Factors Influencing Learners Discontinuation in The Alternative Learning System

Asia Pacific Journal of Advanced Education and Technology
Volume 3, Issue 2, June 2024 / P- ISSN 2815 – 245X / E – ISSN 2815 – 2468 / www.apjaet.com
Factors Influencing Learners Discontinuation in the Alternative Learning System

Jigger M. Tomarong1, Camilo A. Rañoa2
[email protected], [email protected]
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9621-8917
Graduate School, Capitol University
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines
DOI:https://doi.org/10.54476/apjaet/78429
Abstract
This study looked into identified reasons of enrolling in the Alternative Learning System to determine
what factors lead to ALS learners dropping out of the program. This study utilized a descriptive
correlational design employing a researcher-made survey to gather data. The survey underwent validation
by three experts in the field of research and Alternative Learning Systems and passed the validity test
conducted. The responses of the participants were analyzed to determine if there was a significant
difference in their profiles based on the reasons, they reported for enrolling in ALS using the ANOVA
test. The investigation also looked into whether there is a correlation between the reasons reported by the
participants for enrolling in ALS and the factors affecting their discontinuation. It was found that there is
no significant difference in the profiles of the respondents such as age, gender, civil status, level taken,
and monthly income in the reasons they reported for enrolling in ALS. However, it was discovered that
there is a significant correlation between the reasons reported by the students for enrolling in ALS and
the factors influencing their discontinuation. In response to the challenge of student discontinuation, it is
proposed to initiate and effectively implement Radio-Based Instruction (RBI) as an alternative mode of
delivery for ALS programs. Leveraging radio broadcasting, this innovative approach to distance learning
has the potential to significantly enhance access to education by reaching students in diverse geographic
locations, thereby mitigating the barriers posed by distance and geographical isolation. Moreover, RBI
allows learners the flexibility to engage in their studies even while occupied with other activities, further
facilitating their educational journey.
Keywords: Alternative Learning System, Influencing Factors, Learners Discontinuation, ALS Learners
Introduction
Education stands as a vital facet that not only imparts essential skills, abilities, and knowledge to
individuals but also fosters the overall growth and advancement of individuals, communities, and nations
at large. A person equipped with education not only achieves personal goals but also makes efficient
contributions to the welfare of the community (Kapur, 2018). To resolve social inequalities and close
socioeconomic gaps within any country, it is believed that equal educational opportunities are essential,
according to a report from the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). Education is also emphasized as "a prerequisite for bolstering economic development".
Education provides a means to better livelihoods for many impoverished Filipinos, confirming the widely
held belief that "education is the cornerstone of success."
Even though every Filipino has the legal right to free education, a sizable portion nevertheless
cannot afford to take advantage of educational opportunities. Moreover, completion of both elementary
and secondary school is far from guaranteed, even for those who can attend. There are many different
Tomarong, J.M., Rañoa, C.A., Factors Influencing Learners Discontinuation in the Alternative Learning System, pp. 19 – 30
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reasons why learners drop out of school, from personal circumstances to socioeconomic limitations.
Furthermore, there are localities where the dearth of easily accessible schools makes it more difficult for
residents to complete their education.
The government has pledged to eradicate illiteracy and guarantee universal access to education
for all citizens, by the 1987 Constitution's declaration that "the state shall protect and promote the right
of all citizens to quality education at all levels, and shall take appropriate steps to ensure that such
education is accessible to all." The Philippines has been actively fighting illiteracy over the years because
it understands that improving basic education is essential to the advancement and development of the
country (Albert et al. 2012). Illiteracy is a significant barrier to the nation's economic development.
Economic crises caused by poverty linked to illiteracy are still widespread in Southeast Asia and
especially in Africa.
In the context of Southeast Asia, the Philippines emerges as a nation contending with significant
poverty rates. This socioeconomic challenge disproportionately affects various segments of the
population, notably the Out-of-School Children (OSC), Out-of-School Youth (OSY), and Out-of-School
Adults (OSA). These demographic groups are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of poverty,
primarily due to the barriers they face in accessing educational opportunities (Apao et al., 2014). In
response to this urgent issue, the Philippine government launched the Alternative Learning System (ALS),
a comprehensive program intended to empower Filipinos by giving them the chance to pursue education
and meet fundamental educational goals in a way that best suits their circumstances and requirements
(DepEd, 2016).
However, similar to the difficulties encountered in traditional educational environments, one of
the main priorities for implementers of Alternative Learning Systems is to guarantee that students remain
in community learning centers until they have satisfactorily completed their educational journeys.
Dropout rates are concerning because they rob people of their natural right to an education (Shadreck,
2013). Numerous international agreements and conventions, such as the 1948 Convention on the Rights
of the Child and the 1990 World Conference on Education for All, have internationally recognized and
reaffirmed this fundamental right to education (UNESCO, 2000).
In fact, according to statistics obtained from a specific division of the Department of Education in
Region X, it was revealed that out of the 702 students who were enrolled in the Accreditation and
Equivalency (A&E) program of the Alternative Learning System (ALS) during the academic year 2018-
2019, a significant portion—forty percent (40%), totaling 309 students (69 at the elementary level and
240 at the secondary level)—did not complete the program or ceased attending ALS sessions for diverse
reasons.
The aforementioned data served as the impetus for the researcher to undertake this investigation.
Holding the role of district coordinator for ALS within the second district of a division under the
Department of Education in Region Ten, the researcher is deeply troubled by the significant number of
ALS students failing to complete the Accreditation and Equivalency program. Motivated to address this
pressing issue, the researcher embarked on a quest to identify the factors contributing to the
discontinuation of ALS students to devise effective solutions.
Objectives of the Study
This research investigates factors influencing the discontinuation of Alternative Learning System
(ALS) learners in their studies. It aims to answer questions about the demographic profile of respondents,
reasons for enrolling in ALS, factors influencing dropout, and correlations between enrollment reasons
and dropout factors. The study seeks to develop program plans to improve the Accreditation &
Equivalency program of ALS based on its findings.
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Methodology
`This study employed a descriptive-correlational research approach to examine the relationship

between independent and dependent variables. It was conducted in one division of the Department of
Education in Region 10. The researcher used an online sample size calculator to determine the ideal
number of respondents, selecting 172 students who discontinued the Alternative Learning System through
a lottery technique. The respondents' profile was described using frequency expressed as a simple
percentage. The most common reasons for enrolling in ALS and the variables influencing students who
dropped out were displayed using a simple ranking system. To ascertain whether there were any
noteworthy variations in the respondents' demographic profile according to the reasons why students
enrolled in ALS, the Anova Test was employed. To find out if there was a significant relationship between
the factors influencing students who dropped out and the reasons why they enrolled in the Alternative
Learning System, the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was employed. Additionally, a
Focus Group Discussion involving eight respondents provided further insights into the study's findings.
Research protocols and principles, such as obtaining approvals and providing participants with an
informed consent form, were observed before conducting the survey and focus group discussion.
Results and Discussion
1. Profile of the respondents
1.1. In terms of Age
Table 1
Distribution of Respondents Based on Age
Age Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
12-15 6 3.49
16-20 71 41.28
21-25 48 27.91
26-30 16 9.30
31-above 31 18.02
Total 172 100.00
Table 1 presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to age. It can be observed
from the table that the majority of respondents fall within the age range of 16 to 20, comprising a total of
seventy-one (71) or an equivalent of 41.28%. On the other hand, the lowest number of respondents aged
between 12 and 15, with only six (6) respondents, comprising 3.49% of the total respondents.
The data confirms that the majority of learners in the Alternative Learning System are out-of-
school youth (OSY), out-of-school adults (OSA), and out-of-school children (OSC). It suggests that the
system adheres to DepEd Memorandum No. 006, s.2019, which sets age requirements for enrollment.
Furthermore, a significant number of respondents are aged 16 to 20, indicating that some are already
employed before reaching legal working age. For instance, two participants in a Focus Group Discussion
illustrate this situation: Participant 1, aged sixteen, works as a construction helper to support his father, a
farmer, while Participant 5, aged fourteen, works at a water refilling station to assist his mother, a
laundrywoman, in providing for his siblings after their father's death.
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1.2. In terms of Gender
Table 2
Distribution of Respondents Based on Gender
Gender Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
Female 66 38.37
Male 106 61.63
Total 172 100.00
Table 2 shows the percentage distribution of responders based on gender. Gender is the
categorizing of responses as male or female. The findings show that the majority of responders are male,
accounting for one hundred and six (106), or 61.63% of the total. Meanwhile, females account for only
66 responders or 38.37% of the total.
This finding indicates a higher proportion of male students discontinuing their education
compared to females. Mercado (2015) supports this by noting that "many Alternative Learning System
students are male." One potential explanation for this trend is bullying. A considerable number of male
students who dropped out of formal education are either perpetrators or victims of bullying. This situation
could result in their suspension or expulsion from school.
1.3. In terms of Civil Status
Table 3
Distribution of Respondents Based on Civil Status
Civil Status Number Percentage (%)
Single 102 59.30
Single but with a child 10 5.81
Married 30 17.44
Living with someone 27 15.70
Widow/widower 1 0.58
Separated 2 1.16
Total 172 100.00
Table 3 presents the percentage distribution of respondents according to civil status. It can be
observed from the table that the majority of respondents are single, comprising a total of one hundred and
two (102) or 59.30% of the total. On the other hand, one (1) respondent is a widow or widower,
comprising only 0.58% of the total respondents.
In the table, it can be seen that the majority of respondents are single. This is supported by Valeza,
N. et al. (2017), who stated that many students in the ALS are single and unemployed. This indicates that
single individuals, due to their lack of employment and responsibilities, indeed have sufficient time to
actively engage in studying. Unlike those who are married or have families, who would find it more
challenging due to family obligations and responsibilities. Their attention and time are divided among
various matters, making it difficult for them to focus on their studies.
1.4. Level Taken in the Accreditation and Equivalency Program
Table 4 presents the percentage distribution of respondents based on the level taken in the
Accreditation and Equivalency Program. The level refers to the classification of respondents based on
whether they are studying at the elementary or secondary level. The data shows that the majority of
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respondents are studying at the secondary level, totaling one hundred and thirty-two (132) or 76.74% of
the total. Meanwhile, those studying at the elementary level comprise only forty (40) respondents or
23.26% of the total.
Table 4
Distribution of Respondents Based on the Level Taken in the Accreditation and Equivalency Program
Program Level Number Percentage (%)

Elementary 38 22.09
Secondary 134 77.91
Total 172 100.00
The data indicates that individuals who haven't completed secondary education exhibit a greater
determination to pursue further studies compared to those who haven't finished elementary education.
This observation is supported by the study conducted by Valeza, N. et al.(2017), which reveals that "most
ALS students have previously attended formal education up to the ninth grade." This suggests that
students who have experienced secondary education but haven't completed it still hold aspirations of
obtaining their diploma.
1.5. In terms of Monthly Income
Table 5
Distribution of Respondents Based on Monthly Income
Monthly Income Number of Respondents Percentage
5000-below 108 62.79
5001-9,999 58 33.72
10,000-14,999 4 2.33
15,000-19,999 1 0.58
20,000-above 1 0.58
Total 172 100.00
Table 6 presents the percentage distribution of respondents based on their family's monthly
income. It is noticeable that the majority of respondents have a monthly income of 5000.00 and below,
totaling one hundred and eight (108) or 62.79%. In addition, there is only one (1) respondent each,
comprising 0.58% of the total, for families earning between 15,000.00-19,999.00 and 20,000.00 and
above monthly.
Based on the majority of respondents' monthly income, which is significantly below the poverty
threshold released by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) for the year 2018 at Php 10,481.00, it can
be concluded that many of them have indeed halted their studies to work and earn money to help provide
for their families' needs.
2. Reasons Why Students Enroll and Enter the Alternative Learning System
Table 6 presents the reasons why students enroll and enter the Alternative Learning System (ALS).
It can be observed that the top five reasons for students to enroll in ALS are as follows: first, (1) classes
in ALS are not conducted daily, with a total score of eighty-five (85) points; second, (2) the class location
is near their home, with a total score of eighty-two (82) points; third, (3) the class schedule is convenient
for students, with a total score of fifty (50) points; fourth, (4) because they are already working, with a
total score of forty-five (45) points; and fifth, (5) influenced by peers, with a total score of thirty-eight
(38) points.
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Table 6
Reasons for Students Enrolling and Participating in the Alternative Learning System
Reasons Number of Rank
Participants
Classes not held daily 85 1
The location for the learning session is near the learners’ home 82 2
Class schedule is favorable for the learner 50 3
Working or employed 45 4
Influenced by peers 38 5
The learner is of advanced age 32 6
The teacher is known or a friend 28 7
Has a family 24 8
Illness or health condition 3 9.5
Other reasons such as incarceration, inability to afford formal education 3 9.5
From the results, it is evident that the respondents enrolled and entered the Alternative Learning
System (ALS) because they found the frequency, schedule, and location of classes to be highly favorable
for them. It can be said that the Alternative Learning System truly followed its slogan "Serve the
Unreachable" and the mandate outlined in Republic Act No. 9155, also known as the Governance of Basic
Education Act of 2001. Based on the reasons or conditions of the students mentioned above, it can indeed
be concluded that they would face challenges in pursuing education under the formal education system.
During the conducted Focus Group Discussion, the majority, or five out of eight respondents,
stated that poverty is the primary reason why they chose to enroll and enter the Alternative Learning
System. Despite facing poverty, they can still pursue education because of the unique characteristics of
ALS, such as non-daily classes, proximity of the class location, and flexible class schedules. Because of
these three unique characteristics of ALS, they have the opportunity to allocate time to search for jobs to
meet their daily needs. For example, Respondent 3, who has eight siblings and whose father is
incarcerated, had to halt formal education to help support the family under the circumstances.
3. Factors influence the discontinuation of students in the Alternative Learning System

Table 7
Factors Influencing Alternative Learning System Learners to Stop
Factors the Influenced Number Rank
Need to work for the family 86 1
Loss of interest 60 2
Difficulty in the subject 39 3
Change of residence 30 4
Stopped attending school due to peer influence 24 5
Got married 22 6
Family problems 21 7
Lack of moral support from family 19 8
Class schedule not compatible with free time 13 9
Lack of financial support from family 12 10
Jealous spouse 10 11
Other reasons (incarceration, pregnancy, change of teacher) 9 12
Needs to take care of the younger sibling 8 13
Teased by an acquaintance /neighbor 7 14
Home far from CLC 5 15
Teacher 4 16
Got sick 3 17
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Table 7 presents the reasons why students enroll and enter the Alternative Learning System (ALS).
It can be observed that the top five factors influencing the discontinuation of students in the Alternative
Learning System are as follows: first, (1) the need to work for the family, with a total score of eighty-six
(86) points; second, (2) loss of interest, with a total score of sixty (60) points; third, (3) difficulty in the
subject, with a total score of thirty-nine (39) points; fourth, (4) change of residence, with a total score of
thirty (30) points; and fifth, (5) influence of friends or peers stopping their studies.
The result was corroborated by Atilano et al. in a study where the top reasons for students
discontinuing ALS were found to be lack of interest and employment. This was also supported by Valeza
et al., who stated that lack of interest, employment, and time management are reasons why students stop
attending ALS. Frendenberg and Ruglls (2007) also supported this, identifying low family income,
choosing between work and study, the need to support the family financially, vices, and early pregnancy
as reasons why students do not continue their studies in ALS.
In the conducted Focus Group Discussion, a significant relationship between poverty and the
influencing factors for ALS students who discontinue, such as the need to work for the family, lack of
interest, and struggle with subjects, emerged. For example, Respondent 8 stopped attending ALS because
he needed to work for his family with only a low monthly income. He had to work to help with daily
expenses. Additionally, he impregnated his partner, and he needed to earn more to prepare for his spouse's
childbirth. Respondent 6 also needed to work to support his siblings due to his father's imprisonment. It
also emerged from the Focus Group Discussion that a student loses interest due to family problems,
financial issues, fatigue, and having no allowance. Upon careful consideration, these factors stem from
poverty. Regarding struggles with subjects, respondents in the FGD mentioned that they find subjects
difficult because they cannot focus on listening due to life concerns playing on their minds. They cannot
study thoroughly because they have other responsibilities to attend to. Respondent 7, on the other hand,
stopped attending because of blurry vision, which led to losing interest in continuing his studies. This is
supported by the study of Lim T. et al. (2017), where ALS students experience adverse and uncontrollable
life events affecting their way of life.
4. Significant difference in the demographic profile of respondents regarding the reasons why
students enroll in the Alternative Learning System
In Table 8, we can observe the outcomes of the analysis regarding the fourth problem. Since the
p-values of 0.437 (age), 0.691 (gender), 0.362 (civil status), 0.551 (program taken in Accreditation and
Equivalency), and 0.269 (social status) are higher than 0.05, the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore,
there is no significant difference in the profile of respondents when considering the reasons why students
enroll and enter the Alternative Learning System.
Based on the analysis results, it does not imply that differences in the status or profile of
respondents automatically mean differences in their reasons for enrolling and entering the Alternative
Learning System. Regarding age, the results align with the study by Momanyi et al. (2015) titled "Effect
of Students’ Age on Academic Motivation and Academic Performance among High School Students in
Kenya." It was found that age did not significantly affect academic motivation. The higher motivation
scores obtained by students aged 12 to 15 years did not significantly differ from other age groups. Hence,
all students could be considered to have the same level of academic motivation. Moreover, the results
also suggest that the monthly income of respondents is not a basis for differences in their reasons for
enrolling and entering the Alternative Learning System. Whether they have low or high monthly income,
there is a correlation between their reasons for choosing to enroll in ALS. Therefore, the ALS program
provides significant assistance to individuals from various life situations to complete their education.
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Table 8
Difference in Profile of Respondents on Reasons for Students Enrolling and Participating in ALS
Respondents’ Profile Mean SD P-value Interpretation

12-15 1.83 0.752
16-20 2.38 1.346
Age 21-25 2.06 0.93 0.437 Not significant
26-30 2.44 1.46
31-above 2.48 1.34
Gender Male 2.32 1.37 0.691 Not significant
Female 2.25 1.01
Single 2.16 1.21
Single with child 2.22 0.97
Married 2.4 1.19
Civil Status Living with someone 2.59 1.42
0.362 Not significant
Widow/widower 4 0
Separated 3 1.41
Program Elementary 2.38 1.41 0.551 Not significant

Secondary 2.27 1.30
5000.00-below 2.26 1.33
5,001.00- 2.47 1.06
9,999.00
10,000-14,999.00 1.25 0.5
Monthly Income 0.269 Not significant
15,000-19,999.00 1 0
20,000-above 2 0
5. Significant correlation between the reasons for students enrolling in ALS and the factors
influencing students' dropout from the Alternative Learning System
To address the fifth problem, a statistical analysis using Pearson Correlation was employed. This
will determine if there is a meaningful correlation between the reasons why students enroll in ALS and
the factors influencing students' dropout from the Alternative Learning System.
Table 9
Relation of Factors Influencing Learners' Enrollment/Participation in ALS and Factors Influencing Learners’ Dropping-out
Correlation Variables r-value t-value 𝒕𝒄 Interpretation
Reasons of Enrolling and Factors
0.253 3.41 1.982 significant
Influencing
*@0.05 level of significance (two-tailed): t ≤ 𝒕𝒄 : NS; t> 𝒕𝒄 : S
Based on the results shown in Table 9, the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, there is a
significant correlation between the reasons for students to enroll/enter ALS and the factors influencing
dropout from education.
It can be inferred from the results that there is indeed a correlation between the reasons of
respondents for enrolling and entering the Alternative Learning System and the factors or reasons why
they stopped attending school. For example, the top reason for enrolling in ALS for respondents is because
26
classes are not held every day, while the leading factor or reason for dropping out is the need to work for
the family. It can be said that initially, the respondents were studying while working, but later on, they
could not manage to balance studying and working simultaneously. This is supported by Baywong et al.
(2011), as their study revealed that the challenges experienced by ALS students include family, peer, and
personal problems. These challenges can cause tension among students, which may lead to their dropping
out of education. This is in line with the statement of the American Psychological Association (2011) that
stress has a negative impact on a child's attention to studying and completing school tasks.
6. Program plan can be developed based on the study results to further improve the A&E
program of ALS
Based on the emerging results, the researcher formulated a program plan to address the issue of
dropout among Alternative Learning System students. This strategy has long been introduced by the
Department of Education but has not been implemented by the division where the study was conducted.
It was not implemented because it requires a large budget to secure a slot on a radio station. However, at
present, the local government of the said division already has its radio station. This program plan was
developed based on the top reasons for students enrolling in and attending the Alternative Learning
System and the leading factors influencing dropout from education, as reflected in the respondents'
answers.
The program plan developed from the respondents' responses is presented below.
Program Plan for the Alternative Learning System Based on the Study's Findings
Title of the Program: OPLAN Paaralan sa Himpilan
Program Description: The "Oplan Paaralan sa Himpilan" (School in the Air) initiative is designed to
address dropout rates within the Alternative Learning System (ALS). Inspired by the Department of
Education's Radio-based Instruction, this program offers a novel solution by utilizing radio broadcasts as
a medium for education deliver
Traditionally, ALS requires students to attend classes at community learning centers, which can
be a barrier for individuals balancing family responsibilities and work commitments. However, with
"Oplan Paaralan sa Himpilan," students can access educational content directly through radio broadcasts
or even their cell phones, eliminating the need for physical attendance at learning centers.
This approach enables students to engage in learning at their convenience, whether it be during
breaks from work or while managing household responsibilities. By providing flexibility in accessing
educational resources, the program aims to empower individuals to continue their education journey
despite the challenges they may face in their daily lives. Ultimately, the goal is to reduce dropout rates
within the ALS and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
With the "Oplan Paaralan Sa Himpilan" program, dropout rates in the Alternative Learning
System are expected to decline. Radio-based instruction addresses various reasons for dropping out, such
as the need to work for the family. Students can now study and work simultaneously without leaving
home, as the radio broadcasts lessons during their rest time from noon to one, with a replay in the evening
from seven to eight. For those who lost interest, radio-based instruction can reignite their enthusiasm,
providing a favorable learning environment. Struggling students can benefit from the opportunity to
review topics twice and even record lessons on their phones for further study.
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Conclusion
The researcher discovered that the characteristics and needs of students in the Alternative Learning
System (ALS) are indeed different compared to students in formal education. Alternative Learning
System students require a special teaching style that truly suits their condition.
Recommendation
Based on the research, it's recommended to implement the "OPLAN PAARALAN SA

HIMPILAN" using radio-based instruction to address dropout rates and extend ALS services. The
curriculum should include practical "livelihood skills" training, and partnerships with local stakeholders
should be strengthened to ensure sustainability. Government and private sector collaboration is vital in
providing comprehensive support for ALS programs, while ALS participants should seize educational
opportunities. Further research on innovative instructional methods like Radio-Based Instruction is also
encouraged to improve ALS delivery.
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Factors Influencing Learners Discontinuation in The Alternative Learning System

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Asia Pacific Journal of Advanced Education and Technology

Factors Influencing Learners Discontinuation in the Alternative Learning System

Objectives of the Study

`This study employed a descriptive-correlational research approach to examine the relationship

Results and Discussion

1. Profile of the respondents

1.1. In terms of Age

1.2. In terms of Gender

Male 106 61.63

Total 172 100.00

1.3. In terms of Civil Status

1.4. Level Taken in the Accreditation and Equivalency Program

Program Level Number Percentage (%)

1.5. In terms of Monthly Income

3. Factors influence the discontinuation of students in the Alternative Learning System

Respondents’ Profile Mean SD P-value Interpretation

Program Elementary 2.38 1.41 0.551 Not significant

Title of the Program: OPLAN Paaralan sa Himpilan

Based on the research, it's recommended to implement the "OPLAN PAARALAN SA

Department of Education. (2019) What is alternative learning system. https://www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-

Department of Education. (2019). Policy Guidelines on the implementation of enhanced alternative

Pappas C. (2013). The adult learning theory-andragogy-of malcolm knowles.

Philippine Statistics Authority (2017) https://psa.gov.ph/content/nine-percent-filipinos-aged-6-24-years-

Philippine Statistics Authority (2019). Food and Poverty Thresholds. https://psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-

Social Weather Stations (2018). Bilang ng pamilyang nagsabing sila ay mahirap.

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