944 billion in 2008. According to the WTO (2009) this
is an increase in absolute terms of US$87 billion in 2008 (from US$857 billion in 2007). This
shows the incredible rate of tourism growth. The international receipts in Africa have also grown
from US$0.1 billion in 1950 to US$30.6 billion in 2008. The total percentage of tourist receipts

27
that Africa receives is still dwarfed in comparison to other world regions, with Africa having
received only 3.2% (Figure 2.5) of the total international tourist receipts in 2008. According to
the WTO (2009) international receipts worldwide grew by 15.0% in 2007, followed by a 10.2%
increase in 2008, while international arrivals for the same period increased by 6.0% (in 2007)
and 2.0% (in 2008) respectively. As was the case with tourist arrivals, Africa had one of the
strongest relative growth rates in receipts, namely 5.2% in 2008 (18.8% in 2007 – the strongest
growth rate for 2007). More than US$ 2.6 billion is earned every day through international
tourism.

Figure 2.5: International tourist receipts for the World and Africa between 1950 and 2008
(WTO data)

The growth rate of international tourist receipts in Africa, increasing from US$6.4 billion in 1990
to US$21.5 billion in 2005, and US$24.3 billion in 2006 (WTO, 2007b), is reason for optimism
for the African tourism industry. All the WTO tourism regions of Africa are experiencing an
absolute growth in terms of tourism receipts (Figure 2.6). Southern Africa has marginally
increased it share from 32.5% in 1990 to 33.0% in 2007 (up from US$2.1 billion in 1990 to
US$10.8 billion in 2007). The 2008 sub-region specific data was not available.

The southern African region, as classified by the WTO, therefore finds itself in a unique position
in the world. Southern Africa has experienced exceptional growth in the number of arrivals from
2.3 million in 1990 to 12.6 million arrivals in 2007 (14.9% to 32.6% share of international arrivals
to Africa). Although the international tourist receipts for southern Africa has increased from

28
US$2 081 million in 1990 to US$10 760 million in 2007. There has, however, not been a
corresponding proportional increase in international receipts. This may indicate that a large
portion of the arrivals to southern Africa have not been from overseas countries but from
neighbouring African countries which may explain the negligible proportional increase in tourist
receipts. The southern African region is as a result experiencing an increasingly large proportion
of arrivals. Southern Africa may be classified as the region with one of the fastest growth rates
in the world in terms of international arrivals for the 1990-2007 time period. The growth rate in
arrivals creates both opportunities and problems that will have to be carefully managed in the
future in order to ensure the sustainability of the tourism product.

35000

Southern Africa
30000 East Africa
Tourist receipts (US$ 1000)

Central Africa
25000 West Africa
North Africa
20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Figure 2.6: International tourist receipts for Africa between 1990 and 2007 (WTO data)

Although Africa‟s share of the global tourism arrivals and receipts has increased annually they
may still be described as a „drop in the ocean‟. However, it is important to note that
“international tourism is already important for Africa and is likely to grow” in future (Mitchell &
Ashley, 2006, p. 4). The World Bank (2006) has also indicated that there is a shift from pre-paid
packages to independently organized travel, which increases the distribution options for African
tourism products. This is a situation that bodes well for community-based ecotourism ventures
in southern Africa. Another important aspect is that Africa itself is becoming an important source
of domestic and regional tourism, as confirmed by Rogerson and Visser (2006), who found that
in southern Africa regional tourism accounts for as much as 70% of all arrivals.

29
2.4.2.3 Future trends in world tourism
Using 1995 as a base year, the WTO Tourism 2020 Vision (WTO, 1998) forecasts that
international arrivals are expected to reach 1.6 billion by the year 2020. Of these, 1.2 billion will
be interregional and 378 million will be long-haul travellers. It is predicted that tourist arrivals will
grow by an average of 4.1% a year until 2020, while receipts from international tourism will
increase by around 6-7% annually.

In its Tourism 2020 vision, the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 1998) has identified a
number of trends that will influence global tourism patterns till 2020:
There will be an increase in multiple, relatively shorter duration trips by travellers from
industrialized countries.
A strong uptake of foreign travel by the populations of developing countries will occur.
There will be an increase in long-haul travel. Tourists will be travelling longer distances
on their holidays, with the percentage of long-haul travel increasing from 18% in 1995 to
24% in 2020.
There will be sustained strong growth rates of long-haul (5.4%) and intra-regional travel
(3.8%).
The fastest growth rates will be among residents of countries in East Asia Pacific,
followed by those of the Middle East, South Asia and Africa.
Tourists will be more discerning in their search for quality and value for money, which
will influence their travel decisions and choice of destinations.
Tourists will be increasingly environmentally conscious and will base their selection of
destinations on their environmental quality.

Up to now, the WTO forecasts on future trends have not been far out as far as international
tourist arrivals and international tourism receipts are concerned.

2.4.3 Tourism trends in southern Africa

Siegfried (2002, p. 130) has pointed out that
[worldwide tourism] generates annually more than three trillion US dollars … at
any given moment, 300 million people are travellers, 60% of whom are leisure
travellers. Of that 60%, 25% are nature-bound tourists. Tourism is one of the
fastest-growing economic sectors in the world and in southern Africa. Tourists
motivated by a desire to visit places of natural beauty is growing fastest of all.
Of this only a small percentage comes to sub-Saharan Africa and most of what
does ends up in South Africa. Millions of people of the developed world are in
search of recreational experiences in „natural‟ environments. Today, by good
fortune, sub-Saharan Africa has an abundance of the product that these people
are seeking, and are prepared to pay for.

„Nature-based tourism‟ (NBT) includes a wide variety of activities, ranging from hunting to
soaking up the sun on the beach. NBT has a common factor: a dependence on ecosystem

30
services such as clean air and water, unspoiled scenery and attractive biodiversity. Scholes and
Biggs (2004, p. 59) estimated the aggregate value of NBT in southern Africa in the year 2000 to
have been US$3.6 billion. This is based on direct tourism expenditures (i.e. what tourists spend
in the country rather than what they are willing to pay for this experience) and represents
approximately half the total tourism income in the region, the other half being contributed mostly
by business travel and visits to family and friends. Tourism revenue is not evenly distributed
around the region, nor is the proportion of nature-based tourism. The travel and tourism
economy contributed 9% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Southern African
3
Development Community (SADC) in the year 1999 (Krug, Suich & Haimbodi, 2002), varying
from 5% in large, highly industrialized economies like South Africa, to 30% in Tanzania. In
countries without large mineral resources, tourism is often the major source of foreign income
(WTTC, 1999).

Scholes and Biggs (2004, p. 60) compare income from NBT to the income generated from other
main sectors based on ecosystem services: agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Assuming that
NBT is half of all tourism, and excluding the manufacturing sector knock-on effects of
agriculture, forestry and fisheries, the contribution by NBT is almost equal to the other natural
resource sectors combined. Importantly, those sectors are growing slowly (1-3% per annum)
while tourism is growing rapidly (5-15% per annum). Inevitably, these factors will cause a policy
shift in relation to natural resources, from being strongly influenced by the needs of agriculture,
forestry and fishing, to being more influenced by considerations of conservation and aesthetics.
The dominance of industries based on non-renewable resources such as mining and oil
extraction will also decline in the long term Scholes and Biggs, 2004).

A major fraction of the NBT in South Africa is based on the domestic market, whereas in other
countries in the southern African region the foreign market (i.e. African and non-African)
dominates. While a substantial and growing fraction of NBT, particularly in South Africa, is
coupled to private conservation areas, there remains a crucial role for state-owned protected
areas. National parks generally provide the nucleus around which private and community-based
nature-tourism activities cluster (Scholes & Biggs, 2004). Communities living in close proximity
to national parks or other areas of significant conservation value are therefore presented with
unique opportunities to develop CBE in these areas. All the fundamentals for a long and
sustained growth in the southern African tourism industry are in place. What now remains is the
investigation into present CBE ventures to establish the best practices that can guide other
communities wishing to develop successful and sustainable CBE ventures.

3
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is composed of the following countries: Angola,
Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique,
Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

31
2.4.4 The changing face of tourism and new tourism
Changes in the market forces, as well as the move towards more environmentally sensitive and
sustainable forms of tourism, have led to significant changes in tourism. The emergence of
sustainable development has been a major driving force in this change towards a new form of
tourism. The negative economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts resulting from
tourism‟s rapid and unplanned developments associated with mass tourism led to calls for a
new or alternative form of tourism. The concern over the negative impacts was taken a step
further to advocate a symbiotic relationship between tourism and the environment instead of a
relationship of conflict or co-existence (Weaver, 1998, p. 11). Murphy (1985) in turn called for a
community approach to tourism where communities would have greater involvement and
participation in tourism. These factors, together with the rising concern for the sustainability of
the tourism product, resulted in the development of Alternative Tourism (AT). AT sets out to be
consistent with natural, social and community values, an approach which would allow both hosts
and guests to enjoy positive and worthwhile interactions and experiences (Lubbe, 2003, p. 79).
According to Krippendorf (1982), the philosophy behind AT was to ensure that tourism policies
should no longer concentrate on economic and technical necessities alone, but rather
emphasize the demand for an unspoiled environment and consideration of the needs of local
people. AT, which places natural and cultural resources at the forefront of tourism planning and
development, includes many new types of tourism, such as ecotourism, responsible tourism,
appropriate tourism, green tourism, controlled tourism, environmentally sensitive tourism, Africa
tourism, rural tourism, agri-tourism, health farms, guest houses, bed and breakfast
establishments, township tourism, cultural tourism, community tourism, soft tourism and ethnic
tourism (France, 1997; Weaver, 1998; Page & Dowling, 2002; Scheyvens, 2002; Fennell, 2003;
Lubbe, 2003). AT is seen as being the opposite of mass tourism: where mass tourism is „large-
scale‟, AT is „small-scale‟; where mass tourism leads to homogenization of the tourism product,
AT promotes „desirable differences‟ between destinations; mass tourism is „externally
controlled‟, AT is „locally controlled‟; mass tourism is „high impact‟ while AT is „low impact‟
(Weaver,1998).

Although mass tourism is said to be predominantly unsustainable, there has been a move
amongst conventional mass tourism towards greater sustainability through controlled electricity
use, disposal of waste and rotating laundry schedules (Fennel, 2003). This move towards
sustainability is indicated in Figure 2.7 by the arrow indicating a move for mass tourism towards
more sustainable tourism practice.

32
 Sustainable Unsustainable
tourism practice tourism practice

Mass
tourism

Socio-cultural
tourism

AT

Ecotourism

Figure 2.7: The relationship between mass tourism, alternative tourism and ecotourism
(adapted from Butler, 1996 in Weaver, 1998)

Weaver (1998) distinguishes two primary forms of AT, namely socio-cultural and nature-based
AT. In order to place this study in context the environmentally-based component is replaced with
ecotourism in Figure 2.7. The size of the circle signifies the size of the different kinds of tourism
development, mass tourism being large-scale while AT generally entails development on a
smaller scale.

Ecotourism should therefore be seen as a sub-component of sustainable tourism. It is, however,

important to note that while ecotourism has the potential to create positive environmental and
social impacts, it can unfortunately be as damaging as mass tourism if not implemented and
managed properly (Epler Wood, 2002).

2.4.5 Trends and growth in African tourism research

An analysis of the content of leading tourism journals reveals that the bulk of international
tourism knowledge is about North America, Europe, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, with a
low number of citations about Africa (Xiao & Smith, 2006, p. 497). Yet there is a growing body of
research that is developing from Africa, especially on the nexus of tourism, development and
poverty. This has been heavily influenced by changes in development approaches and
development theory. One of the major areas of tourism scholarship that has emerged from
predominantly Africa-based research is the large cluster of writings on pro-poor tourism. These
works provide detailed analyses of tourism‟s potential for contributing to pro-poor tourism growth
and poverty alleviation. Other important areas of African tourism scholarship identified by
Rogerson (2007) in his review of African tourism research include policy development of tourism

33
and the contribution made by tourism to the national economic growth, the focus on small and
medium-sized enterprises and their promotion, the different segments of tourism and the
contribution of tourism to local economic development and urban regeneration.

According to Rogerson (2007) a new focus on tourism has been sparked by international
development agencies as a result of the potential development role of tourism. It is widely
acknowledged that given an appropriate policy environment, tourism can contribute effectively
to economic and social development, including poverty alleviation (Rogerson 2006; World Bank
2006). The New Partnership for Africa‟s Development (NEPAD) confirms this by stating that
“tourism is recognized as one of the sectors with the most potential to contribute to the
economic regeneration of the continent, particularly through the diversification of African
economies and generation of foreign exchange earnings” (NEPAD, 2004, p. 3). This interest
has sparked the emergence of another approach to tourism, namely pro-poor tourism.

2.5 Pro-poor tourism

Pro-poor tourism (PPT) may be defined as “tourism that generates net benefits for the poor”
(Ashley & Roe, 2002, p. 62). The benefits may be economic, social or environmental and may
affect livelihoods in a number of ways. As long as poor people reap net benefits, tourism can be
classified as „pro-poor‟. The PPT approach focuses on strategies that enhance benefits to the
poor, and aims to unlock opportunities for the poor (Ashley, Roe & Goodwin, 2001, Pro-poor
Tourism website, 2010). Besides providing various advantages to people‟s lives, tourism may
also bring certain disadvantages, such as displacement, inflation, inequality and social
disruption. PPT seeks to harness the advantages of tourism while seeking to reduce the
disadvantages associated with tourism.

PPT enhances the linkages between tourism businesses and poor people; so that tourism's
contribution to poverty reduction is increased and poor people are able to participate more
effectively in product development. Links with many different types of 'the poor' need to be
considered: staff, neighbouring communities, land-holders, producers of food, fuel and other
suppliers, operators of micro tourism businesses, craft-makers, other users of tourism
infrastructure (roads) and resources (water) (Pro-poor tourism, 2010).

Tourism‟s potential for being pro-poor lies in four main areas:

Tourism is a diverse industry, which increases the scope for wide participation,
including the participation of the informal sector;
The customer comes to the product, which provides considerable opportunities for
linkages (e.g. souvenir selling);

34
 Tourism is highly dependent upon natural capital (e.g. wildlife, culture), which are
assets to which the poor may have access, even in the absence of financial resources;
and
Tourism can be more labour intensive than such industries as manufacturing. In
comparison to other modern sectors, a higher proportion of tourism benefits (e.g. jobs,
informal trade opportunities) go to women (Ashley, Roe & Goodwin, 2001; Ashley &
Mitchell, 2005).

Britain‟s Department for International Development (DFID) was the first agency to promote the
concept of pro-poor tourism. Since then PPT has received much wider support from the WTO in
a paper on poverty alleviation and tourism released at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD) in 2002. This report launched a new research programme called ST-EP:
Sustainable Tourism - Eliminating Poverty. The programme aims to attract investment for
focused research investigating causal relationships and tourism models that link tourism and
poverty alleviation, while also promoting investment in sustainable operations (Spenceley &
Seif, 2003; Rogerson, 2006).

Spenceley and Seif (2003) identify four factors upon which the success of PPT depends:
Success depends on where you are. Tourism amenities and activities are not
geographically evenly distributed, and the physical conditions of access constitute a
barrier for many. Opportunities for the development and marketing of activities tend to
be constrained where there is a significant distance between the clientele and the
product.
Success depends on who you are. Important decisions are usually not made by poor
people or by those who seek to develop pro-poor policies and programmes. Most of the
critical decisions that affect the sector tend to be made outside of the country, or by a
few powerful local interests. Except on rare occasions, processes of public policy
formulation are not adequately participatory.
Success depends on what you have. The ability to enter the sector and to create
employment and income-generating opportunities is based on the availability of
financial or physical assets. Poor people are constrained by the absence of assets, and
by the difficulties they face in accessing and using common property assets.
Success depends on what you know. Efforts to participate in the industry are
hampered by a lack of understanding of how the industry functions. In the absence of
an adequate understanding of the manner in which this complex sector operates, the
current status quo is unlikely to change.

PPT is an approach to tourism in which poverty alleviation and benefits to the poor should be
firmly placed on the agenda for tourism development and management in future. It implies that
tourism ventures have to do things differently through focusing attention of delivering benefits to

35
the poor. PPT is not only about community-based ventures or small and micro enterprises but
applies to all forms and sizes of tourism ventures. According to Rogerson (2006), pro-poor
tourism is still at the margin of mainstream international tourism thinking and needs to receive
greater attention. The focus of this investigation relates to community-based ecotourism
ventures which lend themselves to the implementation of PPT. Ashley and Roe (2002) confirm
that many community-based, sustainable and ecotourism initiatives are good examples of PPT
strategies without being named such. Ashley and Goodwin (2007) however state that the PPT
approaches have to be applied not only to small community-based tourism ventures but
throughout the mainstream tourism industry.

PPT is one core and often neglected element of sustainable tourism. Ashley and Haysom
(2006) confirm this view by stating that one of the reasons for the PPT to be initiated was that
social elements tended to be relegated to the periphery in sustainable tourism discussions,
which that often emphasized environmental elements. It is therefore important when
investigating the sustainability of community-based ecotourism that the social element should
not be neglected. A detailed exploration of the meaning of ecotourism is necessary before
discussing CBE. The next section will focus on the development of ecotourism and the concepts
associated with ecotourism.

2.6 Ecotourism

The global growth in tourism poses a significant threat to cultural and biological diversity (Epler
Wood, 2002). Ecotourism, which is a growing sector within the larger tourism industry, is seen
as a possible solution to the threat tourism poses to the natural and cultural environment.
According to The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) ecotourism has been growing at
between 20% and 34% per year since the beginning of the 1990s (TIES, 2007b). In 2004
ecotourism and nature-based tourism were growing globally three times faster than the tourism
industry as a whole. TIES (2007b, p. 3) highlights the expected growth in this sector:
Sun-and-sand resort tourism has now „matured as a market‟ and its growth is
projected to remain flat. In contrast, „experiential‟ tourism – which encompasses
ecotourism, nature, heritage, culture and soft adventure tourism, as well as the
sub-sectors such as rural and community tourism – is among the sectors
expected to grow most quickly over the next two decades.

The importance of the ecotourism industry on a global scale was prominently brought to the
foreground by the declaration of 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism by the United
Nations (Weaver & Lawton, 2007).

Ecotourism is also seen as a potential tool for sustainable development. Even though billions of
US dollars flow through the ecotourism industry annually, ecotourism functions quite differently
from other sectors of the tourism industry. Ecotourism has at its very basis the core concept of
sustainable development, which is achieved through conserving natural areas, educating

36
visitors about sustainability and benefiting local communities. This section explores the concept
of ecotourism further, to investigate the definition of the concept and establish the fundamental
components and characteristics of ecotourism.

2.6.1 Origin of the term ‘ecotourism’

Two primary factors have resulted in the origin of the term „ecotourism‟. First, there has been
international growth in interest and concern for the natural environment through the 1980s and
1990s, and second, the idea of visiting and experiencing pristine natural environments and
protecting them from harmful impacts has become more acceptable. These two factors initiated
the search for a suitable term to indicate a positive relationship between the tourist and the
natural environment. The introduction of the prefix „eco-‟ to „tourism‟ (as used in words like
ecology, ecosystem, ecosphere and ecosensitive) led to the term „eco-tourism‟ (alternatively
„ecotourism‟ – without the hyphen). Initially the term „ecotourism‟ (now generally written without
a hyphen) was used without a clear indication of the meaning, which often caused the term
merely to be used as a marketing tactic to give businesses the apparent edge over their
competition (Cater & Lowman, 1994; Orams, 1995; Ross & Wall, 1999).

Ever since the introduction of the term, much time and research effort has gone into the
description, definition and delineation of the term „ecotourism‟. This discussion strives to clear
up some of the confusion relating to the definition and fundamentals of ecotourism.

2.6.2 Definition of ecotourism

Ecotourism is an elusive concept that has many different definitions, some of which are listed in
Table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1: Definitions of ecotourism

“The ecotourist practises a non-consumptive use of wildlife and natural resources and contributes to the
visited area through labour or financial means aimed at directly benefiting the conservation of the site ...”
(Ziffer, 1989).

“Visits to national parks and other natural areas with the aim of viewing and enjoying the plants and
animals as well as any indigenous culture” (Boo, 1990).

“Purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural history of the environment; taking
care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem; producing economic opportunities that make the
conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people” (The Ecotourism Society, 1991).

“Tourism that is environmentally sensitive” (Muloin, 1991).

“Purposeful travel that creates an understanding of cultural and natural history, while safeguarding the
integrity of the ecosystem and producing economic benefits that encourage conservation” (Ryel & Grasse,
1991).

“Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific
objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any
cultural aspects (both past and present) found in these areas” (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1993).

“Responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local
people” (Lindberg & Hawkins, 1993).

37
“Tourism which is based upon relatively undisturbed natural environments, is non-degrading, is subject to
an adequate management regime and is a direct contributor to the continued protection and management
of the protected area used” (Valentine, 1993).

“An enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to the conservation of the ecosystem while
respecting the integrity of the host communities” (Cater & Lowman, 1994).

“Low impact nature tourism which contributes to the maintenance of species and habitats either directly
through a contribution to conservation and/or indirectly by providing revenue to the local community
sufficient for people to value, and therefore protect, their wildlife heritage area as a source of income”
(Goodwin, 1996).

“Environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy
and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features – both past and present) that promotes
conservation, has low negative visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic
involvement of local populations” (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996).

“Ecotourism is a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing
and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally
oriented (control, benefits, and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the
conservation or preservation of such areas” (Fennell, 1999).

“Ecotourism is constructed around the natural environment and contributes to sustainable development
through active involvement of local communities and their culture” (Kapere, 2001).

“Ecotourism is tourism practised in relatively undisturbed natural areas, for the main purposes of admiring
and learning more about them” (Yunis, 2001).

“Ecotourism is about nature and outdoor tourism. It involves travelling to destinations with the main
purpose of experiencing firsthand the scenic, attractive and well-managed natural environment and cultural
heritage of areas, without having a negative impact on them. It is an enlightening experience about local
people and ecosystems in which the ecotourist, the product/service supplier as well as the local community
participate and have an interest. It brings both economic and social benefits to local communities and
ensures the conservation of cultural and natural resources” (Matlou, 2001).

“Ecotourism is ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that
fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation" (Ecotourism Association
of Australia, 2002).

Some central over-arching themes and factors flow from these definitions. As already indicated,
the short list above reflects only some of the many existing definitions for ecotourism. All the
definitions of ecotourism emphasize that it must take place in natural areas. These natural areas
include national parks, nature reserves and other state-managed areas as well as private land
and land owned by communities. Besides the fact that ecotourism has to take place in natural
areas it is important to note that ecotourism is environmentally and culturally sensitive and must
directly benefit both the conservation areas and the local communities. The benefits that are
derived for the conservation areas and the benefit derived for the local communities all create
incentives to ensure the continued conservation and protection of the natural environment. The
last important core element of ecotourism is that local communities also need to receive
significant benefits from ecotourism.

38
In order to facilitate further discussion and to arrive at a working definition, a number of
elements derived from a few definitions have been combined in the author‟s new definition
below:
Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas in order to enjoy and
appreciate nature (and local culture). It promotes conservation of the
environment and provides significant socio-economic benefits for local
communities.

Ecotourism is therefore about connecting tourism, conservation and communities.

2.6.3 Conceptual ecotourism framework

According to Ross and Wall (1999) ecotourism is often seen to be a potential strategy to support
conservation of natural ecosystems while at the same time promoting sustainable local
development. It is evident from the definitions above that, through the introduction of
ecotourism, natural areas and local populations are united in a symbiotic relationship.
Ecotourism can thus be viewed as a means of protecting natural areas through generating
revenue, and through environmental education and the involvement of local communities in
both decision making and benefit sharing. Therefore ecotourism is an important means by which
conservation and development can be promoted in a sustainable way (see Figure 2.8).

ECOTOURISM

PROTECTION OF
NATURAL AREAS

GENERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL LOCAL

REVENUE EDUCATION INVOLVEMENT

CONSERVATION DEVELOPMENT
biological diversity economic/
and natural resources infrastructural growth

STEWARDSHIP LOCAL CONTROL

SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 2.8: Linking ecotourism to sustainability (Ross & Wall, 1999)

39
Three important aspects of ecotourism exist: tourism, community and conservation. These three
aspects have to be taken into consideration with every decision that is made so as not to affect
any one of these three aspects negatively while benefiting the others. The ideal situation would
be one in which all three aspects benefit while none is disadvantaged in any way. Boo (1993)
argues that ecotourism will not be successful without effective management. In an attempt to
address Boo‟s concern, Ross and Wall (1999) add a fourth aspect to this relationship, involving
management, protected area policies and the involvement of a wide range of organizations,
such as non-government organizations (NGOs), conservation organizations and development
aid agencies. This fourth aspect merely plays a catalytic role between the three core aspects.
Management practices therefore act as a catalyst between the three core aspects thereby
maintaining a symbiotic relationship to ensure sustainability.

Community Conservation

Management
PA Policies
Organizations

Tourism

Figure 2.9: Conceptual framework for ecotourism (adapted from Ross & Wall, 1999)

The three core components of ecotourism are illustrated in Figure 2.9. In the centre are the
catalysts, namely management, protected area policies and organizations, such as NGOs, that
assist in making ecotourism a success. The success of ecotourism depends on how these three
components interact with one another. In an ideal ecotourism situation, local communities,
conservation and tourism are linked through a symbiotic relationship.

40
These factors form some of the fundamentals of ecotourism. In this study, CBE was
investigated in the context of these core components. A number of important characteristics of
ecotourism have to be noted as these are important in differentiating CBE from community-
based tourism, as indicated at a later stage.

2.6.4 Characteristics of ecotourism

The simplest way to evaluate whether a specific tourism venture is indeed ecotourism is to
evaluate it against a set of characteristics such as those in the list below compiled by the author.
This list of characteristics was compiled using the works of Buchanan (1996), The International
Ecotourism Society (TIES, 2001), the Ecotourism Association of Australia (EA) and the
Sustainable Tourism Co-operative Research Centre (STCRC) (2002), Motavalli (2002),
Patterson (2007) and TIES (2007a).

Ecotourism should include the following characteristics:

It should be nature-based. Ecotourism is fundamentally a nature-based travel
experience. The main motivation should be experiencing, observing and appreciating
nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in natural areas.
It should have a minimal impact on the environment. Ecotourism strives to take
place in such a way so as to minimize the negative impacts on the natural and socio-
cultural environment of the destination area. In an attempt to limit the negative impacts
ecotourism developments usually accommodate small groups and are often managed
by small locally owned businesses.
It should be an educational travel experience. It includes an education and
interpretation component, where ecotourists are given the opportunity to experience
nature and culture first-hand in ways that lead to a greater understanding, respect and
appreciation.
It stresses the importance of responsible business. Ecotourism strives to work co-
operatively with local communities so that their needs may be met while nature
conservation also receives benefits and due consideration.
It supports conservation. Ecotourism should support conservation through generating
direct benefits towards the conservation and management of protected and natural
areas.
It should aim to maximize economic benefits for local communities and business.
Ecotourism strives to maximize the economic benefits of local people, particularly those
living in and adjacent to natural and protected areas. Where possible, ecotourism
empowers local communities through the hiring and training of local people and through
buying products locally, thereby providing alternative employment and income
opportunities. It also supports local ownership or joint ventures with outside business or
NGO partners of tourist facilities and concessions.

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 It should include monitoring programmes. Ecotourism should include long-term
monitoring programmes as well as environmental and social base-line studies that
assess and monitor impacts in order to minimize them. Part of the social monitoring
should include monitoring customer satisfaction so as to ensure that customers‟
expectations are met.
It should be managed within limits. Ecotourism should ensure that tourism
developments do not exceed the social and environmental limits of acceptable change
as determined by researchers and local people.
It should focus on zoning and management. Ecotourism should emphasize the need
for regional tourism zoning and visitor management in areas that become ecotourism
destinations.
It should have an appropriate infrastructure. Ecotourism should rely on infrastructure
that has been developed in harmony with the environment. It should strive towards
minimizing the use of fossil fuels and other associated impacts while conserving nature.
The infrastructure should also blend in with the local natural and cultural environment.

2.6.5 Responsible travel

Responsible, ethical and sustainable tourism is the tourism industry‟s reply to growing
international and consumer pressure to include and address economic, social and
environmental issues. The concept of sustainability has had a profound influence on the world
and the way in which the tourism industry, and in fact all business, conducts itself. Business
now has to concern itself not only with economics but also with social and environmental issues,
referred to as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Careful consideration must be given to the
minimization of negative environmental impacts while enhancing the positive impacts. Besides
the environment, business now has to take all stakeholders into account: employees, state and
local communities as well as shareholders, investors and consumers. Companies are also
adopting the „triple bottom line‟ approach to reporting, where social, environmental and
economic aspects have to be considered and accounted for. The Institute of Directors of
Southern Africa (2002) acknowledges that there is a move away from the single bottom line
(profit for shareholders) to a triple bottom line, which embraces the economic, environmental
and social aspects of a company‟s activities. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC)
has endorsed CSR (WTTC, 2002). CSR involves more than merely donating a portion of profits
to worthy causes; it has become a core philosophy of business. The WTTC (2002, p. 2) explains
CSR as
adopting open and transparent business practices that are based on ethical
values. It means responsibly managing all aspects of operations for their impact
not just on shareholders, but also on employees, communities and the
environment. Ultimately CSR is about delivering sustainable value to society at
large, as well as to shareholders, for the long term benefit of both.

In 1999, the World Tourism Organization (WTO) committed itself to a Global Code of Ethics for
Tourism. Tourism „ethics‟ is concerned with the way in which the tourism industry conducts itself

42
and refers to the codes by which human conduct is guided, the way in which business is done,
the way in which we treat each other and the way in which we travel (Goodwin & Pender, 2005).
The Global Code of Ethics was designed to “promote responsible, sustainable and universally
accessible tourism” (WTO, 1999, pp. 2-3). This code aims to create a new world order in the
tourism industry that is equitable, responsible and sustainable. This aim can only be achieved if
all the stakeholders in the tourism industry work together.

One approach to achieving equity in the tourism industry is the concept of „fair trade‟. According
to Mann and Ibrahim (2002), as with fairly-traded coffee and tea, tourism wants to encourage
more equitable business partnerships that benefit tourists, tour operators and hosts. An
excellent example of this is South Africa‟s Fair Trade in Tourism, which promotes six principles:
fair share; democracy; respect for human rights, culture and environment; reliability;
transparency; sustainability (Goodwin & Pender, 2005).

„Responsible tourism‟ is another approach being advocated by the tourism industry to achieve
equity, responsibility and sustainability. The Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism
(2002) was the result of the Cape Town Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations
organized by the Responsible Tourism Partnership as a side event preceding the World Summit
on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. The conference addressed ways in
which stakeholders can work together to take responsibility for achieving the aspirations of the
WTO Global Code of Ethics and the principles of sustainable tourism. According to the Cape
Town Declaration (2002) responsible tourism has the following characteristics:
It minimizes negative economic, environmental and social impacts.
It generates greater economic benefits for local people and enhances the well-being of
host communities, and improves working conditions and access to the industry.
It involves local people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances.
It makes positive contributions to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, as
well as to the maintenance of the world's diversity.
It provides more enjoyable experiences for tourists through more meaningful
connections with local people, and a greater understanding of local cultural, social and
environmental issues.
It provides access for physically challenged people.
It is culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and hosts, and builds local
pride and confidence.

43
South Africa committed itself to the principle of responsible tourism in its 1996 White Paper on
the Development and Promotion of Tourism in South Africa. The principles of responsible
tourism were, however, later elaborated on (DEAT, 2002, p. 2):
Responsible tourism is about enabling communities to enjoy a better quality of
life through increased socio-economic benefits and an improved environment. It
is also about providing better holiday experiences for guests and good business
opportunities for tourism enterprises.

In answer to international calls for responsible and sustainable tourism, the WTO launched an
initiative to develop sustainable tourism as a force for poverty alleviation at the World Summit
for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. This initiative, which was named ST-EP
(Sustainable Tourism-Eliminating Poverty), focuses on encouraging sustainable tourism that
alleviates poverty, bringing development and jobs to people living on less than a dollar a day.
th
As Kofi Annan, the 7 Secretary-General of the United Nations, has indicated, “ST-EP will
promote socially, economically and ecologically sustainable tourism, aimed at alleviating poverty
and bringing jobs to people in developing countries” (WTO, 2007a, p.1). Tourism‟s global
geographical coverage and expansion as well as its labour-intensive nature support a spread of
employment and can be particularly relevant in remote and rural areas where many of the
world‟s poor live. According to the WTO (2007a), statistics show the growing strength of the
tourism industry for developing countries. The WTO (2007a) also stated that in 2005
international tourism receipts for developing countries amounted to US$203 billion. Tourism can
be seen as one of the most important export products of developing countries and it is the major
foreign exchange earner for 46 of the 49 Least Developed Countries in the world (WTO, 2007a).

2.6.6 Evolution of ecotourism research towards community involvement

In a review of ecotourism research over the last 20 years, Weaver and Lawton (2007) identify
three main themes in ecotourism research, namely the definition of ecotourism, the impacts of
ecotourism and the „North-South‟ divide. These themes are discussed below.
Definition of ecotourism: Twenty years of research have led to many different definitions of
ecotourism. Finally, comparative agreement has been reached that it is nature-based, has an
educational component and should be sustainable in terms of economics and environmental
and social dimensions. There is now growing pressure to add consumptive forms of tourism to
this, namely hunting and fishing, to expand the cultural component of ecotourism and even to
include certain forms of mass tourism. Whether this will be accepted by the ecotourism fraternity
remains to be seen.
Impacts of ecotourism: There are persistent efforts to understand the impacts of ecotourism,
from four main points of view: (1) „hard scientific‟, concentrating on the effects of viewing wildlife;
(2) community-based models to optimize socio-cultural impacts; (3) econometrical, on the
various aspects of incentive effect; and (4) ethical issues of ecotourism‟s impact.

44
„North-South’ divide: The main focus of ecotourism research in the „North‟ in more developed
countries (MDC) is on markets, the industry and institutions. In the „South‟ in less developed
countries (LDC), research on venues and community-based models predominates.

This particular study falls under the research theme of i) the global „South‟, by investigating
specific CBE sites in LDC in southern Africa. And ii) impacts, focusing specifically on the
sustainability of the community-based model of ecotourism in order to improve the socio-
cultural, economic and environmental performance of CBE.

The study also strives to fill two important gaps identified by Weaver and Lawton (2007): (1) the
surprising lack of a significant amount of research having been done on the sustainability of
ecotourism ventures; and (2) the lack of studies attempting to identify and quantify the indicators
that form the basis for sustainable management. However, the contribution to these two aspects
was assessed not on the broad area of ecotourism but more specifically on a subtype of
ecotourism, namely community-based ecotourism (CBE).

2.7 Community-based ecotourism

Although it has already been briefly alluded to in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1.1), CBE is both a
specific type of ecotourism in which the community approach to tourism is followed, and a
specific sub-type of community-based tourism (CBT) which is related to the ecotourism industry.
A working definition for CBE was necessary for this study.

Sproule (1996, p. 233) defines CBE ventures as “enterprises that are owned and managed by
the community”. This is, however, a very restrictive definition, as many CBE ventures are not
totally owned or managed by communities. An example of this would be a joint venture that is
co-owned and co-managed. This definition is expanded on by Lui (1994) and Cater (1993), both
cited in Scheyvens (2002, p. 71), indicating that CBE “ensures that members of a local
community have a high degree of control over the activities taking place, and a significant
proportion of the economic benefits accrue to them”. Kiss (2004, p. 232) emphasizes that CBE
has to go beyond merely providing benefits to communities through either providing
employment opportunities or contributing to community projects, to involving communities
actively in tourism. Kiss (2004) explains that this involvement “has been interpreted as anything
from regular consultations, to ensuring that at least some community members participate in
tourism-related economic activities, to partial or full community ownership of whole ecotourism
enterprises”. Denman (2001, p. 2) adds the aspect of involvement as well as of development
and management in his definition which states that CBE is ecotourism “where the local
community has substantial control over, and involvement in, its development and management,
and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community”. Epler Wood (2002, p. 41)
aligns herself with this by saying that CBE “implies that the community has substantial control

45
and involvement in the ecotourism project and that the majority of the benefits remain in the
community”. For this study, community-based ecotourism is
responsible travel to natural areas in order to enjoy and appreciate nature
(and local culture) that promotes conservation of the environment, where
the local community has substantial control over and involvement in
development and management, while the majority of the socio-economic
benefits accrue to the community.

2.7.1 Types of community-based ecotourism

The first attempts to classify CBE in southern Africa were all done using Namibian community-
based tourism ventures as examples (Ashley & Garland, 1994; Ashley, 1995; Palm & Pye,
2001). These studies all classified CBT ventures into four classes or types. However, during an
assessment of the status of natural resource-based community tourism in the SADC region,
Johnson (2001) describes six types of CBE in southern Africa (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Types of community-based ecotourism (Johnson, 2001)

1. Operations owned and managed by entrepreneurs from communities
A local entrepreneur from the community has taken an opportunity that has presented itself. Such an
opportunity may have arisen as a spin-off from a nearby conventional tourism attraction or operation such
as a national park or game reserve or an existing tourism establishment.
2. Operations wholly owned and managed by communities
The community owns and manages the operation entirely, without significant outside assistance. The
operation may be run by an informal grouping of community members or it may be a formally elected or
appointed committee, trust, association or even a formally registered company.
3. Operations run through informal agreements between private sector operators and
communities
This type of CBE venture involves some form of agreement or arrangement between a private sector
operator and a community that has some form of tourism product, service or resource to offer tourists.
4. Operations run through formal agreements between private sector operators and
communities
This form of CBE is similar to the previous type but in this case it involves a partnership that has been
formalized through the signing of formal business agreements and contracts between the two parties.
5.Operational partnerships between state, private sector operators and communities
A three-way partnership exists between the state, the private sector and the community. This type of CBE
will also be referred to as a triple joint venture.
6. Operations run by organizations such as national trusts or societies
This form of operation is run by an existing national trust or society. These organizations are usually
closely allied with conservation interests or wildlife protection. In this case, however, the „community‟ may
be defined as the members of the trust or the society. Sometimes the community may also include all the
citizens of a particular country.

Although these six categories may be used as a means for classifying all the CBE ventures in
this study, it is important to note that these six types are generalizations and that combinations
of the types may also exist. Adams and Hulme (2001, p. 22) contend that “the question is not
whether state action or community action is better: both are essential, along with private sector
support – the challenge is how to develop effective mixes of state, community and private action
in specific contexts”. These six types of CBE were used to classify the resultant CBE ventures
into types, as indicated later.

46
The success of CBE is reflected in the extent to which it is able to protect natural resources and
biodiversity, generate money to finance conservation and contribute to the local economy,
educate visitors and members of local communities and thereby encourage environmental
advocacy, and involve local people in conservation and development issues (Wall, 1997; Ross
& Wall, 1999; Avila Foucat, 2002; Epler Wood, 2002; Kiss, 2004; Mader, 2007). The
sustainability of ecotourism is therefore equated to its success. In this study an evaluation
framework for monitoring the sustainability of CBE in southern Africa was developed.

2.7.2 Sustainability of community-based ecotourism

Ecotourism is becoming increasingly important in economic terms due to the size and the nature
of the tourism market. Besides becoming more and more important in terms of economics, it
also leads to both positive and negative economic implications. Positive economic implications
relate to increased income and foreign exchange earnings while the negative economic impacts
relate to the costs associated with tourism development and the problems associated with
seasonality.

Ecotourism also leads to positive and negative environmental impacts. Positive impacts include
generating the stimulus for the conservation of natural and cultural resources as well as
providing the financial means for the conservation. The negative impacts result from the
encroachment and degradation of these very same natural and cultural environments. Further
potential positive social and cultural consequences of ecotourism are the improvement of
economic conditions of communities, the provision of better social services and the preservation
of cultural values, while negative consequences might include conflict over allocation of
resources, social problems and the commercialization of local culture, causing its original value
to be degraded (Aronsson, 2000, p. 14-15). In recent years, more attention has been given to
the negative impacts of ecotourism and this has resulted in increasing pressure to improve the
sustainability of ecotourism. This study attempts to address this matter.

Choi and Sirakaya (2006, p. 1274) argue that “although tourism has brought economic benefits,
it has significantly contributed to environmental degradation and negative social and cultural
impacts”. If it is not managed carefully and sustainably, CBE is in danger of becoming a self-
destructive process destroying the very resources on which it is based. The sustainability of
CBE can be determined by measuring the three core areas namely socio-cultural, natural
environment and economic sustainability. Sustainable CBE is found where these three areas
overlap (Figure 2.10).

There can be no doubt that for CBE to be sustainable it must be economically feasible, because
tourism is an economic activity. Economic sustainability implies optimizing the development
growth rate at a manageable level with full consideration of the limits of the destination
environment. Economic benefits should be fairly distributed throughout the community.

47
Environmental sustainability recognizes that the natural environment of a community or a
destination is not in perpetual supply and may be degraded and depleted. The natural
environment must be protected for its own intrinsic value and as a resource for present as well
as future generations. Socio-cultural sustainability in turn implies respect for social identity and
social capital, for community culture and its assets, and for the social cohesiveness and pride
that allows community residents to control their own lives (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006).

Natural environment
natural resources
benefits
no degradation

Sustainable
CBE

Socio-cultural Economic
environment environment
community community
benefits benefits
tourist benefits tourist industry
benefits

Figure 2.10: A model of sustainable community-based ecotourism (adapted from Wight,

1995)

The sustainability of the CBE sites was consequently determined using an evaluation framework
making use of sustainable tourism indicators: “Indicators have been identified as desirable
instruments and/or measuring rods to assess and monitor the progress towards sustainable
development” (Selman, 1999 cited in Tsaur, Lin & Lin, 2006, p. 641). The use of sustainable
tourism indicators has been advocated by many, including the WTO; this has led a proliferation
of programmes implementing sustainable tourism indicators worldwide. There has however
been a lack of application of sustainable tourism indicators to community-based ecotourism.
This study hopes to address this lack through the development of an evaluation framework for
monitoring the sustainability in CBE case studies in southern Africa.

48
2.8 Indicators for sustainable development of tourism

Indicators are defined by Hart (2010, p.1) as “something that helps you understand where you
are, which way you are going and how far you are from where you want to be”. An indicator also
has the ability to reduce a large quantity of information to its simplest form, without losing the
essential information in order to answer questions being asked. Indicators are therefore
variables that summarize relevant information to make visible phenomena of interest. Whereas
statistics provide raw data with no meaning attached, indicators of sustainable development
provide meaning that extends beyond the attributes directly associated with the data.

The use of sustainable tourism indicators has been developed to help tourism managers obtain
and use information in support of better decision making regarding sustainable development for
tourism. Indicators are proposed to be the building blocks for sustainable tourism and they are
intended to be used as tools that respond to issues most important to managers of tourism
destinations. The World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004, p. 8) explains that indicators are
measures of the existence or severity of current issues, signals of upcoming
situations or problems, measures of risk and potential need for action, and
means to identify and measure the results of our actions. Indicators are
information sets which are formally selected to be used on a regular basis to
measure changes that are of importance for tourism development and
management. They can measure: a) changes in tourism‟s own structures and
internal factors, b) changes in external factors which affect tourism and c) the
impacts caused by tourism. Both qualitative and quantitative information can be
used for sustainability indicators.

“Used properly, indicators can become key management tools – performance measures which
supply essential information both to managers and all stakeholders in tourism. Good indicators
can provide in-time information to deal with pressing issues and help guide the sustainable
development of a destination” (WTO, 2007c, p. 4).

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004, p. 9) some of the benefits of good
indicators are the following:
better decision making – lower risks and costs
identification of emerging issues – allowing prevention
identification of impacts – allowing corrective action when needed
performance management of the implementation of plans and management activities –
evaluating progress in the sustainable development of tourism
reduced risk of planning mistakes – identifying limits and opportunities
greater accountability – credible information for the public and other stakeholders of
tourism fostering accountability for its wise use in decision making
constant monitoring that can lead to continuous improvement – building solutions into
management

49
2.8.1 History of indicator development and application to tourism
Indicators were originally developed to assess and monitor changes in national economies.
More recently indicators have been used to monitor progress towards sustainable development.
Since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, many organizations associated with the UN have also
begun to develop indicators as tools for monitoring progress towards sustainable development
(UNCSD, 2001). Bell and Morse (1999, p. 23) point out that “indicators have been seen by
many as the core element in operationalising sustainability”. Agenda 21 strongly emphasizes
the need to monitor sustainable development using indicators. The Earth Summit+5 reaffirmed
that indicators are important tools to reduce the complexity of information on sustainable
development and to support national decision making.

The tourism industry has monitored destination performance for many years by using
conventional tourism indicators such as arrival numbers and tourist expenditure (Ceron &
Dubois, 2003). In the same way as GDP has been found to be an inadequate measure of
human welfare, conventional indicators can be seen as inadequate measures of tourism‟s true
performance. An increasing number of tourism researchers are stressing the need for the
development of sustainable indicators that make the important connection between tourism and
wider social, economic and environmental processes within a destination (Mowforth & Munt,
1998; Manning, 1999; Miller, 2001; Sirakaya et al., 2001).

In 1993 an initiative began to develop indicators that would aid managers, regulators and
communities to better understand future risks associated with tourism. The WTO commissioned
a task team to develop indicators which could assist in identifying emerging problems and could
act as early warning systems for the tourism industry. This team was immediately faced with
conflicting views on what good indicators for tourism actually were, and scientists suggested
hundreds of indicators while potential users wanted a simple and timely set of indicators. The
task force quickly realized that no perfect set of indicators existed and that each user would
have different needs that would have to be fulfilled in terms of number, accuracy, frequency and
timeliness of indicators (Manning, 1999).

Roberts and Tribe (2008), who concur with this view, state that the selection of indicators is very
subjective and that each user will have their own set of ideal indicators which is dependent on
their intended uses of the information. Mac Gillivray and Zadek (1995) and Miller (2001) contend
that the process of indicator selection may be strengthened through open transparent
negotiation of the final selection of indicators.

The WTO undertook five pilot projects (one each in the USA, Canada and Mexico, and two in
Argentina) to investigate the development of indicators for sustainability of tourism ventures.
These five sites confirmed both the commonalities and diversity in the contexts of each
destination. Central to the development of the indicators in each site was a participatory
scanning process which identified key assets and the risks associated with each destination. It

50
has become clear that the management of tourism in any destination cannot be done in
isolation but has to be planned and managed in such a way that the interests of all stakeholders
are taken into consideration. Indicators can be an important tool, leading to a more holistic
approach to tourism planning and management and creating better understanding between
tourism managers, communities and other resource users. Through more effective monitoring of
environmental, social and economic factors, indicators provide strategic information that helps
prevent unacceptable outcomes, and generally supports decision making (Manning, 1999).

Indicators are those sets of information chosen because they are meaningful to our decisions
and can be supported in a way that provides us with the information when needed. The WTO
process was designed to assist tourism managers in identifying which information was key to
their decisions. This would help them reduce the risks to their enterprise, the community and the
environment. Consequently, the WTO identified a core set of indicators which is likely to be
useful in almost any situation which needs additional indicators critical for management in a
particular ecosystem or type of destination (WTO, 2004).

Roberts and Tribe (2008, p. 576) indicate that there is a general tendency by researchers to
equate environmental sustainability to sustainable tourism development, ignoring socio-cultural
and (to a lesser extent) economic dimensions of sustainability. Although some research has
been done on economic sustainability, little attention has been given to the social sustainability
aspects of tourism.

2.8.2 Types of indicators

Indicators may be categorized as either objective or subjective. Tsaur et al. (2006) state that
objective indicators generally refer to quantitative data and the majority of them could be
described through various equations. Subjective indicators, on the other hand, are based on
personal feelings and attitudes and are usually qualitative in nature. Objective indicators have
been widely used because they are seen to be more rigorous. However, the WTO (1995, p. 7)
states that “indicators of sustainability are not always quantifiable and may necessarily be
somewhat subjective. This limitation does not in any way detract from their utility as
management information in promoting sustainable tourism.” This study utilized both objective
and subjective indicators to develop an evaluation framework for determining the sustainability
of CBE enterprises in southern Africa.

Indicators are employed for site-specific measurement of impacts and the measurement of
change. Indicators are an effective means for site-specific evaluations provided they are
practical, facilitate prediction, are sensitive to spatial and temporal variation, and are relevant to
a valid conceptual framework (Kreutzwiser, 1993 cited in Ross & Wall, 1999). Indicators were
investigated using the conceptual framework of ecotourism as discussed in section 2.7.3 above.

51
Choi and Sirakaya (2006, p. 1286) have the following to say with regard to sustainable
community tourism (SCT):
The review of the literature shows that only a few sustainable indicators for SCT
were tested in a destination setting. In order to build the efficiency and
effectiveness of indicators that monitor the impact of tourism on natural and
cultural resources and host communities, these indicators should be tested in a
real rural community setting.

This study attempts to address this deficiency and will develop an evaluation framework to
measure the sustainability of CBE sites in a southern African context. It was therefore
necessary for the case studies that would test the evaluation framework to be situated in rural
community settings

This study made use of indicators to determine the sustainability of CBE ventures in southern
Africa at a particular moment in time. It therefore also provided benchmarks against which other
CBE ventures can compare their performance. This study did not investigate the sustainability
over time of the CBE ventures. It is suggested that future research could monitor and re-
measure the sustainability of the selected CBE ventures to establish changes in sustainability
over time, using the same indicators.

2.8.3 Indicator applications

The WTO (2004, p. 303) states that “indicators are not an end in themselves. They become
relevant only if used in tourism planning and management processes, and ideally they become
effective in creating better and more sustainable decisions.”

The WTO (2004) indicates a series of applications in which indicators support tourism planning
and management:
Indicators and policy: Indicators are helpful in identifying the key policy issues that need to be
addressed during the development process to achieve effective and responsible management.
Using indicators to strategically plan for tourism: Planning is about knowing what you want,
how you will get there and how you will know if you have achieved it. Indicators are useful in all
three of these phases of planning for continual improvement, as they provide the means to
measure how close the tourism venture is to the desired state or outcome.
Indicators and regulation: Most regulations are based on the achievement of a specific
standard. Indicators assist in measuring adherence to these desired standards.
Carrying capacity and limits to tourism: Indicators can be very useful in monitoring whether
specific limits or carrying capacities which may affect the sustainability of tourism are being
reached.
Public reporting and accountability: The information collected through indicators needs to be
shared with the public in order to ensure transparency and accountability.
Indicators and certification programmes: Indicators are used to monitor and measure the
adherence to a series of criteria as prescribed by the certification authority or programme.

52
Performance measurement and benchmarking: Tourism ventures are increasingly being
called upon to measure their performance in relation to other tourism ventures and benchmarks.
Indicators play a critical role in determining both benchmarks and baselines for comparison as
well as the performance of tourism venture in relation to one another and the predetermined
benchmarks.

2.8.4 Growing indicator initiatives worldwide

Indicators are now increasingly playing a role in the planning, development and management of
tourism destinations as well as in certification.

Agenda 21, resulting from the 1992 Earth Summit, indicated in Chapter 40 the need for
appropriate information to support decision making and suggested the establishment of
indicators for sustainable development. In 1994 the World Travel and Tourism Council
responded to Agenda 21 by launching Green Globe a global environmental certification
programme. Green Globe is a worldwide environmental management and awareness
programme for the travel and tourism industry and it is open to companies of any size, type and
location that commit to improvements in environmental practice. The aim of Green Globe was to
turn the principles of Agenda 21 into practice. In 1999 Green Globe became an independent
company (Font & Buckley, 2001). Environmental certification programmes have provided a
significant interest in measuring indicators for certification purposes. The tourism industry further
responded to Agenda 21 through the development of Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism
industry (WTO, WTTC & Earth Council, 1996). It presents indicators as a key priority action
area. As part of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) which sets standards for sustainability
reporting, the Tour Operators Initiative has provided draft guidelines for sustainability reporting
through the use of performance indicators. Global sustainable tourism criteria were developed
as part of a broad initiative to arrive at a common understanding of sustainable tourism. A set of
baseline criteria launched at the World Conservation Congress in October 2008 indicated the
minimum that any tourism business should aspire to reach (Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria,
2010). At the time of selecting the baseline indicators for this study these criteria had not yet
become public.

Since the early 1990s the WTO has been promoting the use of sustainable tourism indicators as
essential tools for policy making, planning and management of destinations. The WTO has
organized a series of regional and national workshops to train tourism officials and professionals
on the application of sustainable tourism indicators at pilot destinations (WTO, 2010). These
workshops were held in several countries and with the aims as indicated in some cases (Table
2.3):

53
Table 2.3: Indicator workshops organized by the WTO between 1999 and 2008 (WTO,
2010)
Hungary (1999) for Central and Eastern European countries
Mexico (1999) for Central American nations and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean
Sri Lanka (2000)
Argentina (2000) for South American countries
Croatia (2001) for the Mediterranean islands
Cyprus (2003) to assist the Cyprus Tourism Organization in developing a national system of
sustainability indicators for tourism
Trinidad and Tobago (2004) jointly with the Association of Caribbean States
Thailand (2005), regional workshop with a special focus on Sustainable Redevelopment of
Tourism Destinations for Tsunami Recovery.
Bolivia (2005) for countries in the Andean Community
China (2005)
Saudi Arabia (2006) for countries of the Middle East and North African Region
Kazakhstan (2006)
Indonesia (2007)
Montenegro (2007)
Philippines (2008)

These workshops have stimulated worldwide growth in the application of the sustainable
tourism indicators ─ from the Caribbean, Mexico, the United Kingdom, India, Australia and New
Zealand to many European countries. This list of WTO workshops shows that none have been
organized in southern African and this could be a reason for the apparent lack of research
relating to the application of sustainable tourism indicators in a southern African context. There
are three notable exceptions: Spenceley (2003; 2005) discusses the implementation of a new
Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Assessment Toolkit (SUNTAT) which was used to evaluate
the environmental sustainability performance of privately and publicly owned nature-based
tourism enterprises located inside protected areas. This Toolkit provides a complex and
exhaustive list of criteria for the investigation of nature-based tourism ventures. Many of these
criteria are complex in their collection and analysis and are not considered to be relevant for the
investigation of CBE ventures. An example of this includes the complex economic data which
CBE ventures are not yet collecting. The second initiative aiming at encouraging equitable and
sustainable tourism is Fair Trade in Tourism in South Africa (FTTSA). FTTSA promotes the
concept of Fair Trade in Tourism and markets fair and responsible tourism using the „Fair Trade
in Tourism‟ Trademark (Spenceley, 2004). The third southern African initiative is the Heritage
Environmental rating programme that offers certification throughout the tourism industry in
South Africa (Heritage, 2010). According to Koch et al. (2002) all enterprises enrolled with the
Heritage programme automatically receive Green Globe affiliate status. Although both FTTSA
and the Heritage scheme provide excellent motivation to move towards greater environmental
and to a lesser extent social sustainability, they fail to incorporate a broad range of social,
economic and environmental sustainability issues.

2.8.5 Development and implementation of sustainable tourism indicators

In tourism literature there has been a keen interest in the issue of monitoring sustainable
tourism, but there are very few accounts of the methodological aspects of indicator

54
development. Most existing tourism monitoring literature focuses either on the need for
indicators, critiques of existing indicators, the selection of the correct indicators or the results of
monitoring activities (Miller, 2001; Roberts & Tribe, 2008). The process of indicator development
is generally left to the technical skill of the researcher involved and is seldom critically
examined. Miller and Twining-Ward (2005) state that this is not just as a result of a reluctance to
engage in technological and methodological discussions, but that it reflects the early stage of
development of indicators of sustainable tourism, the complexity of the process, the small
number and reflective immaturity of most of the sustainable tourism monitoring programmes
currently in existence.

Indicators need to be carefully designed and selected to suit specific local circumstances. They
should be designed as part of an integrated development system to ensure that the results feed
naturally into decision-making structures and that a difference is subsequently made in the way
tourism is managed. One of the few existing accounts of the phases of the development of an
indicator programme is the WTO‟s „Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism
Destinations: A Guidebook‟ (WTO, 2004). This document identifies 12 steps to indicator
development and use. These steps are listed below:
Initial phase: Research and organization
Step 1: Definition/delineation of the destination
Step 2: Use of participatory processes
Step 3: Identification of tourism assets and risks
Step 4: Long-term vision for a destination
Indicator development phase
Step 5: Selection of priority issues
Step 6: Identification of desired indicators
Step 7: Inventory of data sources
Step 8: Selection procedures
Implementation phase
Step 9: Evaluation of feasibility
Step 10: Data collection and analysis
Step 11: Accountability, communications and reporting
Step 12: Monitoring and evaluation of application of indicators

Another useful source for planning an indicator programme is the Bellagio Principles which were
developed in 1996 as part of the IISD‟s Measurement and Indicators Programme for sustainable
development. Ten principles were developed by practitioners and researchers from around the
world to guide the indicator development process, from the design of indicators to the
communication of results. Principle 1 deals with the starting point of any assessment through
the establishment of a clear vision and goals. Principles 2-5 focus on the content of the
monitoring, stressing the need to merge a sense of whole system with an understanding of the
priority issues. Principles 6-8 look at the process of monitoring and principles 9-10 address the
ongoing challenge with the implementation of monitoring (Hardi & Zdan, 1997). The inclusion of
the building of institutional capacity is a particularly important, element especially in the case of
developing countries.

55
A very comprehensive discussion on the implementation of sustainable development indicators
and their development is provided by Meadows (1998) who reports on a five-day workshop on
indicators held by an international network of sustainable development experts (The Balaton
Group). This report identifies 10 steps to indicator development. The first step involves the
following: the selection of a small group of stakeholders to facilitate the indicator development
process (1), clarity on the purpose of the indicator set (2), identifying the communities‟ shared
values and vision (3), reviewing existing models of indicators and data (4), drafting a set of
proposed indicators (5), convening a participatory selection process (6), performing a technical
overview (7), researching the data (8), publishing and promoting the findings (9) and regularly
updating the work (10). These steps are valuable references for the development of indicator
programmes. But as with the WTO (2004), the Bellagio Principles and the indicator work of the
Balaton Group all fail to convert the indicator results into actions. They also fail to review and
evaluate the indicators used.

Miller and Twining-Ward (2005), Fraser et al. (2006) and Reed et al. (2006) propose that a more
adaptive management process to indicator development be applied. Fraser et al. (2006) and
Reed et al. (2006) designed a five-step cycle that starts with establishing the context and
assessing the problems through a series of stakeholder workshops. The second step involves
establishing the goals and strategies for indicators. The third step involves identifying, selecting
and designing the indicators, while the fourth step involves the actual collection of the indicator
data. The last step involves evaluating the results and adjusting the indicators and the actions
based on the lessons learned before the next round of monitoring begins.

1. Establish context

2. Establish
goals &
strategies

5. Evaluate 3. Identify &

results select
indicators

4. Collect data

Figure 2.11: Illustration of the adaptive learning process of developing and implementing
sustainability indicators (adapted from Miller & Twining-Ward (2005), Fraser et al.
(2006) and Reed et al. (2006))

56
According to Miller and Twining-Ward (2005) there are several advantages to the adaptive
management approach to indicator development, especially in the context of a developing
country. First, it is a flexible learning cycle. Second, it stresses the organizational learning
aspects of monitoring, building capacity and human resources. Third, it shows clearly and
visually that developing, designing and implementing indicators form only part of the process.
The real challenge lies in the implementation, monitoring and actions that take place once the
results of the indicator evaluation process have been obtained. The adaptive management
approach to indicator development and use provides a unique cyclic methodology to cope with
the continuous changes which often occur in the tourism industry.

Reed et al. (2006) state that a careful balance has to be maintained between the different
approaches to indicator development. On the one side lies the expert-led or top-down
approaches and on the other side lies the community-based or bottom-up approaches.
Indicators that emerge from a top-down approach are generally collected rigorously, scrutinized
by experts and assessed for relevance using statistical tools. This approach often fails to
engage local stakeholders. Indicators from bottom–up methods tend to be rooted in an
understanding of the local context and are derived through understanding local perceptions of
the environment and society. Given that sustainable development is an all-embracing paradigm,
applying to all scales and to all countries, there has also been a deep and prevalent ethos
towards participatory selection of indicators. While there are many top-down indicators for
sustainable development, there are also many efforts to create community indicators for
sustainable development to encourage their use at a local level. Local Agenda 21, resulting
from the Earth Summit, requires the establishment of local programmes and recommends the
use of indicators to help facilitate change (Morse, 2004).

Denman (2001, p. 24) emphasizes that “[p]rojects will be considerably strengthened by regular
monitoring and feedback to assess success and identify weaknesses that may need to be
adjusted. Simple indicators should cover economic performance, local community reaction and
well-being, visitor satisfaction, and environmental changes. Monitoring should be kept simple
and feedback should be obtained from visitors, tour operators and local people.” Simpson
(2008b, p.263) supports this need for ongoing monitoring by stating that “[t]he importance of on-
going monitoring cannot be understated in order to refine strategies, mitigate costs, maximize
benefits to communities and ensure long-term sustainability of individual tourism initiatives”.

The results of indicator monitoring are not always self-evident and will be of little value if they
cannot be accurately interpreted and understood. Baselines, thresholds, targets and
benchmarks provide valuable tools to assist in the interpretation of the results obtained from
indicator measurement. Baselines normally represent the agreed starting point of the monitoring
process, often being the first year for which data has been collected. The indicator results are

57
then interpreted based on the degree of variance from the baseline. This tool works well as long
as it is clear that the baseline may not necessarily represent a desired state, as a critical limit
may already have been exceeded. A baseline, as the first tool used in the interpretation of
results, does not always indicate what action is necessary and it will only indicate if a previous
level has been exceeded. Additional tools for the interpretation need to be used in conjunction
with the baseline data. These tools are thresholds, targets and benchmarks. Thresholds indicate
a critical point or threshold that should not be passed. Thresholds often act as an early warning
system which if reached should trigger some form of management action to ensure that the
issue is resolved or remediated. Targets and benchmarks provide a focus or an aim of a desired
subjective state that would like to be achieved. These targets and benchmarks continuously
drive management actions towards the attainment of the target. Baseline data therefore forms a
critical component in the interpretation of indicator results.

The process of consultation and stakeholder engagement is often a very time- and resource-
intensive process (Fraser et al., 2006; Reed et al., 2006; Reddy, 2008). An alternative
evaluation framework for monitoring the sustainability of tourism ventures that is time-efficient
and cost-efficient is necessary. This study aimed to develop a time- and cost-efficient evaluation
framework that can be used to determine the sustainability of community-based ecotourism
ventures across southern Africa and to test its applicability in a field setting.

2.9 Summary

The review of the literature has highlighted the major influence that the emergence of
sustainable development has had on travel and tourism market trends. As tourists become more
aware of their impacts on the environment, they are demanding more sustainable tourism
experiences. These changing market trends, together with the devolution of natural resource
management rights and responsibilities from the state to communities, has placed communities
in a very favourable position to harness their natural and cultural assets to capitalize on the
growing visitor arrivals and receipts in order to alleviate poverty within rural communities. These
CBE ventures can only be successful and sustainable if the three primary elements, community,
conservation and tourism, are managed effectively in an interdependent way. Sustainability
investigations often neglect social and economic issues and focus primarily on environmental
issues. This study focused on all three core elements of sustainability: social, economic and
environmental, in order to improve the performance of CBE ventures in southern Africa.

A number of research gaps that were identified as a result of the review of the literature were
addressed by this study. These gaps include a lack of research on the sustainability of
ecotourism ventures and a lack of studies attempting to quantify indicators for sustainability. A
need has also been expressed to test sustainability indicators in real rural community settings.
This study addressed these gaps through developing an evaluation framework for determining

58
the sustainability of CBE ventures in southern Africa. It is also foreseeable that the study will
apply sustainability indicators at rural CBE settings.

Increased attention on the negative impacts of ecotourism has brought about a corresponding
increase in pressure to improve the sustainability of ecotourism. However, before the
sustainability performance can be improved, it first has to be measured. Sustainable tourism
indicators have been identified as valuable tools for determining and monitoring sustainability.
Indicators have also been said to operationalise sustainability by providing social, economic and
environmental information that supports more effective and holistic tourism planning,
management and decision making. This study made use of both objective and subjective
indicators to develop a time and cost-effective framework for monitoring the sustainability of
CBE ventures in southern Africa. The results of testing the applicability of the framework provide
baseline data that may be used for benchmarking future CBE sustainability investigations in
southern Africa.

This resultant evaluation framework should be seen as a first step in a cyclic adaptive learning
approach to the development and implementation of sustainable tourism indicators in CBE
ventures. This approach identifies, selects and measures sustainability in order to provide
feedback to the management of CBE ventures so that they may take the required actions to
improve their sustainability. The process is then repeated periodically to review and monitor the
changes that have occurred.

Developing successful CBE ventures based on the three cornerstones of environmental

protection and conservation, providing benefits to communities, and sustainable, responsible
tourism through effective management and facilitation can go a long way in responding to the
trends emerging in the literature. Ongoing benefits have to be provided for communities (social
sustainability), while environmental conservation is not compromised (environmental
sustainability) and an economically viable tourism product is maintained (economic
sustainability).

The chapter that follows addresses the research design and methodology of the study as well
as the selection of case studies for further investigation.

59