4.

SURFACE PROCESSES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Sedimentology is the study of sediments and sedimentary rocks. Sediments are the
accumulations of detrital (loose) material derived from the decomposition and
weathering of rocks exposed at the earth's surface. The detrital material, which
consists of fragments of rocks and minerals and other products of weathering, is
transported by the agents of erosion (viz. wind, water, gravity, glaciers) from
topographically high lying regions to lower lying regions (sedimentary basins) where it
accumulates in sequences of layers (beds) called sedimentary successions. The
term geomorphology refers to the shape of the earth's surface, which is controlled by
tectonism (see next chapter) and the processes of erosion and deposition.

Sediments become hardened by processes, which are collectively called lithification or

diagenesis to form a sedimentary rock.

This chapter deals with the processes of weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification, as
well as the description and classification of sedimentary rocks.

4.2 WEATHERING AND SOILS

Weathering is the process by which rocks decompose. Rocks aquire their form during
their genesis; be it by igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary processes. The minerals,
which constitute a rock, were in chemical equilibrium at the time of he rock's formation.
This chemical equilibrium is destroyed when the rocks are exposed to surface
conditions where the chemical, pressure and temperature conditions are different from
those in which they were formed, and so they undergo slow chemical alteration. An
analogy to weathering is the rusting of iron when it is exposed to the weather.

The chemical reactions involved in the alteration of the minerals include the following:
Hydrolysis: Elements within the atomic lattices of minerals may be replaced by the
nucleii of hydrogen atoms (H+). The source of the H+ ions is acid within rainwater . The
acid is generated by the reaction of CO2 in the atmosphere with falling rain water:

H2O + CO2 = H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3-

An example of a hydrolysis reaction from nature is the breakdown of feldspar to form

kaolinite clay:

4KAlSi3O8 + 4H+ + 2H2O = 4K+ + Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8SiO2

Feldspar + hydrogen ions + water = potassium ions + kaolinite + silica

The kaolinitic clay that is produced is stable under surface conditions. The potassium
ions are dissolved and removed by groundwater.

Leaching: The dissolution of elements by water from rock or loose material results in
its subsequent accumulation in the groundwater. An example of leaching is the
dissolution of potassium ions and silica generated by the hydrolysis of feldspar.

Oxidation and hydration: Some elements can occur in nature in more than one possible
oxidation state. For example, iron can occur in its ferrous state (Fe++) or in its ferric state
(Fe+++). Ferrous iron occurs frequently in the common rock forming minerals, but is
unstable under atmospheric condition. Therefore, when Fe++ is released from the
mineral crystal lattice during weathering, it is rapidly converted to Fe+++ by reaction with
oxygen and water to produce the mineral goethite:

4FeO + 2H2O + O2 = 4FeO.OH

iron oxide + water + oxygen = geothite

Geothite can be dehydrated to form the mineral haematite:

2FeO.OH = Fe2O3 + H2O

geothite = haematite + water .

Weathering begins on the exposed surfaces of rocks, so it forms a rind of wearthered

products which coat the rock. Therefore, the external appearance of a rock is altered by
weathering and it is often necesary to break a rock open in order to identify it. Volume
changes caused by the formation of new, clay, minerals during weathering cause a
build up of stress in the plane of the rock's surface which may peel off. This process is
called exfoliation.

Physical processes operating at surface level assist the chemical decomposition of the
minerals and rocks by breaking the rocks into smaller fragments. These are called
mechanical weathering agents and include the action of running water, gravity, glacial
movement, expansion and contraction associated with heating and cooling as well as
freezing and thawing, growth of plant roots, burrowing action of animals, and farming
and civil engineering efforts of man. Mechanical weathering increases the exposed
surface area of the rocks which facilitates faster chemical reaction. Moreover, the
presence of cracks and joints in solid rocks accelerates weathering at depth. Where
block-like joint patterns occur, weathering takes place on all sides of the jiont bounded
blocks. This leads to the formation of subspherical boulders of fresh rock surrounded by
a rind of weathered material. This pattern of weathering is called spheroidal
weathering.

Ultimately, the rocks near the surface weather to form a zone or layer of loose
weathered material called regolith or soil. Soil consists of the products of weathering
which include the clay minerals and hydroxide minerals such as kaolinite and geothite
respectively; as well as minerals which survive the weathering process.

Certain minerals are resistant to weathering. These include quartz, ilmenite, garnet,
rutile, monazite, ziron, gold and diamonds. Quartz is by far the most important of these
in terms of abundance. The resistance of the other abundant rock-forming minerals can
be related to Bowen's reaction series which lists the minerals in terms of their
temperatures of crystallsation from a magma. However, the melting temperatures are
related to the atomic structures and bonding within the minerals. Minerals with high
melting temperatures are ionic in natures and thus susceptible to acid hydrolysis,
whereas minerals with lower melting temperatures are more covalent in character and
thus more resistant to weathering. Therefore, Bowen's reaction is a good indicator of the
weathering resistance of a mineral.
Stability of minerals:
olivine --- very unstable
pyroxene
amphibole
muscovite --- moderately stable
microcline
quartz
Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides --- very stable

During weathering and transportation the less stable minerals are chemically altered to
produce more stable compounds and the softer and more friable minerals physically
abraded and become concentrated in the fine grained fraction. Hence the mineral
composition of a sediment reflects the processes involved in the formation of the
sediment.

Quartz Hard (7.0) resilient low density (2.65)

Microcline Hard (6.0-6.5) resilient low density (2.56-2.63)
Muscovite Soft (2.5-3.0) friable low density (2.76-3.00)
Ilmenite Hard (5.0-6.0) resilient high density (4.50-5.00)

The nature of a soil is determined by:

The character of the parent rock: Rocks rich in the mafic minerals of high melting
temperatures weather rapidly to form soils with a high percentage of smectitic clays.
Feldspar rich rocks such as granite weather to form soils rich in kaolinitic clay. Quartz -
rich rocks such as quartz-arenites and quartzites produce sandy soils. Deep joint patterns
and cracks in the rocks will promote spheroidal weathering at depth, and result in deep
soils. Unjointed shale will produce shallow soils.
The climate: Weathering rates are faster in hot , wet climates. Therefore, soils in tropical
regions tend to be deeper than those in arid or cold regions.
The topography: Erosion on steep slopes ensures that soils remain shallow.

With progressive weathering from the surface downwards, the degree to which the rock
is weathered increases downwards and so, the soils develop successive layers of
weathering zones called soil horizons. The topmost layer which consists of well
developed clay-rich soil and organic material from plant growth, is called the A-horizon.
The B-horizon, which underlies the A horizon, also consists of clay - rich soil material
but does not have the organic material. The B-horizon grades downwards into a zone of
partly weathered rock material called the C-horizon, which, in turn, is underlain by solid
bed-rock, the D-horizon. The composition and relative ticknesses of the different
horizons vary from soil to soil depending on the factors which affect weathering,
namely; parent rock, climate, and topography.

A section through a soil which shows the different horizons is called a soil profile (Fig.
48). The relative sizes of the horizons vary from soil type to soil type and soils are
classified according their profiles.

Fig. 48: A schematic diagram of a typical soil profile.

4.2.1 SOIL PROFILES

Soil profiles can be seen in excavations, gulleys etc. The exposures should be fresh.
Trial holes should also be used. Their distribution should cover all possible variations
within the site area. 0.6 to 1m in diameter auger holes are required. The depth of stress
influence of a structure is 1.5 times the plan dimension. The soils should be studied
down to this depth. Smaller diameter holes providing undisturbed cores can also be
used.

Definition: A soil profile is a vertical section through the soil. It records the top and
bottom of each significant horizon in the soil. The engineering properties of a horizon
are considered to be homogeneous and uniform laterally. Horizons are described
carefully in terms of a number of properties, which have engineering significance.
These properties are as follows:

MOISTURE CONTENT

Five finger classification: dry, slightly moist, moist, very moist, wet.
Soil behaviour under conditions of full saturation are usually determined.
The engineering behaviour of a soil changes when it is under the load of a building.
Fissure joints will be closed for example.

COLOUR

Colour is important for the recognition of the same layer in other holes. Colour can
change with moisture content so comparison must be done under the same conditions.
A slurry is made by wetting a sample on the palm of the hand and comparing the colour
with a colour chart. Other features, which may be destroyed by the slurry, include
mottling and blotching.

Colour is also an indicator of chemical and mineralogical processes associated with iron
compounds.

CONSISTENCY

Consistency is the hardness or denseness of the soil. There are five categories:
Cohesive soils:
Very soft very pliable
soft can be moulded easily with fingers
firm difficult to mould
stiff can only be dented by fingers
very stiff. Cannot be dented by fingers

Cohesionless soils:
very loose Can be penetrated by finger
loose Can be penetrated by pencil
medium dense Difficult penetration
dense No penetration
very dense. Pencil may break

Consistency is related to the resistance to digging (shear strength). A stiff soil will settle
less than a soft one.

There is a relationship between the unconfined compressive strength of a soil and its
consistency.

STRUCTURE
This referes to the presence or absence of joints and other discontinuities. Descriptors
include:
 Intact: no joints
 Fissured: closed joints
 Slickensided: polished joint surfaces implying past movement along joints
 Shattered: open, air-filled joints, soil breaks away in blocks.
 Micro-shattered: soil breaks away in crumbs of sand or fine gravel size.

Other terms include: laminated, bedded, interbedded, foliated, etc.

A soil with joins will no resist tension. Water can enter easilty along open fissures of a
shattered soil, which can “blow off” the side of an excavation. Shattered soils fail on
slopes like cohesionless materials with plane failure rather than slip surfaces.
Stiff shattered clay indicates drying out and may be a heaving soil.

SOIL TEXTURE

This based on grain size: gravel, sand, silt, clay.

The sizes are as follows:
 Gravel > 2mm
 Sand 0.06 – 2mm
 Silt 0.002 - 0.06
 Clay <0.002

An alternative scale for particle size classification is the logarithmic Wentworth Scale.
The size is specified by a dimensionless number (phi, ) which is related to the particle
diameter by:

 = -log2D or  = -(lnD/ln2) Where: D = particle diameter in mm.

Grain size affects the drainage characteristics of a soil. Gravels drain freely, clays are
more or less impermeable. This affects the transmission of stress from pore water
pressure to inter-granular forces and thence the shear strength of the soil. Shear in
gravel is controlled mostly by the overlying load whereas recently applied loads have no
effect on the shear strength of clays.

Most soils are a mixture of grain sizes. This means that intermediate behaviour can be
expected. This required judgements by the engineer.

The undrained behaviour is usually used except for stiff fissured clay which are weaker
when dry. Undrained strengths are normally covered by the consistency category.
ORIGIN OF THE SOIL IN EACH HORIZON

There are five genetic categories that can be found in the soil:

Rock, weathered rock, residual soil, transported soil, pedocrete.

Rock has an unconfined compressive strength of >700kPa.
Weathered rock has been altered but still has an unconfined compressive strength of
>700kPa.
Residual soil is a saprolite formed in situ which has a softness that corresponds to an
unconfined compressive strength of < 700kPa.
Transported soil is unlithified sedimentary material.
Pedocrete is partially cemented or replaced by iron hydroxide (laterite and ferricrete),
calcium carbonate (calcrete) or silica (silcrete). These are hard materials (hard pan) and
may have unconfined copmressive strengths in the rock range.

Rocks, weathered rocks and residual soils are described in terms of the stratigraphy
and parent lithology. Some residual soils and their engineering problems are listed in
the table below:

Residual soil Common example Soil texture Problems to

category anticipate
Residual felsic Residual granite Clayey sand Collapsable grain
igneous rock structure, high
erodibility
Residual mafic Residual dolerite Clay Heave
igneous rock compressibility
Residual calcareous Residual dolomite Chert rubble Sinkholes
rock
Residual argillaceous Residual shale Silt/silty caly Heave, slope stability
rock
Residual arenaceous Residual sandstone Sand Feldspar rich sands
rock have collapsible
grain structure.

Transported soils may overly unweathered rock or residual soils. The contact is
normally marked by a gravel layer called the pebble marker.
The origin of a transported soil is an indicator of engineering characteristics. The origin
of a transported soil can be determined form grain composition and textures. For
example, rounded gravel and sand sized grains indicates transportation by flowing
water. Other clues as to the origin of transported soils can be derived from the local
landforms. Here aerial photographs can be useful. The presence of floodplains, river
terraces, talus on hill slopes, lake- deposits, etc. can all help in identifying the agent of
transportation. Some transported soils and their engineering problems are listed in the
following Table:

Origin of Transport source Problems to

transported agent Soil type anticipate
soil
Talus (coarse gravity Any type of rock Unsorted Slope instability
colluvium) cropping at a angular gravel
higher level and boulders
Hill wash (fine sheetwash Flesic igneous Clayey sand, Collapsible grain
colluvium) rocks structure
Heave
Mafic igneous Clay
rocks Collapsible grain
Sandstone Sand structure

Shale or clay or silt Heave or high

mudstone compressibility
sedimentary
rocks
Gulleywash Gulleywash Local catchment Gravels, sands, All possible
silts or clays problems
Lake deposits stream Mixed sources Sand, silt, clay Compressibility,
heave, or high
compressibility
Estarie deposit Rivers, tides Mixed sources Sand, silt, clay Quicksand, high
sensitivity,
compressibility
Aeolian deposits wind Mixed sources sand Collapsible grain
structure,
compressibility
Beach deposits Waves Mixed sources Beach sand Collapsible grain
structure
Biotic soils termites Underlying soil Clayey or silty Collapsible grain
sand structure
Alluvium streams All materials Gravel, sand, Clays commonly
within silt, clay heaving
catchment
Slide debris Mass wasting Upslope rock Mixture of poorly Slope instability,
and soil sorted debris high permeability
PROFILE DATA PRESENTATION

All soils are described in terms of the six descriptors above.

Horizons are depicted graphically using standard symbols for ease of comparison
between different profiles at the same site.
In addition, the following must also be recorded
 Depth of water table
 Position of soil samples taken
 Material at the bottom of the hole and reasons for stopping at that depth.
 Any special features

Soil profiles are compared to the results of tests which determine factors such as heave,
compressibiliy, load bearing capacity, etc.

4.2.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soils are grouped into soil forms based on the sequence and kind of horizons. There
are 41 such soil forms in South Africa. The soil forms are subdivided into series based
on clay content, size grading, leaching, and colour.

An older classification provided by du Toit places all soils into one of eight groups:
Group Occurrence Description
Allluvium Along important rivers Sand, clay, silt
Aeolian sandy soil 40% of the western part of South Light in colour near the coast but
Africa reddish inland due to Fe2O3
staining.
Sedentary sandy soil Overlies sandstones of the Light in colour, contains much
Waterberg and Table Mountain quartz and a little clay
Groups, Dolomites and Archaean
granites
Dry steppe soil Overlies Karoo Supergroup rocks Brownish grey becoming browner
northwards and eastwards. Contains
some monmorillonite
Brown soil Overlies shales Medium loam soil with low water
absorption
Black cotton soil Overlies mafic igneous rocks such Heavey clay soil (60%clay).
as the Bushveld Complex and Seasonal expansion and contraction.
Lebombo Group.
Red loam Overlies dolerites and norites in 45% clay but is reasonably
humid areas (eastern part of the permeable
country)
Lateritic soils Red laterite in high rainfall areas of Contains much iron and aluminium
Natal. Yellow laterite in other high hydroxides.
rainfall areas in the eastern part of
the country.
4.3 GROUNDWATER

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

Groundwater is all the water contained in openings beneath the surface, both in the soil
and rocks. It accounts for 1% of the total water on earth. Ground water originates from
rain which has soaked into the ground. Since much of the rainfall ends up as runoff, it
takes many years to build up groundwater reserves. The volume of ground water
decreases with increasing depth into the crust because of the overlying pressures
which keep opening to a minimum.

4.3.2 POROSITY

Porosity is the volume of open spaces within a soil or rock, expressed as a percentage.
Porosity = (Vop / Vt)100

Where: Vop = Volume of open spaces (m3)

Vt = Total volume of rock (m3)

Porosity may range from nil to 50%. The factors that affect porosity include (Fig.49):

The size of the grains in the soil / rock

The range of grain sizes in the soil / rock
The shapes of the grains in the soil / rock
The presence of cementing material between the grains within the soil / rock

4.3.3 Permeability

The permeability of soil or rock is a measure of the rate at which water can flow through
it. Factors which affect the permeability of rocks or soils include:

The pore size. The ionic attraction of molecules is affected by pore size which, in turn,
affects the flow rates. The smaller the pore spaces the slower the flow.
Frictional resistance to the movement of water through the pores
The continuity of pores.
Flow rates tend to be very slow, in the order of centimeters per year.

Fig. 49: The percentage open spaces between the particles depends on the range
of grain sizes and on the presence of cementing material.

4.5.4 AQUIFERS

An aquifer is a body of highly permeable rock / soil. The permeability may be a result of
the porosity of the material, or the presence of connected cracks and openings (called
fissures) within solid rock.

Rock which are impermeable are referred to as aquiludes. An aquifer which is

sandwiched between two aquiludes is called a confined aquifer, and an aquifer which
is exposed to the surface is an unconfined aquifer.

Fig. 50: Diagram of an aquifer confined between two aquiludes. The hydrostatic
water pressure within the aquifer causes water to rise up in a bore-hole.
An artesian well arises where the topographic level is below the
hydrostatic water pressure level.
4.3.4 Water table

4.3.4.1 Aerated zone

The zone of aeration is the moist upper portion of the soil and loose material in which
the open spaces are filled mainly with air.

4.3.4.2 Saturated zone

In the saturated zone which underlies the zone of aeration, the open spaces are all
filled with water. The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table.
In humid areas, the water table imitates the topographic surface in shape, whereas in
arid areas it is flat.

Fig. 51: The level of the water table follows the shape of the topography, but this is
affected by the presence of impervious material on top of which a perched
water table may develop.

The level of the water table depends on the rainfall. During dry months the level may
drop. Therefore, there is a wet season water table and a dry season water table.

The presence of aquiludes can affect the level of a water table. For example, a lense of
impermeable material within an aquifer may result in a localised perched water table.
4.3.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW

4.3.5.1 Water flow in the aerated zone

The low permeability of clay rich soils results in rain water being trapped in the A and B
horizons of soils. The regolith of the C horizon is more permeable and the

water moves down through this zone to the water table. The C and D horizons may be
dry between rainfalls.

4.3.5.2 Water flow in the saturated zone

Groundwater flows by perculation through connected openings within the soil / rock in
an effort to maintain a flat water table. This means that groundwater flows from areas
where the water table is high to areas where it is relatively lower. The speed of the flow
is related to the difference in height between the areas where the water table is high
and those where it is low. This height difference can be envisaged as a slope which is
called the hydraulic gradient, to which the flow rate is proportional, i.e.:

V  (h1 – h2)/l

Where: V = flow rate

h1 = elevation of highest point of water table
h2 = elevation of lowest point of water table
l = distance between points h1 and h2

Since the permeability of the soil / rock also affects the flow rate, the above equation
can be rewritten as follows:

V = K(h1 – h2)/l

Where K is the coefficient of permeability.

4.3.6 SPRINGS

A spring is a natural flow of groundwater onto the surface. It occurs when the water
table intersects the surface, and often this situation is caused by the presence of an
aquilude and a perched water table.

4.3.7 WATER BOREHOLES

A hole drilled deep enough into the ground so that it intersects the water table will fill up
with water up to the level of the water table. This water can then be pumped out onto
the surface for industrial, agricultural and domestic use (depending on the quality of the
water). In the case of an aquifer consisting of fissured solid rock, the borehole must
intersect a fissure or it will be dry.

4.3.7.1 Artesian wells

When the level of water in the borehole rises above the level of the water table it means
that the water is under hydrostatic pressure caused by the localised suppression of the
water table by an aquilude (Fig. 50). The level to which the water will rise within the
borehole will depend on the hydrostatic pressure and the level at which hydrostatic
equilibrium is achieved. If the topographic level is below that of the hydrostatic
equilibrium, the water will flow out onto the surface without having to be pumped. Such
a borehole is called an artesian well (Fig. 50).

4.3.7.2 Rate of discharge from a borehole

The discharge of water (i.e. the volume of water per unit time) from the aquifer into the
borehole is a function of the flow rate within the aquifer and the surface area of the
borehole within the saturated zone:

Q = AV
Where: Q = discharge; A = surface area; V = flow rate.
4.3.7.3 Groundwater depletion

Groundwater is the major source of water in arid regions. This water is aquired through
pumping from boreholes. Where the amount being pumped out exceeds the amount re-
entering the ground through rain seepage, the groundwater reserves become depleted
and the level of the water table drops. In regions where recharging is very slow, large
reserves have taken millions of years to form and, therefore, this groundwater should
be regarded as a non-renewable resource.

When the rate of water extraction through pumping exceeds that of the natural flow rate
within an aquifer, the water table is lowered locally in the viscinity of the borehole. A
new, steeper hydraulic gradient is created in the form of a cone around the borehole.
Such a borehole may run temporarily dry after much pumping, until the water table is
restored though natural percolation down the new hydraulic gradient. The increased
flow rates, which result from the steeper hydraulic gradient, may cause silting up of the
pores near the borehole which will reduce the discharge capacity of the borehole in the
long term. This may be rectified by blasting the bottom of the borehole with explosives
to open up new cracks through which the groundwater may flow towards the borehole.

The depletion of groundwater and lowering of the water table, both locally and
regionally, results in a reduction of pore-fluid pressure within the rock / soils in the
saturated zones. This enables compaction at depth, which manifests itself as land
subsidence at the surface. A special type of land subsidence is the formation of
sinkholes as a result of groundwater depletion in areas underlain by subterranean
caves.
4.3.8 GROUNDWATER QUALITY

Groundwater contains dissolved salts which is why it is sometimes referred to as

"mineral water". The salts consist mainly of Fe, Mg, Ca, K, and Na, in the form of
chlorides, sulfates and bicarbonates; e.g. NaCl, KCl, NaHCO3 , FeSO4. The elements
originate from the rocks / soils with which the groundwater was in contact. Therefore,
the composition of groundwater varies from place to place.

The suitability of ground water depends on its composition and intended use.
Groundwater rich in dissolved H2S may not be drinkable because of its smell, but is
perfect for therapeutic bathing. Salt-rich groundwater has a deleterious effect on the
structure of soils and should not be used for irrigation purposes.

Groundwater quality is also affected by pollution. Sewage from septic tanks and broken
pipes, which seeps into the ground, may contaminate groundwater (Fig. 52). Where the
groundwater occurs in fissures, it will remain contaminated. However, where
groundwater flows through porous sands, it is filtered and purified naturally. Other
sources of contamination include toxic wastes (hazardous chemicals and radioactive
waste) from rubbish dumps and landfills. In these situations, the toxic material is
leached from the dump by rainwater, which then seeps into the ground and
contaminates the groundwater. Therefore, rubbish dumps should be located on
impermeable ground, which is void of cracks, joints and faults, and preferably sealed.
Fig. 52: Pollution and filtering of ground water.

4.3.9 KARSTOPOGRAPHY

Limestone and dolomite are calcareous rocks, i.e. they consist of carbonate minerals,
namely, calcite and dolomite respectively. We have seen earlier that rainwater reacts
with CO2 in the atmosphere to produce a weak carbonic acid. The carbonate minerals
are soluble in this acid. Thus, the rock can be dissolved. The landscape becomes pitted
and large depressions may form (called dolines). Such a surface is call Karst
topography. The acidic water penetrates the rock mass via the joints. With time these
joints are enlarged and cavities are formed at joint intersections. Underground caves
are formed in this way. Precipitation of aragonite (a polymorph of calcium carbonate)
may take place in the caves where the saturated carbonic solution is exposed to the air
in the cave. Continual precipitation at specific points on the cave roof at joint
intersections, produces stalactites and stalagmites. When the distance between the
cave roof and top surface is small, the roof may collapse into the cave producing a
sinkhole.

The underground cavities, fissures and caves are most often filled with water. This can
be high quality, clear, but hard water. It supports the roof of cavities by its hydrostatic
pressure. Over exploitation of this ground water resource can result in the lowering of
the hydrostatic pressure causing sinkholes to develop. Dolomites, and consequently
Karst topography, underlie large areas in the Northern Cape, North West and
Mpumalanga Provinces. Gold mining in the North West penetrated water filled cavities
in the dolomites. Continuous pumping out of the water pouring into the mine from the
dolomite resulted in the formation of sinkholes in the Carletonville area.

4.4 EROSION AND DEPOSITION

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Erosion is the removal and transportation of the products of weathering by wind, water
(rivers, sea currents), gravity (down-slope movement), and glaciers (frozen rivers in
arctic climates). These agents of erosion are able to transport solid particles as well as
dissolved elements because of their kinetic energy. The higher the energy, the larger
the fragments that can be transported. For example, a fast flowing river can carry larger
fragments of rock downstream than a small, slowly trickling brook. In the case of gravity
as an agent of erosion, it is the gravitational potential energy contained in the rock/soil
mass in unstable, steep slopes which provides the fuel for down-slope movement.

Deposition occurs when the kinetic energy of the agent of erosion decreases (i.e. when
the water stops flowing) or when the gravitational potential energy is removed (i.e. when
the mass reaches the bottom of the slope).

During erosion, weathering continues to take place both by mechanical abrasion of the
particles being transported and by chemical decomposition. In fact, the rate of
weathering is greatly accelerated in the high energy environment of the transportation
agent.

Since the energy required to move material is directly related to the mass of the
fragment, transportation tends to sort material out according to particle size and density.
Large sized (coarse-grained) and dense material require more energy to transport it
than fine-grained or low density material. The coarse-grained and dense material is
therefore deposited in a higher energy environment than the fine-grained or low density
material. i.e. a fast flowing river caries bigger fragments than a slowly flowing one.
Therefore, the particles which accumulate in the river bed will be larger in a fast flowing
river.
Not all agents of erosion are efficient at sorting sediments out according to size and
density:

Transportation by gravity (landslide) and ice (glaciers) is very inefficient at sorting.

Transportation by water (rivers or sea currents) is moderately efficient at sorting.
Transportation by air (wind) is very efficient at sorting.

4.4.2 MASS MOVEMENTS UNDER GRAVITY

4.4.2.1 TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS

The term mass wasting refers to the down-slope movement of rocks and soils. Mass
wasting can be subdivided in terms of slow and rapid movement. Slow mass movement
is called soil creep in which soil moves slowly downhill resulting in tilted fence posts,
bends in tree trunks, and also in terminal curvature of strata. Rapid mass movements
involve the sudden displacement of material, which can be catastrophic. Rapid mass
movement can involve the movement of a relatively undeformed chunk of material along
a single (or multiple) surface(s), called a slide; or a continuously deforming mass called
a flow.

A flow involves the down-slope movement of wet loose material and it resembles a
viscous fluid. When the material is fine grained, it is called a mudflow, but if it
comprises all different grain sizes, from boulders to mud, the resulting flow is called a
debrisflow. Dry, loose material can also flow down-slope. Most aggregates of dry,
loose, coarse particles remain stable at slope angles of 34 to 37.

A slide can occur either in a rock slope (called rock slides), where it glides along a
distinct plane in the rocks (e.g. bedding plane, fault plane, joints); or in soil slopes
(called slumps), where the mass moves along a curved plane which forms only when
the mass wasting occurs.
4.4.2.2 SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

4.4.2.2.1 Effect of gravity

The effect of gravity on particles lying on slopes of different inclinations is shown in Fig.
54. When the component of gravitational force tangential to the slip plane is greater
than that which is normal to the slip plane, the slope becomes unstable (Fig. 54).

Fig. 54:
The relationship between slope inclination and slope stability.

The force downwards is equal to the weight of the overlying material:

i.e. F=W=mg
where: F = force
W = weight
m = mass of material
a = acceleration due to gravity
Fig. 53: Diagram showing the difference between a rock fall, a rock slide, a soil
slump and a debris flow.
The component of force acting parallel to the slope (Ft) is:

Ft = Wsin where:  = inclination of the slope

The total downward gravitational force is Ft, but additional driving forces (Fext) may be
present. For example, joints between blocks of rock on a slope may be filled with water,
which expands on heating or freezing producing a layer parallel force. Therefore, the
total downward driving force is:

DF = Ft + Fext

4.4.2.2.2 Shear strength

The shear strength of the material prevents downslope movement. The shear strength
is given by Coulomb's equation:

S = CA + Wcostan Where: S = shear strength

C= cohesion between particles
 = internal angle of friction
A = surface area
W = weight of the material
 = Angle of inclination of the surface

The pressure exerted by the fluid in the openings within the material counteracts the
overlying weight. Where the openings are completely filled with fluid, the pore fluid
pressure is equal and opposite to that of the overlying weight.

Cohesion is the electrostatic force keeping very fined grained particles, such as clay,
together. Coarser grained material, such as sand, is non-cohesive. However, damp
sand is characterised by an apparent cohesion, which arises from the surface tension
of the films of water coating the grains. This apparent cohesion disappears when the
sand dries out or when it is soaked.
4.4.2.2.3 Stability of rock slopes

The stability of rock slopes is a function of the geological structure and the lithological
characteristics of the rocks at the site. Failure may occur along well-defined planes such
as bedding planes, cleavage planes, fault planes, joints, or at the contact between an
aquifer and non-aquifer (Fig. 55). Slip may occur if such a plane is inclined steeply
towards the slope. The shear strength of the rock along the potential slip plane
counteracts the downward movement. The stability of a rock slope can be determined
from the following equation:

FoS = (SL)/Wsin Where: FoS = Factor of safety

S = Shear strength
L = Length of slip plane
W = Weight of overlying rocks
 = Angle of inclination of slip plane

Fig. 55: The mechanics of rock-slope failure.

4.4.2.2.4 Stability of soil slopes

Mass wasting of soil slopes is usually by slumping. The slip surface is curved and does
not following any pre-existing plane in the material. The forces are the same as those
involved in rock failure, except that there is a rotational component in the movement
which must also be considered. The moment resisting failure is equal to the shear
strength of the soil acting along the length of the curved slip surface. The slip surface
can be considered to be an arc of the failure circle.
The stability of a soil slope can be determined from the following equation:

FoS = (SLR)/(WD) Where: FoS = Factor of safety

S = Shear strength of soil
L = Length of arc
R = Radius of slip circle
W = Overlying weight
D = Distance between centre of slip
circle and centre of gravity of slump.

Fig. 56: The mechanics of soil slope failures.

4.4.2.2.5 Effect of water on slope stability

Most landslides occur after heavy rainfall. Slope stability measures must include
drainage control because water has the following effects:

 Increased pore fluid pressure reduces the shear strength.

 Water reduces cohesion between clay particles because it interferes with the electrostatic
forces between particles.
 Water saturation reduces water tension at air - water interfaces which provides apparent
cohesion in sands.
 Water saturation increases the overlying weight thus reducing the factor of safety.
 Running water can erode the toe of a slope thus steepening it.
4.4.3 FLUVIAL PROCESSES

4.4.3.1 Fluvial erosion

Moving water is the dominant factor in the transportation of residual deposits and the
denudation of the earth's surface. Rivers introduce 8000 million tons of material into the
sea every day.

The fluvial process is initiated by rainfall, which washes tons of soil to the foot of a
slope. In semi-arid regions such as South Africa, where rainfall is torrential, this is
mainly by sheet wash, i.e. when run-off is not confined to channels but moves down the
slope as a sheet many times wider than deep.

Because of irregularities in the ground surface, however, sheet wash is soon channeled
to produce minor channels, known as rills. These coalesce to produce master rills,
then streams, tributaries and finally rivers, so establishing a drainage system (Fig.
57).

Fig. 57: Four types of drainage patterns that can develop, depending on the
underlying rock strata.

Where the regolith is loose and unprotected by vegetation, i.e. in arid regions, even rills
erode deeply into the regolith producing deep gullies or dongas. Areas badly dissected
by such gully erosion are referred to, in America at least, as badlands.

4.4.3.2 Stream flow

The amount of water flowing down a river at any time is referred to as the discharge.
The discharge of a river is a function of the velocity of the flowing water and the cross
sectional area of the river. Therefore, by measuring the velocity of a stream at a place
where the cross sectional area is known the discharge can be calculated. Since the
cross sectional area of the flowing water changes as the level increases (increase in
river stage) the cross sectional shape of the channel and the stage of the river must be
known quantitatively.
The force moving a particle of water in a river is the component of gravity in the
direction of flow, and its magnitude increases with gradient. Opposite to this driving
force is the internal friction of the water, and especially the frictional resistance
exerted at the bed and walls of the channel. The latter is controlled by channel depth.

It is obvious, therefore, that the energy of a river increases with the gradient and
volume of water, and decreases with frictional resistance. On the bed of a river
there is a skin of motionless water, above which the water velocity increases steadily
upwards. In slow-moving streams the water particles above this motionless skin move
along straight paths parallel to the bed. This is known as laminar flow. In fast-flowing
streams flow is disturbed by irregularities in the channel floor which produce eddies
causing water particles to move in various directions. This is turbulent flow.

The speed of degradation (fluviatile erosion) varies along a river, and is controlled by:
 The amount of run-off, i.e. the water volume,
 The river gradient,
 The physical composition of the transported material, and
 The nature of the bedrock, it follows that degradation .

In the mountains close to the source, gradients are steep and degradation is the main
process. Lower down, in the region of open valleys and gorges, degradation alternates
with aggradation, i.e. the deposition of sediment. Along the lower reaches of a river,
where the river winds across a wide floodplain built of its own detritus, aggradation
dominates.
There is a limit below which a river cannot erode its base, known as base level. The
ultimate base level is sea level but temporary base levels are produced by lakes or
resistant strata crossing the course of a stream.

A graded profile is the idealized asymptotic profile a river seeks to achieve, with
gradients steepest near the source and shallowest at the sea (base line), but which it
never completely attains. A knickpoint is an inflexion in this profile, i.e. a local
steepening of gradient, produced by resistant strata and reflected in the occurrence of
waterfalls and rapids.

Changes in the rainfall in the catchment of a river will affect the discharge, which will
cause the graded profile to change. Sudden changes can have catastrophic effects in
the river basin as the river changes its course or erodes deeper. Other factors that can
put the graded profile out of equilibrium include changes in sea level and tectonic
events like the formation of a fault scarp. Man made structures that affect the graded
profile include channeling and dams. Channels may speed up the rate of discharge thus
causing the river to incise into its channel further upstream. The presence of a dam in
the profile causes the river to form a new base line at the dam, and a new profile
downstream from the dam. The development of urban areas within a catchment basin
results in larger discharge, which is compensated for by changes in stream width and
inclination.

The material transported by a river is referred to as its load. It consists of two main
parts, the chemical load which is carried in solution, and the mechanical load which is
transported in the solid state.

The chemical load consists of the soluble products of chemical weathering, such as
colloidal silica, iron and aluminium hydroxides, and carbonates, sulphates and chlorides
of Ca, Mg, Na and K.

The mechanical load is made up of two parts:

 The suspension load comprises the fine particles, which are prevented from
settling by the turbulence of the water. Since the force of gravity is also
involved, the grain size of the suspended load increases towards the riverbed.
 The bed load, which is made up of material, which is rolled, pushed or saltated
(moved in a series of short hops) along the river bed.
The capacity of a river is the total load that can be transported, and is largely
dependent on volume. The competency of a river is indicated by the maximum
diameter of grain that can be moved and increases exponentially with it. As a result,
doubling water velocity will increase a rivers competence by 50-60 times. Clearly,
therefore, floodwaters can perform immense geological work. Flooding is also a
serious natural hazard.

During transport the load of a river is affected by two processes, abrasion and sorting:
Abrasion is the frictional wearing down which occurs when a moving particle meets some
other surface, either the bed or sides of the channel or another grain. The amount of
abrasion depends upon the size and shape of the grain, its physical properties (hardness,
cleavage etc.), and the distance and manner of transport. The coarser the transported
material, the more rapid its abrasion. As a result, abrasion is greatest in the traction load.
Sorting is the process of achieving similar grain size within the load, and depends upon
the size, shape and specific gravity of the particles. In general there is a tendency for
smaller grains to overtake larger grains, light grains to overtake heavy grains, and irregular
grains to overtake spherical grains. As a result, there is a general tendency for the particle
size with the load to decrease downstream.

4.4.3.3 Fluvial deposition

Deposition of portions of the mechanical load of a river take place where the gradients
and hence water velocities slacken, and/or where the water volume decreases, and/or
where frictional forces opposing the movement of the water increase.

Deposition due to a sudden decrease in velocity occurs typically where a swift-flowing

mountain stream meets flatter ground at the foot of the mountain, i.e. at the piedmont.
This results in the aggradation of a fan-shaped body of sediment, known as an alluvial
fan (Fig. 58), which may be up to 260 km wide and commonly with a surface slope of
less than 1o. Large rivers tend to build large fans with low surface gradients, whereas
small rivers build smaller, steeper fans. However, in semi-arid regions, the water sinks
rapidly into the porous alluvium already deposited and hence the entire load is dumped
immediately, resulting in vertical aggradation and the formation of an alluvial cone with
a surface slope of up to 15o. At the foot of a mountain range, a series of alluvial fans
may coalesce to produce an alluvial plain or bajada.
Fig. 58: A picture of an alluvial fan.

Away from the mountains, rivers deposit sediment in the channels and over the
floodplain, i.e. the area inundated by floodwaters. Because velocities, frictional
resistance and water volumes fluctuate both seasonally and along the lengths of rivers,
deposition is constantly occurring, if only temporarily.

One of the main areas of sedimentation is in the slack water on the inside of bends.
Here gravel and sand accumulates to form point bars.

When a river floods, the sediment-laden waters escape from the channel and spread
out across the flood plain. The coarsest material is deposited closest to the channel
and may build up natural embankments known as levees. The levees are flanked by
backswamps in which the water scarcely moves and the suspension load is finally
deposited by gravitational settling. Repeated flooding leads to the accumulation of vast
thicknesses of alluvium (sediment deposited by rivers). Characteristically these
comprise alternations of mud and sand, often interspersed with thin peat deposits
formed by the decay of plant material in the backswamp environment.
Fig. 59: A section through the flood plain of a river.

4.4.3.4 Meandering Rivers

As a river approaches the sea, so its gradient lessens and it approaches base level.
Consequently, degradation becomes less important and most of the energy of the river
is spent in cutting laterally. The result is that while sedimentation occurs on the inner
curve of a bend, erosion occurs on the outside, resulting in an accentuation of the
curves of a river. Such high-sinuosity rivers are said to meander. As a result of
meandering, rivers move laterally across the floodplain, widening their valley and
increasing the width of the floodplain.

Not only is erosion greatest on the outer curve of a meander, but it is concentrated on
the downstream side of the meander. The result is that meanders not only move
laterally but also downstream. Where the loop of a meander becomes large, it is liable
to be cut-off at its neck, at times of flooding, to produce an ox-bow lake.

Fig. 60: Diagram showing some features of different types of river channels. The
dark portions indicate where the water is at its deepest.
4.4.3.5 Floods as a natural hazard

Floods are associated with a sudden, temporary increase in discharge, which cannot be
accommodated by the river channel. The water spills over the natural levees onto the
flood plain where it can inundate agricultural and urban development. The magnitude of
a flood is controlled by two groups of factors:
 Transient factors such as unusually high rainfall in the catchment area, and el niño.
 Permanent factors include changes in vegetation, topography and rock surfaces.
The magnitude of a flood can be predicted using the following formula:
Q = CIA
Where: Q = discharge
C = runoff coefficient
I = rainfall intensity (mm per hour)
A = basin area (hectares)

Typical values for the runoff coefficient (C) are:

C Land cover
0.1-0.3 Forest
0.1-0.4 Grass lands
0.3-0.6 Crops
0.5-0.8 Bare graound
0.5-0.9 Suburban land
0.5-0.95 Urban lands
0.9-0.99 lake, dam, etc.

From the above table it can be seen that runoff is markedly increased by urban
development of land. Therefore, the downstream implications of such development
must be considered in the planning stage.

The level (stage) which the water will reach during a flood can be predicted by studying
the river terraces on the flood plain.

Predicting the frequency of floods is just as important as the flood magnitude. It is only
possible to determine the probability of a flood occurring from historical flood data of the
specific river in question. The frequency is usually referred to in terms of the recurrence
interval (R.I.), which is the inverse of the probability (p):

I/p = R.I.
Therefore if a flood has a probability of 0.01 of ocurring in a single year, then its
recurrence interval is 100 years. The R.I can be determined from flood frequency data
by the following equation:

R.I. = (N=1)/M
Where: N = the number of years the record cover.
M = Magnitude rank.

Controlling flood damage can involve the use of channels, artificial levees, and weirs.
However, all of these put the river as a whole out of equilibrium with its graded profile
resulting is compensating changes up and down stream. The latter can have further
hazardous effects. A better approach is to avoid development on flood plains, or
development that cannot withstand periodic inundation.

4.4.3.6 Dam Siting

Dams are sited in areas where they are required for the provision of water, power and
recreation. However, detailed geological investigations should accompany dam siting.
The effects of a dam on the graded profile of a river have already been mentioned. The
resulting changes in river discharge and channel characteristics both upstream and
downstream can have devastating effects on the topography, ecology and human
activities.

Factors to be considered with regards the effectiveness and safety of the dam include:
 The lithology and geologial structure of the area. The type of rock on which the dam
wall is built is very important. Bedding planes, joints and fault plane can allow water
leakage below the dam wall. Unweathered, unjointed igneous rocks form good
foundations.
 The nature of the banks of the dam. As water fills the dam, so it penetrates into the
surrounding ground where it raises the water table. Increased saturation of soil
slopes and increased pore fluid pressure within planar discontinuities in rock
formation may result in the collapse of the banks of the dam. This in turn will cause a
displacement of a large amount of water, which will flow over the dam wall, maybe
breaking it, and flooding the areas downstream.
 The upstream profile, topography, surface cover and lithology of the river. These are
factors, which affect the discharge and amount of load carried by the river. This in
 turn determines the rate of sedimentation within the dam, i.e. the time it will take for
the dam to become silted up.
 The frequency and magnitude of floods in the river will determine the design of the
dam wall.

4.4.3.5 Deltas

Most of the load of rivers is carried to seas or lakes where, with a check in velocity due
to friction, it is deposited as a delta. However, deltas form only where the amount of
sediment entering the sea/lake exceeds the amount removed by current and wave
action.

The type of deltas that form are dependent upon the density contrast between the
river and sea/lake water. Where dense, sediment-laden river water enters clear, less-
dense lake water, the river continues flowing along the bottom of the lake as a
sediment-charged current and deposits most of its load on the lake bottom as a long,
thin, mostly subaqueous delta.

Where the sediment-laden river water and the water body it enters have approximately
the same density, the load is deposited as a broad fan around the river mouth, the
shape of which resembles the Greek symbol delta, whence these depositional features
get their names. These are the typical arcuate deltas as exemplified by the Nile. As
the river enters the sea, the coarsest sedimentary fraction, i.e. the traction load, is
deposited and builds a platform, which is a continuation of the floodplain. This level
subaerial surface of the delta is known as the delta plain. It is built by and extended by
the work of the branching distributaries running across it. The building outwards of
deltas into the sea is a process known as progradation.

As a delta progrades seawards, so the sloping delta front becomes more prominent
and it is here that the coarser fraction of the suspension load, i.e. the silt, is deposited.
The finest suspension load, i.e. the clay, is carried beyond the delta and finally settles
on the prodeltaic shelf.
While the sediments of the delta plain and the prodeltaic shelf are subhorizontal, those
of the delta front accumulate at an angle of anywhere between 1 - 35.

Where the river water is less dense than the water into which it flows, it continues to
flow over the surface of the water body. In such cases, deposition does not occur at the
river mouth, blocking the channel as in arcuate deltas, but rather at the sides of the
channel resulting in an extension of the levees seawards. The resulting delta has the
shape of a bird's foot and is referred to as a bird's-foot delta, the classic example of
which is the Mississippi delta.

Fig. 61: A schematic block diagram of a delta.

4.4.3.6 Lakes

Lakes are inland bodies of more or less fresh water of diverse origin. As already
mentioned, ox-bow lakes form by the cut-off of meanders, crater lakes fill extinct
volcanoes, and barrier lakes form by the blocking of a river by some obstacle, a lava
flow, an avalanche, a glacial deposit (the Marjelen See of Switzerland) etc.

The world's largest lakes, however, fill tectonic depressions related to crustal
movements such as folding and faulting. Lake Baikal, the deepest lake in the world, fills
a rift valley, whereas the Caspian Sea and Lake Victoria fill broad depressions where
the earth's crust has sagged downwards. Vertical movements of broad areas of the
earth's crust, brought about by fluctuations in heat, are referred to as epeirogeny.

Lakes are most abundant, however, in regions which have recently suffered glaciation,
such as the Canadian Arctic. Here thousands of glacial lakes fill hollows excavated by
glacial erosion and are filled by glacial meltwaters.

Under conditions of internal drainage lakes have no outlet so that not only is the
mechanical load trapped, but also the chemical load. With evaporation the chemical
load is concentrated to form a salt lake and the water becomes hypersaline. It may be
rich in NaCl, Na2SO4, alkali carbonates, borax etc., depending on the nature of the
provenance.

In salt lakes the concentration of salts may become so high that salts are precipitated as
evaporate. At the present day these are forming only in the arid and desert regions.
This is due to high air temperatures and low rainfall, factors which also are responsible
for the higher salt content of oceanic waters in the same belt.

One of the best-known salt lakes is Lake Bonneville (Great Salt Lake) in Utah. It is the
final remnant of a once huge lake 560x240 kilometres in dimension. Evaporate
precipitation in this lake is not uniform - carbonate is precipitated along the shorelines,
whereas in very shallow parts of the lake halite is deposited in summer and mirabilite
(Na2SO4) in winter.
Whereas the waters of the Great Salt Lake are chemically similar to seawater, those of
the northern Great Rift Valley of Africa are alkaline and unlike seawater; they are
referred to as natron lakes or soda lakes.

Short-lived lakes with internal drainage which form in arid regions after sudden and
violent thunderstorms are referred to as playa lakes. They may cover hundreds of
square kilometres, with depths of only a few centimetres.

Lakes formed by the shutting-off of seawater are referred to as barred basins. e.g. the
Caspian and Black Seas.

4.4.3.7 Lacustrine deposits

These are the sediments deposited in lakes and consist mostly of the mechanical load
of the river. However, if the lake has no outlet, the chemical load will also be finally
deposited here.

The sedimentation processes associated with lakes are partly a reflection of the size of
the lake. In the largest lakes, wave and current action are not much different from in the
sea, whereas in the smallest lakes plant growth often is a dominant factor in
sedimentation.

Lake processes are seasonal, since the volume of water entering a lake usually is
greater in the spring and summer than in the winter. This is particularly true of
temperate regions when lakes and rivers may freeze during the winter.

During the summer thaw in temperate regions, coarse material is transported into lakes
by rivers and streams and the lake becomes cloudy and murky. During the winter
freeze, however, rivers freeze solid and at least the surface waters of many lakes
freeze over. At such times the suspension load is deposited by gravity settling and the
water becomes crystal clear. As a result it has been found that lacustrine deposits are
often finely banded and that a year's deposition comprises a pale coarse band overlain
by a dark fine-grained band. These laminated sediments are referred to as varves.
Often the lamination is enhanced by colour contrast brought about by organic activity.
Thus in Lake Zurich, from where the classic varves were described, the summer
laminations are pale gray due to the presence of calcite crystals precipitated by lime-
secreting plants. On the other hand, the winter laminae are dark and rich in organic
debris and FeS due to an alga, which flourishes in winter and, on decomposition,
releases H2S which, precipitates iron.

The chemical precipitates (evaporates) of salt accumulate to produce a rock known as

evaporite. Thin evaporites may occur in playa-lake deposits, which generally are
dominated by mud. These may preserve raindrop imprints, animal tracks, and
invertebrate trails formed when the mud was still wet. Often the muds also display
polygonal desiccation cracks formed by drying out and shrinkage of the mud.

Within barred basins the evaporates display a uniform sequence of precipitation. No

deposition takes place until approximately 50% of the water is evaporated, when
calcium carbonate and small amounts of ferric oxide precipitate. These continue to be
precipitated until 81% of the water is evaporated when gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) begins to
settle out. With only 9% liquid left NaCL, MgSO4 and MgCl2 precipitate out and with 97%
evaporation NaBr commences precipitation.
In general terms this order of precipitation reflects the solubilities of the minerals
involved, but it is locally complicated by factors such as temperature and water
replacement.

Because seawater normally contains only 3,5% dissolved salts, it obviously takes
enormous amounts of evaporation to produce even a thin salt layer. However, as
ancient evaporites may be 1000's of metres thick it is obvious that the waters of marine
salt lakes must be replenished constantly.

4.4.3.8 Swamp sedimentation

The sediments that accumulate in swamps and marshes are referred to as paludal
deposits. Generally these are characterized by a large amount of plant debris which,
because of the lack of currents, tends to accumulate in a stagnant and anoxic
environment under reducing conditions. Where precipitation is high and evaporation
low, this material accumulates to form peat. With a high degree of compaction and
dehydration peat produces coal.

4.4.4 Marine Processes

4.4.4.1 Geological Processes In The Sea

Because most rivers drain into the oceans, these are sites of considerable geological
importance. This is exemplified by the fact that even the highest parts of the Alps and
Himalayas are made up largely of marine rocks.
Unfortunately, although nearly 75% of the globe is covered by the oceans, it is only
along the margins that direct observations on sedimentation can be made. However,
when it is realized that nearly 80% of the oceans are deeper than 3000m, even these
observations become insignificant.

4.4.4.1.1 The form of the ocean floor

There are a number of classifications of the oceans and seas. A geographic

classification recognizes the great and deep oceans, the smaller seas adjacent to or
within landmasses, and the minor bays and straits along the margins of the seas.
A geological classification recognizes the deep oceans, which are underlain by
simatic crust, i.e. basaltic rocks, and the shallow seas, which are underlain by sialic
crust. In turn, the seas may be divided into pericontinental or pericratonic seas
which cover the continental shelves, and epeiric or epicontinental seas which occur
within continental landmasses but maintain normal marine connections.

The continental shelf is the broad low-gradient platform that slopes gently seaward
from the shoreline. Its width varies from a few kilometres, such as off the Natal coast, to
many hundreds of kilometres, and its relief is generally subdued.

The seaward margin of the shelf is fixed at a significant change in slope, marked by the
shelf break. This generally occurs at about 200m and marks the beginning of the
continental slope. The latter is characterized by gradients of >1:40 and may persist to
depths of 1700m. Its seaward limit is set where the ocean floor flattens out and
gradients become <1:40.

Very often the continental slope is succeeded by the continental rise, with gradients
ranging from 1:100 - 1:700, which ranges down to 2700m when it flattens out to form
the abyssal plain. Here gradients are less than 1:1000 and it represents the flattest
surfaces on the planet.

One of the most spectacular features of continental margins are submarine canyons.
These begin towards the edge of the continental shelf, become well established down
the continental slope, and may cross the continental rise. They are deep erosional
channels, often with near-vertical walls which may rise a 1000m. Their steepest
gradients occur where they cut into the continental slope, and here they are frequently
joined by tributaries.

Submarine canyons are believed to be cut by turbidity currents. This is a current

which is so charged with suspended sediment that it is denser than the water around it.
It moves, therefore, along the ocean floor under the force of gravity eroding a channel
into the underlying sediments and initiating the submarine canyon. This erosional
process is enhanced when the turbidity current moves down the steeper gradients of
the continental slope.

Eventually the turbidity current starts slowing down and depositing its load. The
resulting deposit, characterized by an upward fining of grain size, i.e. graded bedding,
is known as a turbidite. The flatness of the abyssal plains is believed to result from the
burial of topography by turbidites.

Abyssal hills are often found along the seaward margins of the abyssal plain and
generally are a few hundred metres high and several kilometres wide. Oceanic rises
are large, broad structures covering hundreds of square kilometres which rise a few
hundred metres above the abyssal floor. Seamounts are large generally isolated peaks
which rise thousands of metres above the seafloor, with bases several thousand square
kilometres in extent. They rise to within a 1000m of the surface and the tops of some
are known to be flat

The centres of the Atlantic, Indian and south Pacific oceans have a continuous chain of
mountains which run for 64000 km, with a width of several hundred kilometres. This is
the most formidable mountain range on the face of the earth an is known as the mid-
oceanic ridge system.

The ridge rises from the seafloor in a series of crude steps culminating in a central
mountain belt which stands some 2000m above the surrounding relief. At the very
centre of this belt is a rift valley, i.e. a deep valley formed by faulting, 1800m deep.

The last major features of the ocean floor are the trenches. These are profound
depressions several thousand kilometres in length and 200-300km across which
descend to tremendous depths - the Aleutian Trench is 7500m deep. The distribution
of trenches is geologically very significant; they border continental margins and are
paralleled by a line of volcanic islands, known as an island arc, of relatively recent
origin.

4.4.4.1.2 The composition of sea water

The solution load of most rivers is delivered to the sea where it contributes to the
salinity, i.e. quantity of dissolved salts expressed in ppm, of the oceans. The salts
present in seawater are those not readily precipitated or absorbed. Thus, whereas K is
present in the average igneous rock in about the same amount as Na, seawater has
nearly 30 times as much Na as K, because K is absorbed by, and retained in the clay
sediments. Other dissolved substances, such as Ca, are extracted by marine organisms
to build their shells.

Despite this, most elements are present in seawater though often only in trace
amounts. However, because of the volume of the oceans their total amount is
enormous and it is estimated that the oceans contain 9 million tons of gold.

Estimated proportions of the common salts in ocean water:

NaCl - 77,8% MgCl2 - 10,9% MgSO4 - 4,7%
CaSO4 - 3,6% K2SO4 - 2,5%

Although the overall composition of seawater is remarkably uniform, the concentration

of salts varies, i.e. the salinity, varies according to rainfall, evaporation, the contribution
of freshwater etc.:

Mediterranean ... 37-39%

Persian Gulf .... 36,7%
Bering Sea ...... 30,3%
Black Sea ....... 18%
Baltic Sea ...... 7,8%

Air dissolved in seawater is necessary to support marine life, but the different
constituents of air have different solubilities in seawater:

Atmosphere Seawater
O2 ...... 20% ............ 33% [65% increase]
CO2 ...... 0,3% ........... 2% [566% increase]

There is an important variation in the relative amounts of CO2 and O2 with depth in the
oceans. In the photic zone , i.e. the upper layers of the ocean which are penetrated by
light, plant photosynthesis breaks up CO2 with a resultant rise in oxygen levels. In the
aphotic zone, however, photosynthesis is impossible and CO2 levels relatively high. In
addition, however, oxygen in the aphotic zone is used in the decay of organic material
falling through the water. As a result, oxygen levels decrease with deep and CO2 levels
increase so that in the deepest parts of the Baltic Sea CO2 levels may be as high as
25%.
Usually vertical circulation of water within a basin prevents the complete depletion of
oxygen and the creation of an anoxic or anaerobic environment. Since, however, the
limit of vertical circulation is 200m, in very deep basins not affected by currents,
sedimentation in the deepest parts may be under reducing conditions, and the resulting
deposits are said to be euxinic.

Euxinic sedimentation is particularly common in barred basins such as the Black Sea.
This sea is more than 2000m deep but is connected to the Mediterranean by a strait
only 1 km wide and 40m deep, the Bosphorus Strait. As a result the bottom waters are
stagnant and the only living forms are sulphur-generating bacteria. Organic matter
falling through such anoxic waters are not completely decomposed so that the
sediments at the bottom become very rich in organic matter (sometimes as high as
35%) and produces a black carbonaceous mud known as sapropel. When lithified this
produces a rock known as sapropelite in which pyrite is a noteworthy component. The
pyrite is generated by the bacterial liberation of H2S which reacts with iron to produce
FeS2.

4.4.4.1.3 Movements of ocean water

Movements of seawater are induced by currents, tides, and waves.

Convection currents are the result of density differences produced by variations in

temperature, pressure, or salinity. Thus, dense cold polar water drifts towards the
equator at depth, whereas warmer, lighter tropical waters move on the surface towards
the poles. Similarly, dense high-salinity water from the Mediterranean flows as a deep
current through the Strait of Gibraltar, while above it less dense Atlantic water moves in.

Surface currents are the product of frictional drag by the wind, their pattern being
controlled by the wind belts and the shape of the continents.

Tides result from the oscillation of water masses under the gravitational influence of the
moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun. The tidal rise is small in the open oceans but,
with suitable configurations of land and sea, may pile up to produce tidal currents
resulting in daily changes in sea level of as much as 16m. These are macrotidal
environments. Normally the tidal range is only 2-3m. In narrow estuaries the incoming
tide may move up the river as a wall of water known as a bore.

Waves are the result of frictional drag produced by wind passing over the water surface
(Fig. 62). Their height is dependent on the strength of the wind, as well as the size and
depth of the water.

In a symmetrical wave each water particle moves with a circular orbit whose diameter is
equal to the height of the wave. Because of friction, the orbits of water particles become
smaller at depth until, at a level known as wave base, the disturbance dies out. Even in
storms wave base, i.e. the level below which the bottom sediments remain undisturbed,
is generally only 60-70m deep. Clearly, however, the position of wave base as an
important bearing on the movement and sorting of sediment on the continental shelf.

Fig. 62: Wave action

As a wave reaches shallower water its wavelength decreases and its height increases
until the depth of water approximates the wave height. At this point the wave falls
forward as a breaker and produces a smaller wave, which, in turn, becomes a breaker,
and so on until the shore is reached.

Water returns from the shore by means of an undertoe or backwash current. This has
less energy than the breaker and hence moves finer material.

Because breakers commonly meet the shoreline at an angle, they carry material
obliquely up the beach (Fig. 63). The backwash, however, returns it to the sea at right
angles to the beach. The net result is that sediment is transported along the coast by
longshore drift.
Fig. 63: Longshore drift

4.4.4.2 Marine Erosion

Marine erosion is greatest at the shoreline. Here, seawater has a solvent action on the
coastal rocks, especially if they are lime-rich, but mostly its work is mechanical. The
compression and expansion of air trapped against a cliff face by breakers has a
plucking action which tears off pieces of rock from the cliff face. This may eventually
lead to the formation of tunnels extending from the cliff face to the surface; these are
known as blowholes.

Most mechanical erosion, however, is produced by abrasion by pieces of rock and

sand carried by the waves, and occurs just below high-tide mark.

As waves cut into a shoreline, so a cliff forms at the landward edge of a wavecut
platform with a notch at the high-tide mark (Fig. 64). The resulting debris is deposited
seaward of the platform as a wave-built terrace. Obviously, the rate of coastal erosion
is dependent upon the hardness and resistance of the rocks forming the shoreline.
Resistant rocks form headlands, promontories and peninsulas, whereas softer rocks
produce bays.

Due to frictional drag, waves converge on a headland and it is here that their erosive
energy is concentrated. Consequently, these are preferentially eroded and the tendency
of marine erosion is to produce straight coastlines.
Fig. 64: Waves undercutting a sea cliff.

4.4.4.3 Marine Depositional Environments

It has long been customary to classify marine environments on the basis of depth:

Littoral zone - this is between the high and low tide marks,

Neritic Zone - this extends from the lowtide mark to the shelf break and thus covers
most of the continental shelves. The waters of this zone are constantly agitated by
currents, waves and storms. The seaward extension of this zone is the pelagic zone.

Bathyal Zone - this extends from the shelf break down to an arbitrary depth of 2000m.
Abyssal Zone - this comprises all the oceans below 2000m depth.

4.4.4.3.1 Littoral deposits

These include beaches and bars. Beaches are accumulations of sand that form at the
shoreline due to wave action. They comrpise mostly shingle, gravel and sand and may
be divided into a gently sloping foreshore from an irregular backshore by the berm.
The latter is a steep bank which develops at the high-tide mark as a result of wave
action. The backshore environment is where coarse material is thrown at times of
storms and may build up to form storm deposits. Behind the backshore is often a dune
ridge comprising sand blown inland off the beach.

Fig. 65: Some littoral depositional features.

On gently sloping shorelines, waves break at some distance offshore and their rotating
action may build up a bank of sand which forms an offshore bar. This bar may rise
above sea-level to form a a barrier island and isolate a lagoon, or it may curve across
a bay to connect the headlands as a baymouth bar. A bar connecting an island to the
mainland is known as a tombola, while longshore drift may produce a spit, i.e. a
sandbar which extends from a headland into a bay.

4.4.4.3.2 Neritic deposits

Sedimentation in this zone is highly variable. The continental shelves are swept by
powerful currents that winnow and rework the sediments. They may also clear large
surfaces of the seafloor exposing bare rock as a hardground.

At river mouths deltas form introducing sand and mud, while instability associated with
the delta front may generate turbidites. Muds accumulate in the low-energy
environments of bays.
A feature of the neritic zone is an abundance of animal and plant life, many of which
extract lime from the seawater to build their skeletons. The remains of these organisms
frequently accumulate to form limestones and shellbeds known as coquinas.
Because the growth of plants and animals, the efficiency of chemical reactions, and the
concentration of CaCO3 in seawater all increase with temperature, limestone formation
is characteristic of the tropics. In well-agitated waters it may precipitate as successive
coatings around grains of sand to form small concretionary spheres known as ooliths.
When lithified these produce a type of limestone known as oolite.

4.4.4.3.3 Coral Reefs

Tropical limestones are deposited mainly as coral reefs. These are calcareous deposits
which accumulate by the growth of corals and calcareous algae on top of each other
but they have special growing requirements and hence only occur in certain areas.

For its growth coral requires clear, clean, shallow, oxygenated water of normal salinity,
with temperatures of 25-30°C. They cannot grow where the water is dirty or below 75m
depth. The result is that coral reefs occur within 30o latitude of the equator and
preferentially off the east sides of continents. This is because the westerly equatorial
currents have become warmed and laden with food by the time they reach the east
coast of continents. Because of their depth requirements, rapid sinking of a reef will kill
the corals. As such, tectonic stability is also important to reef formation.

Coral reefs may be classified into fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls, a sequence
suscribed to gradual subsidence and drowning of the reef complex.

4.4.4.3.4 Bathyal deposits

The finest terrigenous sediment usually comes to rest on the continental slope, in the
bathyal zone, and comprise mainly muds and fine silts which are uniform over wide
areas. One of the main agents of sedimentation on the continental slope are turbidity
currents, depositing graded beds which
fine upwards.

4.4.4.2.5 Abyssal deposits

Because the abyssal zone is mostly beyond the reach of terrigenous material, it
comprises mainly pelagic debris supplied by the remains of organisms living in the
photic zone, together with cosmic, aeolian and volcanic dust. However, where
turbidity currents fan out across the abyssal plain much of the topography is buried by
turbidites and, indeed, may be responsible for the unusual flatness of the abyssal
plains.

The organic debris, which rains down onto the abyssal plains is made up mostly of the
skeletons of unicellular protozoans known as foraminifera (calcareous shells) and
radiolaria (siliceous tests).

As noted earlier, however, the amount of dissolved CO2 increases with depth in the
oceans and hence the waters become increasingly acid. There is a level, therefore,
known as the calcite compensation depth or CCD, below which calcite is unstable
and will be dissolved.

As a result, the sediments, which accumulate above the CCD, i.e. above about 3500m
depth, are made up largely of the minute skeletons of formanifera. These lime-rich
muds are known as calcareous ooze.

Because silica is less soluble than CaCO3, the sediments, which accumulate below this
level are rich in the skeletons of radiolaria and are described as siliceous oozes.

At variable depths, between 4000-5300m, even the siliceous remains are dissolved and
the resulting deposits comprise only the finest terrigenous material, such as volcanic
ash and aeolian dust, together with abundant meteoritic dust and spherules. The
resulting iron-rich deposits, described as red clays, blanket half of the Pacific Ocean.
Of particular interest in the red clays are large numbers of insoluble sharks' teeth and
otoliths (whale earbones). Some of these belong to extinct species and serve to
emphasize the extreme slowness of deposition. It is estimated that red clay is
accumulating at a rate of only 1-2cm/1000 years.

4.4.4.4 Movements of Sea Level

Sea level is not constant but, as a result of a number of geological processes,

undergoes relative change, either by changes in sea level or changes in the level of
the continents. The most obvious change is brought about by glaciation. Water tied
up in the formation of ice sheets will lower sea level, whereas melting of the ice sheets
will return water to the oceans and elevate sea level. Alternately, the weight of ice
during major glaciations is sufficient to depress and lower wide regions of the continent
surface. With melting of the ice, and removal of the load, the continent surface
undergoes isostatic adjustment and begins to rise relative to sea level.
This is happening at the present day in Scandinavia and is associated with a wide
variety of geological processes, including sedimentation and mountain building.

Absolute changes in sea level, which are world-wide and not produced by local isostatic
adjustment are called eustatic changes. Where the relative changes can be related to
glacial processes, such as during the Pleistocene, the process is described as
glacioeustasy. Where, however, it is related to crustal processes particularly within the
ocean basins it is known as tectonoeustasy.

Since the bulk of the radiogenic heat created in the earth's interior is liberated via the
mid-oceanic ridge system, the thermal state of the latter can exert a strong influence
on sea level. Obviously a large mid-oceanic ridge system would occupy a greater
volume in the ocean basins than a small system and would be responsible for a
tectonoeustatic rise in sea level. The present estimated volume of the mid-oceanic ridge
system, of 160 million cubic kilometres, is responsible for a 300m rise in sea level. The
significance of this can be appreciated if it is realized that a 100m rise in sea level would
flood 20 million square kilometres of the continental margins.

A relative rise in sea level, which produces an increase in water depth at any given
locality, is described as a transgression. In general, it will also be responsible for
landward migration of the shoreline. Alternately, a regression is characterized by
shallowing of water depths at a given locality and seaward migration of the shoreline.

4.4.4.5 Coastal engineering

Coastal hazards include storms and cyclones in which storm surge which is a rapid rise
in water level and wave energy caused by storm winds, causes the most damage.

Coastal engineering structures interfere with the natural marine processes. Good
understanding of the natural processes of currents, tides, wave action and littoral
deposition and erosion is required for success. Historical records of shoreline
configuration from maps and aerial photographs are the most important tools in
understanding the natural process of any particular coast-line.

Common coastal engineering structures include:

Jetties: These are wall built perpendicular to the shoreline in pairs so as to provide
a tidal channel at the mouths of inlets to prevent the inlets from becoming blocked by
longshore drift deposition. The width of jetties is important as it determined the current
velocity through them. If the jetty is too wide, deposition fills it up. If it is too narrow, high
current velocities cause erosion of the jetty foundations.
Breakwaters: These are built to form harbours where natural ones are absent.
Deposition is promoted on the up drift side of the breakwaters and erosion on the down
drift side.
Seawalls: The are structures built parallel to the shoreline to prevent erosion and
slumping of sea cliff. Contruction materials include concrete and riprap. However,
erosion continues on either side of the seawall.
Groins: These are built perpendicular to the beach. They trap sand from the
longshore drift and thus widen the breach. However, erosion is promoted on the down
drift side of the groin.

4.4.5 WIND ACTION

4.4.5.1 Introduction

Hot air is less dense than cold air Therefore, heated equatorial air blows polewards in
the upper atmosphere (at an altitude of 10 - 12 km) and is replaced, in the lower
atmosphere, by cold polar air blowing equator-wards. This simple circulatory pattern is
responsible for the winds. However, it is modified by the rotation of the earth, i.e. by
Coriolis force, which causes it to deflect towards the west, meeting at the equator. In
addition, hot poleward-moving air is put under increasing pressure as it moves pole-
wards, due to the decreasing diameter of the earth. As a result it returns to the earth's
surface at about 30o of latitude in a zone known as the Horse Latitudes. Here the air
divides into the trade winds, which blow equator-wards and other winds, known as the
disturbed westerlies, which move polewards. Winds are always referred to by the
direction from whence they came (not the direction in which they are moving); westerly
winds are derived from the west and blow to the east.
The degree of wind activity, and its direction of movement, varies according to latitude.
Because the descending air of the horse latitudes is dry, where the trade winds blow
over land they become increasingly dry as they move equatorwards and are responsible
for such great deserts as the Sahara. High mountains near the west coast, which act as
a rain shadow, are responsible for the deserts of North and South America. Deserts at
present cover one-fifth of the world's land surface
and it is here that the geological processes associated with wind action are greatest.
These processes may be destructive, leading to denudation by wind, or constructive,
leading to deposition.

4.4.5.2 Denudation by wind

Deflation is that aspect of wind denudation concerned with the transport of loose
material. The particles of material carried by wind can be divided into sand, with an
average grain size of c.0,2mm diameter, and dust in which the grains are less than
0,06mm in diameter. Dust and sand are usually moved during dust storms.

Sand grains are mostly too large to be carried in suspension and hence bounce across
the desert floor in a process known as saltation. Because of their force of impact,
saltating grains striking a surface of loose sand move the heavier grains forwards,
resulting in surface creep. This same force of impact serves to sandblast any object in
its way, resulting in wind abrasion and the undercutting of rock outcrops to produce
pedestal rocks and the enlargement of joints and cracks (Fig. 66). However, this
sandblasting also affects the sand grains themselves and they develop a finely pitted or
frosted surface. At the same time, again due to multiple impact, the sand grains
become rounded; these frosted and rounded sand particles are referred to as
milletseed grains. Where there is a dominant direction to the wind, bedrock may be
eroded into spectacular ridges and gullies, known as yardangs, which record this
direction.
Fig. 66: A photograph of a pedestal rock (called God’s finger, Namibia). It has
since fallen over.

Deflation may strip all the finer sediment from the desert surface, leaving exposed
bedrock as a deflation surface. In the Sahara such rocky deserts are known as
hammada. Where the desert surface is left littered with gravel, pebbles and boulders a
stony desert floor or reg is produced. In such areas loose stones tend to be flattened
(facetted) on their windward sides, i.e. the side facing the wind, due to wind abrasion.
With time, however, such stones are eventually moved and thus periodically present a
new surface to the driving sand. The result of this wind facetting is a 3-sided pebble
known as a ventifact or driekanter (Fig. 67). Studies have shown that up to 78% of
driekanters have their long axes perpendicular to the dominant wind direction.
Ventifacts smaller than 1cm have not been described, probably because at this stage
they join the moving load of the wind.

Fig. 67: A schematic figure of a driekanter. This is a rock which has been
sandblasted and rotated by the wind to produce a flat pyramid shape.
Many of the stones and pebbles in deserts have a brown or black coating to their
surface, known as desert varnish. It has been shown that desert varnish takes tens of
thousands of years to form, thus also providing a measure of the stability of desert
surfaces.

Deflation in semi-arid regions, particularly southern Africa, is responsible for shallow

depressions known as pans. Water collecting in hollows is responsible for chemical
weathering which is more intense in the hollow than nearby. Because of the aridity of
the region, such ponds quickly dry up and the
weathered material is blown away by the wind.

4.4.5.3 Deposition by wind

Sooner or later the sand and dust transported by wind comes to rest as the wind
velocity slackens, resulting in an aeolian deposit. The sand remains in the deserts,
forming the sandy deserts, known as sand seas or ergs, and accumulates in mounds
to form sand dunes. Dune formation is initiated by obstacles acting as a wind break,
giving rise to deposition in the wind shadow on the leeward side. Deposition may also
be initiated where moving sand encounters damp ground or existing sand patches.

The form of the resulting sand deposits depends upon various local factors, including
sand supply, wind velocity and constancy, and topography, but 3 main types of deposit
may be recognized (Fig. 68):

 Sand drifts which form temporarily in the wind-shadows of protruding rocks and cliffs
 Barchans or crescentic dunes
 Longitudinal dunes or seifs

Barchans result from the action of unidirectional winds. They are initiated as mounds of
sand but, because the extremities of the mound offer least resistance to the wind, they
advance more rapidly than the central portion and the crescentic shape is quickly
developed. Movement occurs by the buildup of sand just behind the crest of the leeward
side. This sand is blown off the windward surface and accumulates to a maximum angle
of 34o, i.e. the angle of repose of dry sand. When this angle is reached, the leeward
face becomes unstable and the sand avalanches down the face along a slip plane.
This process is known as grainflow and the leeward face of a dune is often known as
the slip face. With the establishment of a slip plane, the dune aquires a permanent
feature.

Sand driven up the windward slope once more topples over the crest to build up the slip
face to the angle of repose when grain flow again takes place along a slip plane a few
millimetres in front of the first. In this way the dune moves forwards in a series of jerks
at a rate of 6 - 15m per year. This grain flow on the slip face of a dune is recorded in the
internal structure of the dune by a series of fine, parallel layers, known as laminae or
laminations, and the sediment is said to be laminated. Because these laminae form on
the slip face they record the angle of the slip plane and hence form at an angle of about
30o to the horizontal. Because most sediments accumulate subhorizontally, the internal
structure of dunes is described as cross bedding. Very large-scale cross-bedding is
typical of aeolian deposits, whereas small-scale cross-bedding is typical of waterlaid
deposits.

Sief dunes form where the prevailing winds are occasionally interrupted by strong cross-
winds which bring in sand from the sides. This destroys the crescentic shape of the
barchan resulting in long, subparallel seif dunes.

Not all dunes are made of quartz sand; in Bermuda shell dunes occur, snow dunes are
found in Greenland, and gypsum dunes occur in New Mexico.
 Fig. 68: Three different types of sand dune. From top to
bottom: Barchan, Transverse, and sief
Because saltating sand grains strike a sandy surface at an
angle of 15o and, because no sand surface is perfectly
smooth, unequal numbers of grain impact occur in nearby
areas. The result of this non-uniform creep is the
development of small ridges and hollows of sand which,
when the wave length of the ridges and the saltating sand
grains becomes equal, forms sand ripples. These
ripplemarks are generally orientated with their long axes
perpendicular to the wind, while the windward slope is
generally less steep than the leeward slope. Such
asymmetrical ripples provide an indication of the wind or
current direction.

Where deflation is occurring, the much lighter dust remains in suspension for long
periods of time and may be transported far from its source; dust from the Sahara
regularly falls in southern Europe and even as far as the Baltic. In some regions, well
away from the deserts, this dust may form thick deposits of loess.

From the deserts of Asia the wind carries dust to the south and southeast depositing it
over vast areas of the grassy regions of China. Over immense areas many tens and
even hundreds of metres of loess have accumulated and entire landscapes have been
buried with only the tallest peaks protruding through the loess.

4.4.6 GLACIATION

4.4.6.1 Introduction

Altough ice is a brittle material, when it is under pressure it behaves in a plastic manner.
Therefore, a pile of ice thicker than 60m can flow slowly because the ice at the base is
in a plastic state. Great thicknesses of ice accumulate on the mountains of cold
regions where the rate of snowfall exceeds the rate of ablation (the loss of snow
through evaporation and melting). Zones of ice accumulation are called firns. The ice
slowly moves downhill from the firns following valleys to lower topographic elevation.
Ice from a number of firns may join like tributaries of a river to form one flowing body of
ice called a glacier.

A thick pile of ice covering whole mountains and large portions of continents, and which
moves as a single mass, is called an ice sheet. Present day examples of ice sheets are
found in Greenland and Antarctica.

4.4.6.2 Erosion by Glaciers and Ice Sheets

Glaciers and ice sheets erode the surface by abrasion and scraping. This process
grinds the rocks into fine powder called glacial flour. Furthermore, whole fragments of
rocks are plucked up and carried with the flow of the glacier / ice sheet. The material
carried by a glacier is termed moraine. The rock basement over which the ice sheet
has moves is
characterised by linear scrape marks called striations. Glaciers form a deep, steep
sided "U" shaped valley.

4.4.6.3 Deposition by Glaciers

Glaciers deposit their moraine when they melt. Melting occurs at the farthest extension
of the glacier away from the firn, where the rate of ablation exceeds the rate of
accumulation. The deposits of moraine consist of glacial flour containing fragments of
rock and is termed till.

Even though the ice in the glacier is flowing, its farthest end remains stationary because
of ablation. At this place, moraine accumulates and is termed terminal moraine. If the
glacier's end should retreat because of increased ablation (hot season), the pile of
terminal moraine forms a ridge (called a knob) separated by depressions (called
kettles), thus forming a knob and kettle topography.

Moraine is also deposited on the sides and beneath the glacier where melting occurs.
This is the origin of lateral and ground moraine. The latter occur as elongated hills
called drumlins.
Water produced by the melting of the glaciers flows down-slope over the moraine, which
it transports and re-deposits as layered (stratified) river-like deposits. Moreover, lakes
are formed in the kettles where fine grained material accumulates as lacustrine
deposits. These lacustrine deposits are often characterised by one or more of the
following features:

Varved clays: These are interlayered clays of different grain sizes which formed
as a result of the seasonal differences in density of the lake waters because
colded and denser water can suspend larger grains,
Drop stones: These are fragments of rocks embedded in the clay layers. They
originate from the melting of floating ice blocks by which they were carried on the
surface of the lake.

4.6 FURTHER READING

Blatt, H., Middleton, G. and Murray, R. Origin of sedimentary rocks. Prentice-Hall.

Holmes, A.H. Principles of Physical Geology. Thomas Nelson Ltd.

Selley, R.C. (1976) An Introduction to Sedimentology. Academic Press.

4.7 EXERCISES

4.7.1 Two boreholes, A and B, drilled 4km apart intersected the same aquifer. The
water table in borehole B was 40m lower in elevation. The coefficient of
permeability of the aquifer was measured as 120m/day. Pollution of the
groundwater in the region around borehole A occurred. How long would it
take before this pollution is detected in the water pumped from borehole B?
(Answer: 9.13 years).

4.7.2 An aquifer with a porosity of 30% and a cross sectional surface area of 12000m2
was found to have a flow rate of 0.25m/day. Determine the discharge rate from
the aquifer. (Answer: 900m3/day).
4.7.3 Explain the meaning of the following terms:

 Hydrolysis
 Exfoliation  Barchan dune
 Spheroidal weathering  Pedestal rock
 Regolith  Rock fall
 Drainage system  Slump
 Degradation  Alluvial fan
 Aggradation  Debris flow
 Sorting  Seifs
 Alluvial fan  Ripplemarks
 Point bars  Porosity
 Flood plain  Permeability
 Levees  Aquifer
 Meandering river  Hydraulic gradient
 Progradation  Artesian well
 Epeirogeny  Autochthonous
 EvaporiteTurbidity current  Residual deposits
 Abyssal plain  Argillaceous
 Longshore drift  Rudaceous
 Littoral deposits  Clast
 Barier island  Polymictic
 Lagoon  Breccia
 Calcareous ooze  Shale
 Eustatic sea level changes  Wacke
 Diagenesis

4.7.4 Explain the mechanism of formation of the following sedimentary features:

 Mud cracks  Rock slides

 Cross bedding  Deltas
 Barrier islands  Flood plains
 Graded beds  Barchan dunes
 Slumps  Soils

4.7.5 A block of rock overlying a dipping fault plane filled with fault gauge is exposed
along a road cutting. The Fault plane dips 16° towards the road. The overlying
block of rock has the dimensions 100m long parallel to the road, 1m thick and
15m upslope. The specific gravity of the rock is 2,7. The fault gauge was found to
be dry and laboratory tests on samples of it showed a cohesion factor of 15kPa
and an internal angle of friction of 10°. Determine the factor of safety of the road
cutting.