Atmospheric systems and societies

Introduction to the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a dynamic system which is essential to life on earth. The behavior, structure, and
composition of the atmosphere influences variations in all ecosystems.

Knowledge and understanding

Def: The atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs, outputs, flows, and storages) which has
undergone changes throughout geological time
Def: The atmosphere is a mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of carbon
dioxide, argon, water vapor, and other trace gases
Human activities impact atmospheric composition by altering inputs and outputs of the system.
Changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases have significant effects on ecosystems.
Most reactions connected to living systems occur in the inner layers of the atmosphere, which are
the troposphere (0-10km above sea level) and the stratosphere (10-50km above sea level)
Most clouds form in the troposphere and play an important role in the albedo effect for the
planet.
The greenhouse effect of the atmosphere is a natural and necessary phenomenon maintaining
suitable temperatures for living systems.

The earth’s atmosphere is a closed system:

Input: solar radiation

Output: heat energy
Matter is recycled within the system

The atmospheric system is an interactive system consisting of 5 major components:

 The atmosphere
 The hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, and rivers)
 The cryosphere (ice sheets, glaciers, and snow)
 The land surface
 The biosphere (plants and animals)

The atmosphere is vital for life to exist:

 It provides a shield from meteorites

 It protects us from harmful radiation from the sun
 It moderates and stabilizes our climate including temperature
 It is from where we obtain oxygen we breathe and from where plants acquire the carbon
dioxide they require for photosynthesis.

Biomass absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide throughout its lifetime and then releases carbon
dioxide when it is burned.
 most of the carbon dioxide on earth is stored in rocks such as limestone, chalk, and coal

Climate system

Reasons for increased levels of carbon dioxide:

 The onset of global industrialization and the subsequent production of pollution derived
from fossil fuels
 Deforestation
 Volcanic activity
 Sunspot activity
 Composition of the atmosphere – atmospheric gasses

Thermosphere – a virtual vacuum; rise in absorbed energy due to energized short wave radiation

 UV and X-radiation from the sun is absorbed which breaks apart molecules into atoms
(oxygen, nitrogen and helium atoms are the main components in the upper thermosphere).
 The temperature increases with height and can reach beyond 2,000°C. This heat can cause
the layer to expand causing variation in depth overtime from 500 to 1,000km.

Mesosphere – temperatures decrease because decreasing density prevents the absorption of energy

 Without the presence of ozone or other particulates to absorb UV radiation, the

temperature declines with height. It is the coldest part of the atmosphere with
temperatures falling to -100°C.
 There are strong winds with speeds up to around 3,000km/h.

The mesopause occurs at the end of the mesosphere and is where the temperature does not
change.

Stratosphere – lacks dust and water vapor; stable; thin; increase in temperature with height is due
to absorption of solar radiation.

 Stratospheric ozone absorbs ultra violet radiation from the sun. Temperature is constant at
about -60°C in the lower part of the stratosphere, which is shielded by the ozone layer but
then increases with altitude.
 The air is dry.
 Winds increase with height.

The stratopause marks the end of the stratosphere and is where the temperature remains constants
with altitude.

Troposphere – most weather processes take place here; fall in temperature with height as
atmosphere thins

 The earth surface absorbs heat from the sun. The warm earth then heats the atmosphere
through conduction. The troposphere is warmest near the earth surface with temperature
declining by around 6.5°C per km.
 Wind speeds increase with height. The jet stream which blows powerful winds towards the
east occurs at the top of the troposphere.
 Most of the atmospheric mass is found. This includes nearly all the water vapor, clouds and
pollutants.
 Most of our weather occurs.
 Humans and other organisms have most interaction e.g. through exchange of gases or
through introduction of pollutants.
 The greenhouse effect occurs and helps to regulate the temperature of the earth
Insolation refers to incoming solar radiation.

Greenhouse gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, are gases that absorb
infrared (long-wave) radiation that can lead to global warming.

Solar energy:

 46% is absorbed by the Earth

 31% is reflected to space
 22% drives the hydrological cycle
 1% powers the winds and ocean currents

Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.

The enhanced greenhouse effect – or accelerated greenhouse effect – refers to the anthropogenic
global warming as a result of increased use of greenhouse gases.

Stratospheric ozone

Stratospheric ozone is a key component of the atmospheric system because it protects living
systems from the negative effects of UV radiation from the sun.

Human activities have disturbed the dynamic equilibrium of stratospheric ozone formation.

Pollution management strategies are being employed to conserve stratospheric ozone.

Ozone levels are measured in Dobson Units (DU).

Knowledge and understanding:

 Some UV radiation from the Sun is absorbed by stratospheric ozone causing the ozone
molecule to break apart. Under normal conditions, the ozone molecule will reform. This
ozone destruction and reformation is an example of a dynamic equilibrium.

 Ozone-depleting substances (including halogenated organic gases such as

chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs) are used in aerosols, gas-blown plastics, pesticides, etc. Halogen
atoms (such as chlorine) from these pollutants increase destruction of ozone in a repetitive
cycle so allowing more UV radiation to reach the earth.

 UV radiation reaching the surface of the Earth damages human living tissues, increasing the
incidence of cataracts, mutation during cell division, skin cancer, etc.

 The effects of increased UV radiation on biological productivity include damage to

photosynthetic organisms, especially phytoplankton which form the basis of aquatic food
webs.

 Pollution management may be achieved by reducing the manufacture and release of ozone-
depleting substances (ODSs).
Methods for this reduction include:
- Recycling refrigerants
- Developing alternatives to gas-blown plastics, halogenated pesticides, etc.
- Developing non-propellant alternatives
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) had had a key role in providing
information, and creating and evaluating international agreements, for the protection of
stratospheric ozone.

 An illegal market for ozone-depleting substances continues and requires consistent

monitoring.
 international agreement: Vienna convention (1985) and the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) for the reduction of use of ODSs signed
under direction of UNEP. National governments complying with the agreement made
national laws and regulations to decrease the consumption and production of halogenated
organic gases such as CFSs.
Effects of stratospheric ozone:

 UV-A (longest wavelength between 315-400nm) - ozone is unable to absorb this radiation
and it passes through to the ground level.
 UV-B (wavelength between 280-315nm) – ozone absorbs most of this radiation but some
passes down into the troposphere layer below.
 UV-C (shortest wavelength with highest energy 100-280nm) – ozone and atmosphere are
able to absorb all the UV-C radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface

When ozone concentration falls, the ozone molecules become more dispersed within the same area
which is sometimes referred to as "ozone thinning".

Case study

Australia

Australia’s obligations under the Montreal Protocol have been implemented at the national
level. State legislation for ozone protection has been replaced by national legislation. For
example, the New South Wales Ozone Protection Regulation 1997 was repealed in 2006.

The manufacture, import, and export of all major ODSs has been completely phased out in
Australia, with the exception of HCFCs, which will be phased out in 2015. In addition, methyl
bromide is used for quarantine and feedstock purposes. National regulations allow for
limited categories of essential or critical use for halons, CFCs, and methyl bromide where no
alternatives are available.

Transition substances, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are strong greenhouse gases and
contribute to climate change. Their concentrations are rising rapidly in the atmosphere,
albeit from currently low concentrations. Australia is the first country to implement
integrated control measures to manage both ODSs and their synthetic replacements that
can also act as greenhouse gases. This is largely because they were one of the first countries
to suffer the consequences of ozone depletion.
Photochemical Smog
The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants that may generate secondary pollutants
and lead to photochemical smog, the levels of which can vary by topography, population density,
and climate.

Photochemical smog has significant impacts on societies and living systems.

Photochemical smog can be reduced by decreasing human reliance on fossil fuels.

Knowledge and understanding:

 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, black carbon or soot, unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of
sulfur.

 In the presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants
undergo a variety of reactions with other chemicals already present in the atmosphere.

 Tropospheric ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant, formed when oxygen molecules

react with oxygen atoms that are released from nitrogen dioxide in the presence of sunlight.

 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants (crops and forests), irritates eyes,
creates respiratory illnesses, and damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex
mixture of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone is the main
pollutant

 The frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on local topography, climate,
population density, and fossil fuel use.

 Thermal inversions occur due to lack of air movement when a layer of dense, cool air is
trapped beneath a layer of less dense, warm air. This causes concentrations of air pollutants
to build up near the ground instead of being dissipated by ‘normal’ air movements.

 Deforestation and burning may also contribute to smog.

 Pollution management strategies include:

- Altering human activity to consume less fossil fuel – example activities include the
purchase of energy-efficient technologies, the use of public or shared transit, and
walking or cycling
- Regulating and reducing pollutants at point of emission by government regulation or
taxation
- Using catalytic converters to clean primary pollutants from car exhaust
- Regulation of fuel quality by governments
- Adopting clean-up measures such as reforestation, re-greening, and conservation of
areas to sequester carbon dioxide
Factors influencing production of photochemical smog:

 High emissions of pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels e.g. through industrial activity
and vehicle use. This is often influenced by:
- The amount of industry
- Population size
- Mode of transport adopted in the area
 High levels of sunlight
 calm or light winds which reduces dispersion and dilution and allows pollutants to
accumulate at ground level
 Dry weather conditions
 Where the topography allows pollutants to accumulate such as a valley surrounded by hills
 When a thermal inversion occurs
Case study

South East Asian fires, 1997

During 1997, forest fires raged across parts of Indonesia, Kalimantan, and Sumatra. The smog these
created covered parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, and parts of the southern
Philippines and southern Thailand. In some places, visibility was less than 1m. Up to 70 million
people in six countries were affected by smog created by the fires, which could burn underground
for decades.

The fires had many effects. Over 275 people died from starvation in the Indonesian province of Irian
Java. Others died from cholera caused by a lack of clean water. The most badly affected people in
Sarawak were the indigenous communities. Living in remote forests, cut off from medical care and
access to bottled water, they received very little help from the government or from aid
organizations. Over 60,000 Malaysians and Indonesians, mostly children and the elderly, were
treated for smog-related illnesses. Schools in Sarawak were forced to close down; hospitals
struggled to cope with the increase in the number of throat infections, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, and
other eye problems.

The effect of the smog has been likened to smoking three packets of cigarettes each day. Some
doctors claim that the effects are even worse – the sulfide and carbon gases obstruct the airways
and destroy the lungs. The young and elderly are especially vulnerable.

Many of the Indonesian fires, which affected up to 4.5 million hectares of rain forest and plantations
were started deliberately by plantation owners as a cheap way of clearing the land. The Indonesian
government blamed 176 plantation companies for causing the fires, but took limited action against
any of them. many of these companies have western consumers.

The fires had a negative effect on economic activities. Tourism dropped almost immediately. Several
domestic flights were cancelled because of the thick smog. Ships without radar navigation were
advised not to sail in the Strait of Malacca, which separates Malaysia from Indonesia. Crop yields
were down and many food-exporting countries, such as Thailand and the Philippines, had to import
coffee and rice.
Acid deposition

Acid deposition can impact living systems and the built environment.

The pollution management of acid deposition often involves cross border issues.

CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3

carbon dioxide + water ⇌ carbonic acid

Acid rain is formed when nitrogen oxide and Sulphur dioxide react with water.

Knowledge and understanding:

 The combustion of fossil fuels produces sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen as primary
pollutants. These gases may be converted into secondary pollutants of dry deposition (such
ash and dry particles) or wet deposition (such as rain and snow).

 The possible effects of acid deposition on soil, water and living organisms include:

- Direct effects (e.g. acid on aquatic organisms and coniferous forests)

- Indirect toxic effects (e.g. increased solubility of metal ions – such as aluminum ions – on
fish)
- Indirect nutrient effects (e.g. leaching of plant nutrients)

 The impacts of acid deposition may be limited to areas downwind of major industrial regions
but these areas may not be in the same country as the source of emissions.

 Pollution management strategies for acid deposition could include:

- Altering human activity (e.g. through reducing use of, or using alternatives to fossil fuels;
international agreements and national governments may reduce pollutant production)
- Regulating and monitoring release of pollutants (e.g. through the use of scrubbers or
catalytic converters that remove sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen from coal-burning
power plants and cars).

 Clean-up and restoration measures may include spreading ground limestone in acidified
lakes or recolonization of damaged systems but the scope of these measures is limited.