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Frames of References: Art Museums as Unique Visual Media

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 FRAMES OF REFERENCES …

UDC 316.774:069

FRAMES OF REFERENCES
– ART MUSEUMS AS UNIQUE VISUAL MEDIA
Aneta Hristova; Meri Batakoja
Saints Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje, Macedonia

Abstract: The age old activity of collecting arts is not I. INTRODUCTION

intrinsically dependent on the art museum as separate
architectural type. How was the art museum as an Despite the broad frame of interfering social and
independent structure conceptualized and why? What
political references of the awakened, hedonistic 16 th
was the idea behind that concept? Was it created as a
medium consciously and what kind of messages was it
century society being far more comprehensive than
supposed to deliver? What kind of unique “textual” the architectural one, it is in the very course of the 16 th
overlaps the various disciplines of archaeology, art and 17th century classical architectural theory where
history, politics, literature, science and architecture we can find the emerging awareness of its potential as
created in order to produce what we today recognize as a powerful, self-conscious media for artistic
art museum space? This study focuses on the crucial representation. Within the general theoretical dispute,
historical moments of the late 17th century when such the emergence of art museum as architectural type is
questions were posed for the first time within the one of the most stratified one. Its long formative
classical discourse of the French architectural theory
history represents a dense cobweb of intertwined
which followed the consolidation of French absolutism
and the foundation of the Royal academies of arts and
significances: the politics in the court of Louis XIV for
sciences, until the mid 19th century when the answers to the setting of museum’s institutional frame; the way
those questions were finally exemplified in built the musaeum was etymologically and philosophically
architecture. The study gives a comprehensive overview constructed as classical ideal in the 17 th and 18th
of the cultural context art museums as public century studies and encyclopedias; the way it was
institutions emerged from and became new spatial transposed in the architectural theory as architectural
models for collective cultivation. episode of the Querell des Anciens et Modernes; the way
it was imagined and interpreted throughout the
Keywords: architectural theory, public buildings, art
multiply architectural competitions organized by the
museum, media, referential frame, modernism, typology
Acadèmie in the period between 1770s-1790s; the way
all those efforts diminished both in the final

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КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

conversion of the Louvre Palace as the first public discussions were based derived from philosophy and
musée in 1793 and in the architecture of every new the natural sciences, and were not specific to
public art museum in the 19th century Western World. architecture: in the spirit of Descartes’ rationalist
philosophy, the basic principle of all discussion was
II. THE POLITICAL BEHIND THE CLASSICAL AND VICE VERSA raison, with an absolute belief in the authority of
Antiquity. Mathematics played a key role in achieving
A. The Foundation of the Royal Normative Classical certitude, while geometry was the basic instrument of
Style in the 17th Century French Architectural Theory all beauty.
The transposition of the classical legacy from the At first, architectural theory in the Acadèmie
Italian to the French art theory in the 16th century and followed the literary theory (Boileau, La Bruyѐre)
the course of the French architectural theory towards holding the belief that greatness and perfection could
the classical synthesis in the 17th century stood firmly be achieved only by imitating Antiquity, which implied
on the political and ideological platform of the French reading aloud of Vitruvius and Renaissance authors:
Absolutism, reaching its peak in the reign of Louis XIV. Palladio, Scamozzi, Vignola, Serlio, Alberti, Viola,
Whereas in the 16th century in Italy the academies Cataneo. The basic positions of the Acadèmie of beautѐ
were associations of independent artists free to make universelle were prescribed and processed in a
their own status and select their members, in France standard form, although the Acadèmie simultaneously
the foundation of the visual arts academies was traced its autonomous discourse on the task of bon
programmed by the state authorities (Richelieu, goût opposing the ideals of the enlightened liberalism
Colbert) and prescribed, commissioned and carried to the royal normative rationalism personified as the
out by the King. The Enlightenment and the “Blondel – Perrault” conflict.4
centralized Absolutism formed, as H. V. Kruft states Completing the difficult task to make a new revised
“an unholy alliance”1 in the creation of these translation of Vitruvius, the latter got the chance to
institutions, thus conducting the course of the 17 th present his own body of theory in which he attacked
century Royal Academy of Architecture (Acadèmie the eternal classical principles, specifically the concept
Royal d’Architecture, 1671), which “ruled over the of proportion, giving a way to a more empirical
architects, students, contractors, royal buildings, method of achieving beautѐ that introduced usage as
provinces, towns” and became “a mighty instrument in an aesthetic premise. It was, among symmetry and
the service of the central power”.2 proportion, accepted by his successors at the
The task of the Acadѐmie consisted of the passing Acadèmie who claimed that “when building, it is no
of resolutions, which were eventually to be less important to dispose the rooms skillfully than it is
incorporated into a normative architectural aesthetics to adorn the facades finely”5 (Fig. 1)
and ultimately in the establishment of a “national”
French order (idea initiated by Philibert Delorme). 3 At
the beginning, the principles on which the Acadѐmie’s

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 FRAMES OF REFERENCES …

of the four fundamental concepts that defined the

quality of the architecture work: bon goût, ordonnance,
proportion and convenance, owe to its respectful
member Germain Boffrand (1667-1754), another
concept was systematically introduced in architectural
theory – that of caractѐre. Caractѐre revoke the
Vitruvian concept of decor, concerning the
appropriateness of form and content, i.e. the
attribution of specific quality to the function or to the
occupant of the building. With the concept of caractère
Boffrand redefined the role of the aesthetics now
focusing on the effect derived from visual rhetoric
which traced the course of the “Revolutionary
architecture” and the so called architecture parlante.
Fig. 1 Claude Perrault. Ordonnance for the five kinds of His treatise earned thematic elaboration with
columns after the method of the Ancients, 1683 39 Jacques - Francois Blondel, who assigned particular
caractѐres to particular types of building, giving the
Focusing on the aspect of Vitruvian dispositio highest character sublimitè to important public
rather than the aesthetic tasks of architecture, the late buildings. He also extended the notion of character as
17th century French theorists made space distribution an expression of function to the overarching idea of
the substantial architectural concept and an style as an expression of effect, which he maintained
instrument of the further programmatic classification to have autonomous cultural background recognizable
of building types. as a “true architecture”.
During the mid 18th century alongside a
B. The Relativist Architectural Aesthetics and the reorientation towards a normative classical style
Concept of “Architecture Parlante” in the Late 18 th emerged a Rousseau-ist school of thought which
Century French Architectural Theory derived every architectural tenet directly from the
In accordance to its task, at the first half of the 18th rationally justifiable archetypes, with Marc Antoin
century the Acadèmie Royal d’Architecture proceeded Laugier being the principle herald. He declared that all
with the theoretical debates advocating the primacy of architectural rules should derive from Nature and all
taste over function and vice versa, which accentuated architectural processes were imitations of processes
the importance of the relationship between the basic of nature, exemplified by the primitive hut as the
aesthetic concept and the utility value of the building, origin of all the possible forms of architecture. (Fig. 2)
while abolishing the notion of normative architectural
doctrine. After the Acadèmie approved the definitions

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КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

to their extreme with logical vigor.6 Etienne Louis

Boullѐe (1728-99) was the first to imply the visual
effects of the solid geometrical bodies into a series of
“poetic” images which he comprehended in an
imaginary architectural museum, showing the
rhetorical power of the architectural drawings: “In
time, one would have a museum of architecture
containing all that could be expected of the art from
those cultivating it”.7 Boullѐe’s desire towards
monumentality, both in size and appearance, best
illustrated at his monument to Newton, ultimately led
his ideas to pure abstraction and his search for
character de grandeur to symbolism of the sublimity
of the divine bond between Architecture and Nature.
Fig. 2 Marc-Antoine Laugier, Frontispiece to Essay on (Fig. 3)
Architecture (Essai sur L’Architecture) ,1753 36

For Laugier, the primitive hut embodied all

structural logic and regarded the Orders not as
ornamental features but as constituent parts of a
building, thus overcoming the dichotomy between
structure and applied ornament. In his proposition
that truth of architecture (architecture vraie) lies in its
structural logic, Laugier is considered the founder of
the new concept of functionalism, superseding the 17th
century concept of usage (function understood in
terms of use) and the initiator of the proceeding 19th
and 20th century debate about functionalism.
From the beginning of the 18th century onwards
the idea of the “Revolutionary architecture” arose Fig. 3 Étienne-Louis Boullée, Newton Memorial (Cénotaphe
among the royalist progressive circles. Contrary to the de Newton), 1784 24
common misunderstanding of this movement as a
break with tradition and being direct precedent of the This tendency towards reduction of architecture to
modern architecture, these ideas were not expression basic geometric forms proceeded with Claude –
of the political upheaval of the French revolution of Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806), who, as Boullѐe before
1789, but a rigorous desire to push the existing ideas him, questioned or more precisely, disregarded

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function in the sense of the practical value of enthusiasm for the Classical heritage remained
architecture in favor of its symbolic, i.e. semantic constant all throughout the 18th century.
content. Around 1800 he developed his own concept
of architecture parlante based on a system of C. Towards the New Age – The 19th Century
“descriptive” and “eloquent” architectural designs Forerunners of Functionalism
covering all architectural tasks according to a The architectural theory at the beginning of the
proposed “social order”. His unique radical 19th century in France was driven by the academy stuff
formulation of architecture as an instrument of moral of the two newly founded institutions: École des
purification of the society, as shown in his project of a Beaux-Arts8 and École Polytechnique9 in Paris, both
complex ideal salt-producing town of Chaux changed considered adherents of the Modern movement of the
the concept of caractѐre as a means of expression to an 20th century. Owe to Louis – Ambroise Dubut (1760-
educational tool. (Fig. 4) 1846), one of the winners of the Grand Prix
competitions,10 and his treatise “Architecture civile”,
Ledoux’s criteria of architecture parlante were
revisited and redefined as “la disposition, la salubritè et
l’ѐconomie”, all together under the concept of “utilitѐ”,
which was a remarkable departure from
Revolutionary architecture. Employing another
Vitruvian concept, that of distribution (oeceonomia),
Dubut traced the course of architecture towards the
radical simplifying schematism worked out by Jean-
Nicolas-Louis Durand (1760-1834) attributed mostly
to the fact that the latter studied and was a teacher
afterwards at the engineering school École
Polytechnique.
Fig. 4 Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Royal Saltworks at Arc-et- Being a winner of the Grand Prix prizes twice,
Senans (Salines de Chaux), 1775 - 1778 33 Durand was still under the neo-classicist influence
when he published his “Prècis des leçons d’architecture”
Both Ledoux and Boullѐe employed terms from (1802). Revealing his break with the Vitruvian
Classical architecture, giving them a personal content tradition, the theory of mimesis and Laugier’s theory
due to their own views of architecture where of the primitive hut, Durand pronounced a radical
proportion practically disappeared as an aesthetic concept of architecture reduced to two principles, that
concept and the caractère took precedence over usage. of convenance (propriety) embracing the concepts of
Although the architectural discourse of the Acadèmie soliditè, salubritѐ and commoditè and the concept of
Royal d’Architecture varied significantly, the ѐconomie (economy) embracing symetrie, regularite

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КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

(retaining the Classical orders in their generic sense) Further abolition of Classical norms is seen in the
and simplicitѐ (deriving from the neo-classicism). He work of Henri Labrouste and Eugenѐ-Emmanuel
considered the square and the right angle the basic Viollet-le Duc (1814-79), the latter being the
forms of all architecture (and the formal basis of town- protagonist of the Gothic revival as a French national
planning). style, who defined architecture as purely and simply a
Durand’s dominating criterion for architecture was product of the building process thus opening the
however disposition which led him to the full prospect of a new architecture based on functional,
dedication to functionalism. Durand’s rationalist national and social premises. Auguste Choisy (1841-
principles gained codification into a systematic theory 1909) and Julien Guadet (1834-1908) were the last
of architectural composition based on a grid system of representatives of the French classical architectural
horizontals and verticals generating infinite number of theory, who despite being stylistically eclectic,
combinations of plans and elevations in terms of exhibited a number of progressive features tracing the
volumes according to the requirements of disposition. path to the 20th century Modern movement.11
(Fig. 5)
III. FRENCH MUSEUM PROTOTYPES

A. Musaeum of Alexandria as the Ultimate but the

Impossible Classical Ideal
As juxtaposed to this development of architectural
thought, the museum as a possible new architectural
type conceptualized exactly in the 17th century French
circles, followed (curiously) the same departures of
architectural thought adopting and testing the new
qualitative categories, from the imaginative
meditations over the Musaeum of Alexandria as an
Fig. 5 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Lectures on Architecture ultimate classical ideal towards the rationalized
(Précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'École “modernist” museum scheme of Durand.
Polytechnique) ,180227 The scholarly interest for Musaeum of Alexandria
in France was present as early as in the beginning of
Launching his catalogue of unlimited combination 17th century. Its history was reconstructed through
of architectural features, Durand was recognized as various academic efforts12 and until the mid 18th
the forerunner of the standardization enabling century a credible but not completely reliable historic
prefabricated construction, which was practically construct was formed. However, this singular classical
implemented afterwards by Joseph Paxton at his model that could be looked upon to was deprived of
Crystal Palace of 1851. any physical existence. There was not any primary

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documentation about it and its location within known fact that Alexander the Great didn’t forget his
Alexandria remained only a subject of speculation. tutor, lavishly sponsored the Aristotle’s school
This confronted the classical thought on its most financially and provided rare plants and animals from
primary level because anything known about the distant lands for Aristotle’s growing private collection.
single classical model in museum context was of That’s how Aristotle established a rich botanical
programmatic origin and there was nothing known garden and a form of zoo for the needs of his research
about its form. and teaching.18 With all said, we can conclude that
The Alexandrian Project was believed to be regardless of the existing structures of the “old
conceptualized as a combination of Plato’s Academy Lyceum”, Aristotle needed a combination of academy
and Aristotle’s School in the Lyceum of Athens.13 (study and lecturing halls), museum (temple dedicated
Plato’s Academy (Academia) was part of an open to the Muses) and library (for various collections). It
space, a public garden in the suburb of Athens, sounds like comprehensive and self-sufficient
surrounded with a wall and adorned with temples, educational and research facility of encyclopaedic
statues and sepulchers of important men.14 It program.
represented informal gathering of chosen community The ancient historical knowledge about the
discussing among the olive trees under the guidance of Musaeum, however, didn’t provide any stable formal
Plato. According to Plato, the knowledge acquired oral reference, but at least provided an extensive inventory
tradition and not books. His peripatetic “dialogues”, of ancient words signifying various architectural
from the word peripatetikos meaning the act of spaces as fractured from the whole. The French
walking, favored walking and talking over the sitting Musaeum was only comprised as a knowledgeable
and studying. That is why Young Lee lucidly concludes “building of words:” exedra, oecus, xystus, peripatoi ...
that we can understand Plato’s Academia in These fractured spaces began to finally synthesize
architectural terms as combining principles of in the period of 1770-1790 when many architectural
gymnasium and musaeum, the first being dedicated to competitions for museum design in the Academies
the exercise of body, the second to the exercise of were launched as a possible realization of the
soul.15 theoretical museum project.
The same spatial structure is present in the
concept of Aristotle’s Lyceum of Athens. Consisted of B. The Grand Prix Museums and Boulée’s Museum of
common architectural elements of a Greek Palaestra16 the Sublime
we find the novelties of the Aristotle’s Lyceum in the The architectural programme for the muséum,
incorporation and importance of a sanctuary subject of the architectural competition for Grand Prix
dedicated to the Muses and a library established by de Rome of 1779 was consisted of:
Aristotle himself.17 The Library didn’t consist of “A garden intended for the culture of foreign plants
collection of manuscripts only, but consisted of at least or as a public walk. The sciences depository will
collections of arts and of natural sciences. It is a well include a library, a cabinet of medals and several

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rooms for maps (géographie) and prints. That of the

arts will include rooms and galleries for painting,
sculpture, and architecture. That of natural history will
include rooms for collections of anatomy, injections,
conservation of animals, plants, and shells: a
communal salon will be placed in the plan, preceded
by a room, vestibule, and large stairwell. The
construction of this building will be in masonry and
vaults without any woodwork. This project will not
have an assembly room intended for different
academies. It will be carried out on the principal floor,
and in the sequence of each of the parts of the museum,
in closed rooms (cabinets) for persons destined for
public service, and for the study of scientists and
amateurs. All the rooms and cabinets of the muséum Fig. 6 Gisors, Projects for a Museum, First prize award for the
will be placed on different floors elevated above the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture, 1779 40
ground level, destined to be occupied by a printing
press, several laboratories, depositories, and other
objects of indispensable service. The lodgings of the
director and the intendant will be formed in a part of
the major floor, and the disposition (of the plan) need
not be concerned with the symmetry of the exterior
decoration or the ease of movement (commodité)
within the building. Students will take up a single level
in the main floor and might expect individual lodgings
in the mezzanine.”19
Helen Rosenau, presenting the first and second
place winners of the same 1779 competition, Gisors
(pupil of Boulée) and Lannoy (pupil of Antoine),
respectively, also confirms the comprehensive
architectural program consisted of botanical garden
and a library, a cabinet for medals, rooms for housing
geographical exhibits and engravings, as well as halls
Fig. 7 Lannoy, Projects for a Museum, Second prize award
for the display of the arts and natural history.20 (Fig. 6) for the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture,
(Fig. 7) 1779 40

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The winning projects both represent typologically The whole of his museum project is produced by
hybridized form. We can recognize in them the ideal the regularity and symmetry imposed by the quincunx,
musaeum consisted of school, temple and library as pattern which Boullée recommended for the
unified program and typological crossover, regulation of the “immensity” of the scale to be fully
recognizing the Rotunda, the circular temple developed as an overall effect in temples.21 (Fig. 8)
associated with the Temple of the Muses, the cross, as He used colonnades as an ingenious technique to
a kind of rudimentary panoptical device and the ring achieve this effect of succession in a way to fully
associated with the palaestra that can be multiplied develop the overall effect of immensity. He even
several times providing variable and greater capacity emphasized the “scale” by lowering the entrance level
for realization of the ambitious scholarly programme and providing gradient ascent towards the centre of
of the Academies and the Library. the quincunx or where the Temple of Fame was
We cannot skip the possible and probable link of positioned. In his “Reflections on Architecture in
these winning projects to Boullée’s passionate Particular” Boullée praises the interior vaulting of a
preferences towards the architecture that can stay dome that architecture has prepared for painting and
innocent of utility, for which monuments of public sculpture to bring out all their beauty.
gratitude, the architectural group museums belong to, The effect of the immensity and the effect of the
are especially illustrative. Boullée’s theory and his perfect rendering of light within the dome created this
greatest strivings from the “Architecture, Essay on Art,” museum’s character of the sublime. (Fig. 9)
are maybe best exemplified through his own “Project
for a Museum at the Center of Which is a Temple of
Fame Containing the Statues of Great Man” from 1783.

Fig. 9 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum,

Fig. 8 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum, 178334 Interior view, looking toward the Temple to Fame, 178334

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КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

C. Durand and the Birth of the Art Museum as This is quite a dramatic conceptual shift in this
Functionally Determined “Modernist” Type chronological juxtaposition of French (proto)
In 1802, in Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s “Précis des museums. The museum conceptualized ideally for two
leçons d'architecture” (Lectures on Architecture), centuries as a laboratory and repository of all the
among various functional types, there was also a world knowledge after the single model of Antiquity
museum project that was specialized in exhibiting art was here transformed in a building that exhibited
with repositories intended for separate exhibition of adequate amount of related material items properly
painting, sculpture and architecture and enriched only collected and maintained.
with artists’ studios. So, somewhere in-between 1783 and 1802, the art
museum as programmatically understood today was
born. This conceptual shift was surely not an
overnight phenomenon. The continual attacks over the
eternal classical principles were continually
rationalizing the architectural thought and Durand’s
functionalist museum scheme can be read as their
logical and expected end-product. The broader
process of modernization of thought embedded the
phenomenon of industrialization leading towards
single-functional edifices, incorporated in the values of
the new École Polytechnique after 1794.

IV. CONCLUSION

This study deconstructs the idea of the art museum

as unique visual media and forms an original
Fig. 10 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Project for a Museum, inventory of museum prototypes as juxtaposed to
180229 their conceptual origins.
The condensed demonstration of the otherwise
Durand’s museum composition is consisted of much longer and steeper path of the successive
separate elements (galleries) dedicated to separate transformations of architectural thought in the French
groups of art works: architecture, painting and architectural theory from the 17th century peak of the
sculpture. Durand explained the museum as a building classical revival through diverse departures of its
in which the connection and maintenance of the normative doctrines, introduced the socio-political
functional links between these elements and the and culturally complex processes the new qualitative
treasury is basic motive for its existence.22 (Fig. 10) categories were developed in, forming the

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architectural autonomous system that would [7] From Boullѐe, Considerations (1968: 40) Ibid: 159
[8] École des Beaux – Arts was founded in 1648 by Charles Le
eventually be embedded into the Modern movement
Brun as the Académie de peinture et de sculpture (the famed
of the 20th century. The development of this French Academy). In 1793, the institutes were suppressed.
architectural theory system and its categories is However, in 1816, the name was changed when it merged
significant when juxtaposed to the process of with the Académie d'architecture.
[9] École Polytechnique was established in 1794 by the
inventing of the museum as an architectural type
mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French
because it illustrates how every hesitation and change Revolution and became a military academy under Napoleon
of direction of architectural thought were reflected in I in 1804.
the evolution of this single architectural type by [10] Louis – Ambroise Dubut won the Grand Prix competition in
1797 with a design for a public granary.
changing the map of references that informed its
[11] Choisy’s view of the history of architecture reduces it to its
conceptual creation. This doesn’t prove the logical structures. He sees stylistic features as merely
architectural theory to be the ultimate frame of expression of the new materials and methods of construction
reference, but it allows us to peek into its dynamic of the new age, mostly of the iron. His device that a new spirit
demands a new formal language is considered to be the light-
nature and the ways the architectural thought is never
motif of L’Esprit Nouveau, the journal edited by Le Corbusier
firmly established but constantly in the state of and Ozenfant. Ibid: 287
becoming in the wider cultural field. Understanding [12] For the full list of academic attempts to recover Musaeum’s
architectural theory as a field of continually changing history read in: P.Y. Lee, "The Musaeum of Alexandria and the
Formation of the Museum in Eighteenth-Century France," in
frames of references allows us to believe that it holds
The Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 79, no. 3 (1997):
the power not just historically to acknowledge the 391.
emergence of new architectural types as shown in the [13] Demetrious of Phaleron, a student of Theophrastus, the
example of the birth of art museum as “modernist” successor to Aristotle in his school in Athens, was in charge in
the Ptolemy’s book buying programme. It is the only factual
type in the 19th century, but also to anticipate possible
connection to Aristotle’s School mentioned in numerous
new types of our century. written sources on the theme. In Strabo’s description of
Alexandria, the Musaeum is mentioned briefly. His description
ENDNOTES contains the common elements of Greek Palaestra type
although assuming a kind of palatial structure.
A. Erskine, "Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The
[1] (H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128) Museum and Library of Alexandria," in Greece & Rome,
[2] (Hautecoeur. according to H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128) Second Series (Cambridge University Press on behalf of The
[3] In 1671 Colbert announced a competition with a prize of Classical Association) 42, no. 1 (April 1995): 40. (P.Y. Lee,
3.000 livres for the design of a “French” order, which ended 1997: 391)
unsuccessfully. Ibid: 129 IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer- Reviewed
[4] Both Francois Blondel (1617-86) and Claude Perrault (1613- Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/academy/
88) were appointed professors at the Acadèmie. [14] (P.Y. Lee, 1998: 419)
[5] Ibid: 138 [15] Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by
[6] It was Emil Kaufmann who “discovered” it and named it Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University Press, 1914: 159-
“revolutionary architecture” in the 1920s, revealing first the 162.
writings of Ledoux and than of Boullѐe. Ibid: 158

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 КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

[16] This existence of the Aristotle’s Lyceum and its physical and [29] E. Kaufmann, Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullée, Ledoux,
programmatic structure is confirmed by the excavations in Lequeu, The American Philosophical Society, 1952.
Athens from 1996. [30] E. Kaufmann, “Étienne-Louis Boullée,” in The Art Bulletin,
IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer- Vol.21,No.3, 1993: 213-227.
Reviewed Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/ [31] H. V. Kruft, A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to
lyceum/ the Present, London: Zwemmer, 1994.
[17] F.C. Robb, "Aristotle and Education," in Peabody Journal of [32] K.N. Ledu, Arhitektura iz ugla umetnosti, običaja i
Education (Taylor&Francis) 20, no. 4 (January 1943): 209- zakonodavstva, Prevod Verka Jovanović, Beograd, Srbija:
210. Građevinska knjiga, 2002.
[18] (Young Lee, 1997: 392) [33] P.Y.Lee, "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Boullée's "Atlas"
[19] (Roseau, 1960: 23) Facade for the Bibliotheque du Roi," In Journal of the Society of
[20] A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points Architectural Historians (University of California Press on
arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians) 57, no. 4
rectangle and a fifth at its center. (December 1998): 401-431.
[21] Diran, Pregled predavanja (Précis des leçons d'architecture), [34] P.Y.Lee, "The Musaeum of Alexandria and the Formation of
edited by Stana Shehalich, Gradzevinska knjiga, 2005: 178. the Museum in Eighteenth-Century France," in The Art
Bulletin (College Art Association) 79, no. 3 (1997): 385-412.
[35] H.F. Mallgrave, Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical
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