HAWKING, F.J. Human Factors in Flight. 2017

Human Factors in Flight
To Suzette
Human Factors
in Flight
Frank H Hawkins
second edition
Edited by
Harry W Orlady
First published 1987 by Ashgate Publishing
Published 2016 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
First issued in hardback 2017
Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Copyright © Frank H Hawkins 1987

Copyright © Uitgeverij Uniepers Abcoude 1993
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the

British Library
ISBN 13: 978-1-138-40128-0 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-1-85742-135-4 (pbk)
Design and production: Uniepers Uitgevers, Hoorn, The Netherlands

Typesetting: Uniepers DTP/Megaset,Aalsmeer, The Netherlands
Contents
Acknowledgements 8
Preface 10
1 The Meaning of Human Factors 16
A hundred years of Human Factors 16
Defining Human Factors 19
A conceptual model of Human Factors 22
A foundation for progress 26
2 Human Error 27
The nature of error 27
The sources of error 34
The classification of errors 46
Meeting the challenge of human error 48
3 Fatigue, Body Rhythms and Sleep 56

Jet lag 56
Fatigue 57
Body rhythms 59
Sleep 66
Facing the problem 78
4 Fitness and Performance 84

Health and performance 84
Factors affecting fitness 87
5
5 Vision and Visual Illusions 107

Light 107
The eye 109
The brain 114
Visual illusions 118
Vision and visual illusions in air transport 120
6 Motivation and Leadership 131

Motivation and safety 131
Concepts of motivation 136
Influencing motivation at work 142
Leadership 146
7 Communication: Language and Speech 152

Communication defined 152
Language of communication 153
The vocal and auditory systems 157
Speech 160
Postscripts from Tenerife and other accidents 166
8 Attitudes and Persuasion 172

Aviation application 172
The nature, function and measurement of attitudes 174
Influencing attitudes 179
9 Training and Training Devices 189

Training, education and instruction 189
Training principles 191
Training, learning and memory 194
Training systems 199
Training devices 203
Instructors and classrooms 206
10 Documentation 208
Costing documentation inadequacies 208
General principles 209
Checklists 218
Manuals, handbooks and technical papers 225
Questionnaires and forms 229
Maps and charts 237
Conclusions 240
6
Contents
11 Displays and Controls 241

Historical background 241
Displays 243
Controls 260
12 Space and Layout 269

Design of working and living areas 269
Human dimensions 271
Flight deck design 274
Other applications on board 283
13 The Aircraft Cabin and its Human Payload 286

The need for Human Factors in the cabin 286
Understanding human characteristics 287
Cabin hardware 289
Cabin software 298
The cabin environment 301
The interface between people 311
14 Education and Application 326

Education 326
Application 334
Quo vadis? 339
Appendices 342
Appendix 1 Notes on procedural recommendations and other data 342
Appendix 2 Recommended books, journals and bulletins 351
Appendix 3 Abbreviations used in the text 356
References 359
Index 373
7
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my appreciation to those who have provided assistance in reviewing

chapters in the book and suggesting revisions and amendments. In particular, I am
greatly indebted to Professor Elwyn Edwards and Dr Mary Edwards for their
support, encouragement and detailed analytical reviews of each chapter.
Others who have generously contributed their time and expertise to reviewing the
book critically as a whole or in part, include:
Dr M Carruthers; Director, Positive Health Centre, Harley St, London, UK.
Mr K G Dougan; Operational Adviser, Smiths Industries Ltd, Cheltenham, UK.
Captain B A Draper; Training Manager, Flight Instructor, Stocksfield, UK.
Dr J A Home; Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University, UK.
Dr P Naitoh; Psychophysiologist, San Diego, USA.
Captain E R Parfitt; Airline Senior Route Instructor, Gata de Gorgos, Spain.
The tireless and skilled assistance of Suzette Burghard during the years of devel
opment of the material and its preparation for publication has been invaluable and
has made a significant contribution to the project. Acknowledgement must be
given, too, for the contribution of graphic artist Michael Hawkins in preparing the
many illustrations for publication.
I am grateful to the administrators of the US Aviation Safety Reporting System

(ASRS) and the UK Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme
(CHIRP) for their kind permission to quote examples from their published reports
to illustrate Human Factors principles presented in the text.
Illustrations
Acknowledgement with thanks is due to the following for their kind permission to
use illustrations or tabulated data.
Academic Press, Figs 3.5, 9.3, 9.4; American Institute of Physics, Fig 7.5;
American Psychological Association, Fig 9.2; Aviation, Space and Environmental
8
Acknowledgements
Medicine, Figs 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.3; Band J H, Figs 5.12, 6.4, 8.1, 9.6, 11.3, 11.7, 13.1,
13.4, 13.5; British Airways, Fig 3.6; Central Office of Information (UK), Fig 8.2;
Chorley R A, Fig 12.4; Department of Health and Social Security (UK), Fig 8.2;
Department of the Army (USA), Fig 13.2; Department of Transport (UK), Fig 8.2;
Edwards E Prof, Figs 2.2, 6.2; Elseviers Scientific Publications, Figs 10.1, 10.2;
Flight Safety Foundation, Fig 5.15; Health Education Council, Figs 4.1, 8.2; Her
Majesty’s Stationery Office, Fig 8.2; Human Factors Society, sample notices in
Chapter 10; IPC Science & Technology Press, Figs 10.4, 11.5; Klein K E Dr,
Tables 3.1, 3.2; Kryter K D Dr, Fig 7.1; McGraw-Hill Book, Figs 4.2, 11.1;
NASA-Ames, Fig 11.2; Plain English Campaign, Fig 10.5; Prentice-Hall, Fig 7.4;
Shell International Trading Company, Figs 5.11, 12.5, 12.7; University of Colorado,
Fig 13.6.
Every effort has been made to trace copyright owners. However, if advised of
any inadvertent omission, the publisher and I would be pleased to incorporate
proper acknowledgement in future editions.
F H Hawkins
At the time of his untimely death Captain Hawkins was in the midst of preparing an
updated edition of Human Factors in Flight. Virtually all of the material he had
compiled has been included in this edition which is dedicated to his pioneering
work. The contribution made by the late Captain William Price, who had been
working with Captain Hawkins, in this updating of the first edition of Human
Factors in Flight cannot be adequately acknowledged. The revision of this edition,
beyond the work of Captain Hawkins, was done by Captain Harry W. Orlady.
The Publisher
9
Preface
Since 1940, data have been published periodically showing that three out of four
aircraft accidents apparently result from inadequate performance of the human
component in the aircraft man-machine system. This proportion has persisted in
spite of years of exhortation to pilots to perform more consistently and with fewer
errors. This exhortation has been notably, but predictably, ineffective in modifying
the relative magnitude of this source of accidents.
Scientists, particularly in the USA and the UK, have been engaged in Human
Factors research relevant to aviation during and since the Second World War, but
only part of this research has found its way into flight operations and unfortunately,
very little of it involved our major problem - the operational behaviour of pilots
flying multicrew transport aircraft. The 1947 work in Dayton of Fitts, Jones and
Grether on the misreading vulnerability of three-pointer altimeters is a good example.
By 1980, the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) felt obliged
to declare that despite these and other related studies, it was unlikely that this type
of altimeter would be replaced in older operational aircraft. And in 1984 they were
able to report yet another 10 000 ft misreading and flight deviation with this kind of
altimeter.
On the other side of the Atlantic, at Cambridge in England, valuable Human
Factors work was being done in the early 1940s on what became known as the
Cambridge Cockpit. Yet more than a quarter of a century later, an eminent aero
nautical society was able to make a policy statement declaring that it was too early
for them yet to take ergonomics or Human Factors seriously.
When the first edition of this book was written, it was unusual to find a degree-
qualified Human Factors specialist anywhere in the aircraft operational field, even
in larger companies with more than 10 000 staff on the payroll. In the aircraft
manufacturing industry, few of the world’s civil aircraft constructors could claim
properly qualified Human Factors staff, and even then, their role was normally only
an advisory one and there were many reasons why their advice could be overruled.
Most manufacturers were poorly endowed in this respect. A major European aircraft
builder, for example, found it appropriate to seek help from a motor car manufacturer
in the design of its new flight deck. This was in spite of the totally different
environments in which the vehicles operate, the quite different levels of skill of the
operators involved and the fundamental difference in the team-work task on a large
10
Preface
transport aircraft compared with the single-operator task in a car.

In the 1990s, things look considerably better. Most manufacturers of large trans
port aircraft have qualified Human Factors experts on their staff and Human Fac
tors considerations are given considerable weight at all stages of design and con
struction.
From the pilot side, a recently enacted International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) international pilot licensing specification requires that, in the future, all
pilots be familiar with ‘Human Performance and Limitations’ as they relate to their
flying activities and the formal privileges of their licence (ICAO, 1989). ICAO has
also published a series of Human Factors Digests which are available on request
and can be of considerable help to interested parties or to Contracting States.
Human Factors also directly affect airline training. Many of the more progressive
airlines have legitimate Human Factors experts on their training staffs.
Today there is no question that Human Factors is identified as a ‘core technol
ogy’ in air transport aviation. Particularly for new transports or other new compo
nents of the aviation system, Human Factors has become a major consideration in
licensing, operation, and training. The overall problem, of course, is to make sure
that all levels of the industry get and continue to get high-quality Human Factors in
the design and operation of the transport aircraft they fly. It is essential that the
emphasis presently given Human Factors remains more than just lip service, and
that present concern is constructively recognised in all aspects of the industry.
It was not until the 1970s that some serious interest began to be shown in
generating a greater awareness of Human Factors amongst those responsible for the
design, certification and operation of civil aircraft. In fact, most of the research
work done previously had been sponsored by the military. It had by this time
become abundantly clear that a fundamental knowledge gap existed in civil aviation.
At international symposia, few could even define what was meant by Human
Factors; to one it meant post-mortems on accident victims and to another, simply
aircraft handling procedures or other flight techniques. Medicine and Human Factors
were widely confused and this confusion, for various reasons, dies hard.
By 1975, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in its 20th Techni
cal Conference in Istanbul concluded after a week of diverse but well intentioned
discussions, that ‘the wider nature of Human Factors and its application to aviation
seem still to be relatively little appreciated. This neglect may cause inefficiency in
operation or discomfort to the persons concerned; at worst, it may bring about a
major disaster’. This ominous statement was followed just 17 months later by the
double Boeing 747 disaster at Tenerife in which 583 people died and which cost
about $150 million. It is significant that this accident - then the greatest in aviation
history - resulted entirely from a series of Human Factors deficiencies.
Little more than a year after that IATA conference, the other side of industry, the
pilots, also called for action to improve the application of Human Factors in their
working environment. In their 1977 Washington symposium, the International
Federation of Airline Pilots Associations (IFALPA) concluded that ‘there is wide
spread concern at the frequent failure to apply Human Factors knowledge ... and a
current lack of expertise in many areas of the commercial aviation industry’.
Although by this time there were short residential courses at the Universities of
Aston in the UK and Southern California in the USA, these were only intended to
11
meet the needs of senior or supervisory personnel and their cost prohibited a wider
application. It was left to the national airline of the Netherlands, KLM, to initiate in
1977 a systematic educational programme to increase an awareness of Human
Factors amongst its operational staff. This programme, now acquired by numerous
other airlines and aviation bodies, consisted of a 15-unit audio-visual course, with
each unit being designed to fill a basic educational gap in a different aspect of
Human Factors. But the limited amount of time available in such formal courses to
assimilate the very considerable information presented, stimulated a demand for
more information in an easily readable documented form. This was needed for use
as a textbook during the course and then for reading at leisure later. It is the
purpose of this volume to meet that demand and also to provide the expanded
information for those who are unable to do the basic classroom course but are
nevertheless interested in acquiring more knowledge of the role of man in the
aeronautical system.
To continue to move forward in achieving a better application of Human Factors
in civil aviation, two broad principles must be accepted. Firstly, that questions
about the role of man within complex systems are technical questions requiring
professional expertise. And secondly, that adequate resources must be allocated to
the design and management of man-hardware-software systems. While in many
circles these principles are generally accepted today, neither of these principles has
enjoyed widespread popularity in the past. The following chapters, while in no way
constituting a comprehensive academic treatment of the subject, should provide a
foundation of knowledge upon which a sound structure of Human Factors expertise
and application in aviation can be built. For those not directly involved in civil air
transport, this text should provide an insight into the role of man - passengers as
well as crew - in the complex man-machine system which is today’s transport
aircraft.
Presentation format
Human Factors is an applied technology and so Human Factors in Flight is de
signed primarily for industry and aims to bridge the gap between academic sources
of knowledge and the practical operation of aircraft. This orientation is apparent in
the titles and sequence of chapters.
Chapter titles will be immediately recognised by those associated with aircraft
operation as reflecting areas of Human Factors concern in their routine work.
While the contents of each chapter and the appendices provide practical guidance,
adequate references are included to enable the serious student to pursue his quest
for knowledge beyond this introductory volume.
The chapters have also been sequenced with the interest of industry primarily in
mind. In view of the widespread confusion which envelops the term Human Factors,
it is essential to ensure from the beginning that we are all talking the same language
- that we are all on the same frequency. Chapter 1 therefore provides this clarifica
tion and introduces a model which is utilised throughout the book as a tool for
aiding understanding.
Safety is a theme never far beneath the surface in all activities connected with
12
Preface
flying. For many, human error, which is inextricably linked with safety, has be
come almost synonymous with Human Factors and so very early attention is given
to this subject, which forms the basis of Chapter 2. The principles discussed here
will later be referred to in other chapters where the question of error is raised.
Reduced performance is increasingly being attributed by crew members to stress
such as fatigue and the disturbance of sleep and biological rhythms. This forms,
then, the subject matter of Chapter 3 and it is followed by two more chapters also
with a physiological orientation.
Chapters 6 to 10 still retain the underlying concern with human performance but
shift from physiological to more cognitive aspects of the technology. Throughout
these five chapters the vitally important theme of communication is prominent.
Perhaps the most commonly recognised task of the ergonomist or Human Factors
practitioner lies in the design of the workplace and this area forms the subject
matter of the following three chapters. In transport flying, the workplace encompasses
the cabin as well as the flight deck. Traditionally, the former has received less
specialised Human Factors attention than the latter, so a complete chapter here is
dedicated to the cabin. Not only does this approach the cabin as a workplace for the
crew but also as a confined environment for large numbers of inactive passengers.
Finally, having provided an introduction to Human Factors in flight, we address
the obvious and justifiable question which can be expected from readers in industry,
‘... now we have been introduced to the subject, where do we go from here?’
Referenced regulations, abbreviations and definitions

For an aircraft to have a world-wide sales market, it has been necessary that it be
designed to meet the appropriate US regulations. This still did not guarantee that it
would be accepted universally without modification, as other countries often had
their own additional requirements. In order to establish a greater degree of stand
ardisation and to facilitate the import and export of aviation products, the civil
aviation authorities of certain European countries formed a Joint Aviation Author
ity (JAA) and agreed Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR).
In order to understand this standardisation process, some explanation of the
classification system for US regulations is necessary. These regulations all form
part of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and although appearing under
different Titles, for different national activities, they have a common numbering
system. Title 14 is called Aeronautics and Space and it is this portion of the CFR
which is of special interest to those engaged in aviation.
This Title contains parts promulgated by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) in Washington and also the former Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), which
is now incorporated in the Department of Transport. Those parts published by the
FAA are known as Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR). These can be seen quoted
variously as, for example, 14 CFR 25. 1309, Part 25. 1309, Section 25. 1309 or
FAR 25. 1309. To avoid confusion, throughout this volume all such regulations
will be quoted as, for example, FAR 25. 1309. The most common parts of these
regulations encountered in civil aviation are 25 (Airworthiness), 61 (Certification:
Pilots and Flight Instructors), 91 (General Operating and Flight Rules) and 121
13
(Transport Category Aircraft Operations). Part 121 is not applicable to non-US

carriers.
The standardisation process between the FAA and JAA began with Part 25 of the
FAR and this was selected to form the basis of JAR for aircraft over 5700 kg. It is
referred to as the Basic Code. JAR 25. 1309 is therefore in principle the same as
FAR 25. 1309. Amendments to this Basic Code are made by the FAA and consid
ered for adoption for JAR by the JAA. In May 1989, the JAA established an
Operations Committee which was given the task of producing a European Book of
Operational Rules. These rules are known as JAR (Ops). Where reference is made
in this volume to an FAR, it may or may not yet have a European equivalent.
While Part 25 FAR/JAR is applied to new aircraft, the regulations are not usually
applied retrospectively to aircraft already in service. The operational requirements
of Parts 91 and 121 are usually applied to all operations, although a time for
compliance is normally given. In certain circumstances, a new aircraft may be
delivered to a customer outside the regulatory jurisdiction of the country of manu
facture, without fully meeting the airworthiness requirements of the manufacturing
country, if this is requested by the customer. In such cases, a special fly-away
permit is granted and the customer’s national regulatory authority then accepts
responsibility for the airworthiness of the aircraft.
In 1949, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the USA formed a Flight
Deck and Handling Qualities Standards for Transport Aircraft Committee, designated
as S-7, with the aim of bringing some uniformity to these aspects of aircraft design.
Since then the SAE has also formed Human Behavior Technology (HBT) and
Aviation Behavioral Engineering Technology (G-10) committees. These committees
are international in character, with their members being recruited, by invitation
only, on the basis of their experience and dedication to aircraft development. The
standards published by S-7 are not mandatory, though they are widely accepted.
There is also some cooperation between the SAE and the International Organisation
for Standardisation (ISO) in Switzerland. In addition to CFRs, therefore, reference
will also be made in the text occasionally to an Aerospace Recommended Practice
(ARP) as published by SAE and this will appear, for example, as (SAE ARP 4052).
In principle, international standard (SI) metric units have been used throughout.
However, in civil aviation certain non-metric units are widely used internationally,
such as feet for altitude, and so these have been quoted in the text. In some other
cases, such as when the original data, as in CFRs, were specified in non-metric
terms or where non-metric units for the particular item are in wide use internationally,
then both metric and non-metric terms are given.
Many of the examples used to illustrate Human Factors aspects of flight have
been taken from US accident reports. This in no way reflects accident distribution
but is solely due to the generally greater accessibility of these reports and the
cooperation of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) which publishes
them. Their openness and frankness make a valuable contribution to air safety for
which all who work in aviation or travel by air should be grateful. A country which
makes such accident studies and sees their accident investigation body as a servant
of the public, benefits from a more solid foundation for air safety compared with
those who practise a more secretive investigatory and public relations approach.
The first time an abbreviation is used in the text, its meaning is usually cited in
14
Preface
full. In addition, for ease of later reference, a list of abbreviations used in the text is
provided in Appendix 3. On the first occasion that a term is used which may not be
familiar to aircraft operational staff, an explanation is given.
When it is found necessary to differentiate between flight deck and cabin crew
and the inference is not clear from the context, then the distinction will be made
specifically. Otherwise, crew or aircrew refers to all flying staff.
The word ‘man’ is used in its generic sense. Therefore it includes both sexes
unless it is specifically indicated to the contrary. For example ‘man’ should be
understood to mean people or humans including both males and females,‘he’ should
be understood to mean he/she, ‘him’ should be understood to mean him/her etc.
F H Hawkins
H W Orlady
15
1
The Meaning
of Human Factors
‘Not only will men of science have to grapple with sciences that deal with
man but - and this is a far more difficult matter - they will have to persuade
the world to listen to what they have discovered.’
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
A hundred years of Human Factors

Man first began to make tools more than 5000 years ago. The fashioning of the
handle of his axe to match the size and shape of his hand was an early application
of elementary ergonomics, improving his efficiency at work. But the modem evo
lution of ergonomics or Human Factors as a technology can be said to go back just
one hundred years.
It was in the 1880s and 1890s that Taylor and the Gilbreths started, separately,
their work on time and motion studies in industry. And at about the same time
academic work was being carried out by, amongst others, Galton on intellectual
differences and by Cattell on sensory and motor capacities.
The First World War provided considerable stimulus to Human Factors activity
as it became necessary to optimise factory production, much of which was being
done by women totally new to this working environment. And in the USA from
1917 to 1918 two million recruits to the forces were given intelligence tests so as to
assign them more effectively to military duties.
A psychological laboratory was established at Cambridge, England, towards the
end of the 19th century and this later became the largest British centre for experi
mental psychology. Progress made during the war resulted, in 1921, in the foundation
in the UK of the National Institute for Industrial Psychology which made available
to industry and commerce the results of experimental studies.
An important milestone in this first century of Human Factors was the work done
at the Hawthorne Works of Western Electric in the USA from 1924 to 1930. Here
it was determined that work effectiveness could be favourably influenced by psy
chological factors not directly related to the work itself. This is still known as the
‘Hawthorne Effect’. A new concept of the importance of motivation at work was
16
The Meaning o f Human Factors
bom and this represented a fundamental departure from earlier ideas which con
centrated on the more direct and physical relationship between man and machine.
The Second World War again provided a stimulus to Human Factors progress as
it became apparent that more sophisticated equipment was outstripping man’s ca
pability to operate it with maximum effectiveness. Problems of selection and training
of staff, too, began to be approached more scientifically.
At Oxford during the war, a Climatic and Working Efficiency Research Unit was
established. At Cambridge, the Psychology Laboratory of the University was re
sponsible for what might be seen as a second major milestone. They constructed a
cockpit research simulator which has since become known as the ‘Cambridge
Cockpit’. From experiments in this simulator it was concluded that skilled behaviour
was dependent to a considerable extent on the design, layout and interpretation of
displays and controls. In other words, that for optimum effectiveness, the machine
has to be matched to the characteristics of man rather than the reverse, as had been
the conventional approach to system design. In 1945, the Applied Psychology Unit
(APU) was established at Cambridge and this continues to be a source of much
valuable Human Factors research work in the UK. At about this time in the USA,
the much quoted research on three-pointer altimeter misreadings was beginning
and this work was destined to be used as a standard illustration in discussions of
design-induced error. And during this decade of the 1940s, aviation psychology
centres were being initiated at Ohio State and Illinois Universities.
Perhaps a third milestone in this hundred years of Human Factors was the estab
lishment of ergonomics or Human Factors as a technology in its own right. This
was institutionalised by the founding of the Ergonomics Research Society in the
UK in 1949, followed in 1959 by the formation of the International Ergonomics
Association (IEA). In 1957 in the USA the Human Factors Society was founded
and this was later affiliated to the IEA.
It was first calculated in 1940 that three out of four aircraft accidents are due to
what has been called human failure of one kind or another. This figure was confirmed
by IATA 35 years later. The next milestone in aviation Human Factors may be seen
as the recognition that basic education in Human Factors was needed throughout
the industry. In 1971 the ‘Human Factors in Transport Aircraft Operation’ two-
week course was established at Loughborough University in England, later transferred
to Aston University and also conducted elsewhere. In the USA a short course was
established at the University of Southern California (USC), and at about this time,
the US Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA) introduced, for selected representatives,
an accident investigation course that stressed Human Factors and featured USC
faculty. By 1978, KLM in the Netherlands provided the first ‘Human Factors
Awareness Course’ for large-scale, low-cost, in-house indoctrination of staff in
basic Human Factors principles. This course was later acquired by organisations in
numerous other countries (see Chapter 14).
In the early 1970s, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), concerned
with the basic problem of Human Factors in air transport operations, organised a
Human Factors committee which later led to the 1975 Istanbul Conference. During
this same period, United Airlines started a confidential non-punitive incident reporting
system which led to the FAA/NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS),
(Reynard et al., 1986). Both are covered in more detail in succeeding paragraphs.
17
As though to emphasise the urgent need for effective action, a fifth and tragic
milestone was erected during this period when educational programmes were tak
ing shape. In 1977 at Tenerife two aircraft collided at a cost of 583 lives and about
$150 million, creating the greatest disaster in aviation history and resulting entirely
from a series of Human Factors deficiencies (see Chapter 7).
An important aviation event in this first one hundred years of Human Factors
was the establishment by FAA/NASA in 1976 of the confidential Aviation Safety
Reporting System (ASRS), the principles and feasibility for which had been previ
ously established by the United Airlines programme. The ASRS is operated by
NASA for the FAA which finances virtually all of the costs associated with this
breakthrough programme.
The ASRS recognised officially for the first time that it is unrealistic to expect to
obtain meaningful and adequate information for analysis of human behaviour and
lapses in human performance while at the same time holding the threat of punitive
action against the person making the report. This basic change of attitude towards
both pilots and administrators has been justified by the accumulation during the
first 15 years of operation of the scheme of a data bank of more than 180 000
reports from which analyses were made and published periodically.. During this
period more than 2450 Search Requests were made and more than 1000 Alert
Bulletins (ABs) were issued (ASRS Callback No. 143). After 15 years, ASRS was
able to report that although statistical totals were increasing annually, event types,
consequences and percentages remained generally consistent. The single exception
being an increase in altitude deviations following the FAA inauguration of its
Quality Assurance Program (QAP). Under this programme, any loss of separation
in US airspace is automatically recorded by radar and requires examination of the
incident by an FAA supervisor. An altitude deviation of more than 300 feet can
cause a loss of separation if there is traffic at a conflicting altitude. Submission of
an ASRS report provides immunity from FAA prosecution to the reporter in these
instances. This increase in altitude deviations does not necessarily mean that there
has been an increase in actual altitude deviations, but may only mean that there has
been an increase in the number of altitude deviations reported.
The ASRS data bank now (mid-1992) includes over 210 000 reports. The pro
gramme receives an average of slightly under 3000 reports per month, the majority
from airline pilots. This vast store of operational reports may have revealed, in
principle, nothing new to those who have been for years concerned with the study
of air transport Human Factors. However, it remains an extremely valuable exer
cise and has provided sufficient data for meaningful computer analysis - data that
was previously unobtainable. The sheer weight of the evidence, backed by the
authority and analytical facilities of NASA, has focused more regulatory and indus
try attention on the problem area than previously could be elicited.
Six years after the ASRS programme was set up in the USA, a similar scheme,
the Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme (CHIRP), was ini
tiated in the UK. In 1986 a similar scheme called the Confidential Aviation Safety
Reporting Programme (CASRP) was initiated in Canada. At about the same time,
New Zealand instituted an Independent Safety Assurance Team programme (ISAT)
and in 1988 Australia instituted a comparable programme, the Confidential Avia
tion Incident Reporting (CAIR). Germany has recently established a similar pro
18
The Meaning of Human Factors
gramme which will serve as an anchor for a new European Community (EC)
Directive which is now being formulated.
The monthly bulletin of ASRS is called ‘Callback’. This safety bulletin has a
wide circulation in about 60 countries. By 1991 some 60 000 copies were being
circulated monthly. The periodic bulletin of the British CHIRP system is called
‘Feedback’. Canada produces a bi-lingual bulletin ‘In-Flight’ or ‘Apr^’, while New
Zealand’s bulletin is called ‘Flashback’. In Australia data and reports are included
in its Basic Aviation Safety Information (BASI) publications.
In 1991, ASRS began a new publication called ‘Directline’ to meet the needs of
operators and flight crews of complex aircraft. Distribution is directed to managers
and management personnel, safety officers, and training and publications depart
ments. Occasional reference will be made in the following chapters to examples
taken from these bulletins to illustrate Human Factors problems.
A very comprehensive mandatory occurrence reporting system has been conducted
in Australia for many years and this also has a provision for anonymous submission
of reports. Although a very large number of incidents are reported annually, providing
an impressive data base, and using computer processing since 1969, only limited
analyses have been made compared with the later ASRS programme. Together,
these reporting systems provide a wealth of statistics for the study of the role of the
human component in aviation safety.
We now move into the second century of Human Factors. As we do so, it is fair
to ask whether this technology has been adequately applied in aviation in the past
and what can usefully be done to ensure adequate progress in the future. The
chapters which follow will provide a basis upon which reasoned assessment of
these issues can be made.
Defining Human Factors

Industry recognition
The 20th Technical Conference of IATA which was held in Istanbul during Novem
ber 1975, and was entirely devoted to Human Factors, is seen by many as a turning
point in official recognition of the importance of Human Factors in air transporta
tion. Amongst members of its steering group were names of international repute in
aviation Human Factors. Yet in spite of this input of expertise, attention of partici
pants was stretched to cover a wide range of topics from medication and pilot
psychiatric screening to windshear on approach and flight data recording.
The 600 delegates freighting home their 20 cm stack of conference papers might
have been justified in feeling confused as to what Human Factors was all about.
Few could have delineated the scope of the subject. Fewer still could have hazarded
a definition of Human Factors as an applied technology.
Nevertheless, Istanbul generated two significant messages. Firstly, that something
was amiss related to the role and performance of man in civil aviation. And secondly,
that a basic Human Factors educational gap existed in air transport. Both messages
called for urgent action. The great Tenerife disaster just 17 months later seemed to
have been staged specifically to underline these messages and to call upon civil
aviation to put its Human Factors house in order. These chapters are concerned to
19
contribute towards filling the basic educational gap which Istanbul and other
conferences have revealed.
Human Factors and ergonomics

In order to ensure that we are all talking the same language and can thus focus
thought more constructively on the special problems associated with the role of
man in the aeronautical system, we must start by defining clearly what we mean by
Human Factors and what is its scope.
Human Factors is about people. It is about people in their working and living
environments. It is about their relationship with machines and equipment, with
procedures and with the environment about them. And it is also about their rela
tionship with other people. While all definitions are man-made and rarely carry the
force of law, they are useful in guiding enlightened discussion and crystallising
professional activity. They should not be too restrictive, however, and should allow
for development and new knowledge. The most appropriate definition of the applied
technology of Human Factors is that it is concerned to optimise the relationship
between people and their activities by the systematic application of the human
sciences, integrated within the framework of systems engineering (Edwards, 1985).
Its twin objectives can be seen as effectiveness of the system, which includes safety
and efficiency, and well-being of the individual.
The term ergonomics was derived in 1949 from the Greek words ergon (work) and
nomos (natural law) by the late Professor Murrell and used as the title of his
textbook on the subject published in 1965. The word, or local adaptations of it, are
now used in many parts of the world, such as ergonomie in Holland and in France,
and ergonomia in Hungary and Brazil. He then defined it as ‘the study of man in
his working environment’ and this comes very close to the later Edwards’ definition
of Human Factors. There is, however, a small difference in emphasis. Human
Factors has come to acquire a somewhat wider meaning, encompassing some aspects
of human performance and system interfaces which would generally not be con
sidered in the mainstream of ergonomics. Nevertheless, both are primarily concerned
with human performance and human behaviour and for practical purposes both can
be taken as referring to the same technology.
In the USA, the word ergonomics is only gradually coming into use. The term
Human Factors is more common there, though its use is not precise and there are
still varying interpretations as to its meaning. A clarification may be found in the
activities associated with NASA’s Human Factors Research Division and the
membership of the Human Factors Society (Appendix 1.1 and 1.2). Human Factors
as a term has its problems because the words used in their vernacular sense can be
applied to any factors related to humans. The use of capital initial letters when
referring to the technology helps to minimise any confusion which may exist. In
vernacular usage the terms human aspects or human elements are helpful alternatives
to avoid ambiguity and aid comprehension.
Disciplines utilised in Human Factors

Before the availability of dedicated Human Factors courses, those wishing to enter
the field originated from different disciplinary backgrounds. Most commonly, these
were engineering, psychology and medicine. The motion studies mentioned earlier
20
in this chapter were a good example, with Frank Gilbreth being an engineer and
his co-worker wife, Lilian, a psychologist.
Because of these origins and the fact that Human Factors is a multi-disciplinary
technology, certain myths and misconceptions have arisen. Perhaps the most per
sistent of these is that Human Factors is a branch of, or somehow related to,
medicine. This confusion may have emerged because some of the earliest problems
recognised in flying were physiological in nature. The physician was probably the
person nearest at hand with a knowledge of physiology and it was natural that he
should become concerned with these aspects of flight.
But since the pioneering days of flying, optimising the role of man and integrat
ing him in this complex working environment has come to involve more than
simply physiology. In particular, it has come to be concerned with human behaviour
and performance; with decision-making and cognitive processes; with effective use
of the equipment in all operating environments; with the design of controls and
displays, and with flight deck and cabin layout; with communication and with the
software aspects of computers, maps, charts and documentation. It is also con
cerned with the refinement of staff selection, and training and checking, all of
which require skilled Human Factors input. Properly controlled experimental stud
ies are now sometimes required to seek solutions to the more difficult operational
problems, often involving very large sums of money. A shift of emphasis has
clearly taken place from physiology towards psychology and this has introduced
qualifications well outside the field of medicine.
Nevertheless, there are times, notably where physiology and health are concerned,
when there should be effective communication between the physician and the
ergonomist or Human Factors specialist. A typical example in aviation is in the use
of medication to counter the sleep and biological rhythm disturbance induced by
long-range flying, as performance on board as well as personal well-being are
involved. The lumbar region back pain associated with sitting for long periods in
uncomfortable seats may come to the notice of the aviation physician before the
Human Factors specialist where no proper operational feedback system has been
established. This also applies to accidents such as bums or abrasions which occur
while working on board using badly designed equipment.
The predominantly psychological basis of Human Factors is illustrated not only in
the professional disciplinary background of its modem practitioners, but also in the
literature which supports it. Almost all of the Human Factors reference books and
textbooks are authored or edited by psychologists from one or other branch of the
discipline.
Nevertheless, this multi-disciplinary technology uses, as the Edwards definition
makes clear, many sources of information from the human sciences. In spite of the
shift in emphasis towards psychology, physiology is still an important source of
Human Factors knowledge and is necessary, for instance, for an understanding of
vision and hearing. Anthropometry and biomechanics, involving measures and
movements of the human body, are relevant to the design of the workplace - in this
case the flight deck and the cabin - and to the equipment in it. Biology and its
increasingly important sub-discipline, chronobiology, are necessary for an under
standing, for example, of the body’s rhythms, which have an influence on perform
ance. Genetics may be a factor in understanding the variations in behaviour and
21
performance of people of different ethnic backgrounds. No proper analysis of

data and no presentation of the results of surveys or experiments are possible
without some basic understanding of statistics, an essential discipline in the
education of every Human Factors practitioner.
In spite of the utilisation of academic sources of information from various disci
plines, Human Factors is primarily oriented towards solving practical problems in
the real world. As a technology, its relationship with the human sciences might be
likened to that between engineering and the physical sciences.
A conceptual model of Human Factors

In order to clarify further the scope of Human Factors it may be useful to construct
a simple model. From time to time in subsequent chapters references will be made
to the interfaces shown in this model.
The original SHEL concept, named after the initial letters of its components,
Software, Hardware, Environment, Liveware, was first developed (Edwards, 1972)
using a different model from the one used here. The ‘building block’ model used
below was first published some years later in a European Community paper
(Hawkins, 1984). Both models, however, are based on exactly the same concepts.
Liveware
In the centre of the model is man, or the Liveware. This is the

most valuable as well as the most flexible component in the
system. Yet man is subject to many variations in his performance
and suffers many limitations, most of which are now predictable
in general terms. It might be said that the edges of this block are
not simple and straight and so the other components of the
system must be carefully matched to them if stress in the system and eventual
breakdown are to be avoided.
In order to achieve such matching, a sound understanding of the characteristics of
this central component is essential. As many of those concerned with Human
Factors have an orientation towards engineering, it might be fruitful to describe the
Liveware in this context in engineering terms.
Physical size and shape. In the design of any workplace and most equipment,
body measurements and movement play a vital role. These will vary not only
between ethnic, age and sex groups, but extensive differences can be expected to
occur within any particular group. Fundamental decisions must be taken at an early
stage in the design process as to the human dimensions, and consequently the
population percentage, which the design is going to satisfy. Data to make such
decisions are available from anthropometry and biomechanics.
Fuel requirements. In order to function properly, man needs fuelling with food,
water and oxygen. Deficiencies in this fuel supply can affect his performance and
well-being. This type of information is available from physiology and biology.
Input characteristics. Man has been provided with a vast system for collecting
22
information from the world about him. He has means for sensing light, sound,
smell, taste, movement, touch, heat and cold. This information is needed to enable
him to respond to external events and to carry out his required tasks. Some senses
involve more directional information; some are more sensitive than others. And all
are subject to degradation for one reason or another. Physiology and biology are
the main sources of knowledge here.
Information processing. While the sensing apparatus is vast, the information
processing capabilities of man have severe limitations. It is fruitless to provide an
operator with information from displays, for example, without an understanding of
how effectively the information can be processed. Poor instrument and warning
system design has frequently resulted from a failure properly to take into account
the capabilities and limitations of the human information processing system. Short-
and long-term memory are involved here and we also encounter other factors
which can influence the effectiveness of the system, such as motivation and stress.
Many human errors find their origin in this area of information processing. The
source of background knowledge here is the discipline of psychology.
Output characteristics. Once information is sensed and processed, messages are
sent to the muscles and a feedback system helps to control their actions. We need
to know the kind of forces which can be applied and the acceptable direction of
movement of controls. Speech characteristics are vital components in the design of
efficient voice communication procedures. Here we look to biomechanics and
physiology for support.
Environmental tolerances. People, like equipment, are constructed to function
effectively only within a rather narrow range of environmental conditions. Tem
perature, pressure, humidity, noise, time-of-day, light and darkness, can all be
reflected in performance and sometimes also well-being. In less tolerant individu
als, performance can also be affected by heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces
(claustrophobia), and even by flying itself (flight phobia), to name just a few. A
boring or a stressful working environment can also be expected to influence per
formance. Physiology, biology and psychology all provide relevant information on
these environmental effects.
An important characteristic of this central component, which will become in
creasingly apparent as the reader progresses through these chapters,- is that people
are different. This will become particularly evident when we come to discuss
motivation and attitudes. While it is possible to design and produce hardware to a
precise specification and expect consistency in its performance, this is not the case
with the human component in the system, where some variability around the normal,
standard product must be anticipated. Some of the effects of these differences, once
they have been properly identified, can be controlled in practice through selection,
training and the application of standardised procedures. Others may be beyond
practical control and our overall system must then be designed to accommodate
them safely.
The Liveware is the hub of the SHEL model of Human Factors. The remaining
components must be adapted and matched to this central component.
23
Liveware-Hardware
The first of the components which requires matching with the

characteristics of man is the Hardware. This L-H interface is
the one most commonly considered when speaking of man-
machine systems. In one application, it concerns tasks such as
designing seats to fit the sitting characteristics of the human
body. The passenger who complains of uncomfortable seats,
inadequate leg space, a non-adjustable backrest and too narrow armrest is con
cerned with this L-H interface, as is the crew member reporting lower back pain to
his medical officer.
More complex problems may face the Human Factors specialist when designing
displays to match the information processing characteristics of man. Controls, too,
may create problems and there are many examples of incorrect actuation as a result
of inappropriate movement, lack of proper coding, or poor location, all matters of
Human Factors concern. The user may never be aware of the L-H deficiency, even
when it finally leads to disaster. None of those who died misreading the notoriously
vulnerable three-pointer altimeter would be able, if they could be consulted, to
recognise what had caused their demise. The natural human characteristic of adapt
ing to L-H mismatches masks but does not remove their existence and to that
extent constitutes a potential hazard to which designers should be alerted.
Live ware-S oftware
The second interface with which Human Factors is concerned is

that between the Liveware and the Software. This encompasses
the non-physical aspects of the system such as procedures, manual
and checklist layout, symbology and, increasingly, computer
programs (Fig. 1.1). The problems are often less tangible than
those associated with the L-H interface and more difficult to
resolve. For example, symbology and conceptual aspects of the Head-Up Display
(HUD) have attracted much attention, yet even after a quarter of a century are still
resistant to universally accepted resolution.
Fig. 1.1 In the SHEL model, Software includes symbology which is reflected in this collection of
signs which can be seen in and around airports.
24
Live ware-E n vironment
One of the earliest interfaces recognised in flying was between

the Liveware and the Environment. Flyers were fitted with hel
mets against the noise, flying suits against the cold, goggles
against the airstream and oxygen masks against the effects of
altitude. Later, anti-G suits were added to protect against accel
eration loads. These measures all aimed at adapting man to
match the environment. As aviation progressed, a trend developed to reverse this
process, to adapt the environment to match human requirements. Pressurisation
systems were installed to eliminate the need for routine use of supplementary
oxygen. Air conditioning systems were designed to control temperature and some
times also humidity. Soundproofing brought noise levels down low enough to
permit normal conversation in flight and to make helmets and earplugs redundant.
But new environmental challenges have arisen to replace the old. Ozone concentra
tions at flight levels used even by subsonic jets can be hazardous. Beyond that, we
are still concerned about the possible effects of high-altitude ultraviolet radiation
and of the effects of the ionising radiation to which crews may be exposed. Each
may require better measuring, the establishment of exposure limits, and additional
training for the flight and cabin crews involved. And the problems associated with
disturbed biological rhythms and related sleep disturbance and deprivation, have
notably increased with the speed of transmeridian travel and the economic need to
keep aircraft, and their human payload, flying 24 hours a day.
The effects of aviation’s phenomenal growth is another part of the environment
that is becoming increasingly critical. In the 1990s air transport must function
safely and efficiently while it utilises teeming passenger terminals and congested
gates, taxiways and runways. It must then operate in increasingly crowded skies.
Liveware-Liveware
The last interface with which Human Factors is concerned, is

that between people, the Liveware-Liveware interface. Tradi
tionally, questions of performance in flight have been focused
on the characteristics of the individual pilot or crew member.
Increasingly, however, attention is being turned to the breakdown
of team-work or the system of assuring safety through redun
dancy. Flight crews function as groups and so group influences can be expected to
play a role in determining behaviour and performance. In the cabin, interaction
between passengers can also be expected to influence their behaviour and this can
be important in emergency situations. We are concerned in the L-L interface with
leadership, crew cooperation, team-work, and personality interactions. Such ques
tions as instructor/student relationships also come within the scope of this interface,
as do those of a staff/management nature. Current cockpit/crew resource management
(CRM) programmes are beginning to deal seriously with these issues.
Other interfaces
There are within the aeronautical system other interfaces outside the field of Human
25
Factors. Interfaces between different Hardware can be seen in plugs and connec
tors. Hardware-Environment interfaces are apparent in equipment packaging and
insulation. Hardware-Software interfaces are involved in certain aspects of equip
ment instruction manuals. These are not within the scope of the technology of
Human Factors and so will not be discussed further in the chapters of this book.
A foundation for progress

The remark of the representative of a large independent airline at an international
Human Factors workshop in Holland in 1984 was probably not one which in
retrospect and with a little more understanding he would care to remember. In a
declaration of his company policy he said that ‘Human Factors is just an excuse for
incompetence’. With equal validity he might have remarked that ‘medicine is just
an excuse for malingering’. There is, of course, incompetence and there are malin
gerers. But this provides no justification for neglecting either Human Factors or
medicine. Human Factors attempts to research and explain the nature of human
behaviour and human performance, using the human sciences. Armed with this
knowledge it tries to predict how a person will react and respond in a given set of
circumstances. It is most important to understand that it is not concerned to remove
or replace the notion of individual responsibility or to condone incompetence or
negligence.
Understanding the meaning of Human Factors is only the foundation, though an
essential one, for the acquisition of Human Factors expertise. On reaching the end
of this chapter this foundation will have been laid and it is now possible to progress
in greater depth with acquiring a knowledge of this technology as it is applied to air
transport operations.
Complete books have been written on subjects such as vision and visual illusions,
yet we can allocate just a few pages. The same applies to motivation, communica
tion, displays and workplace design. The following chapters must be seen, then, as
only an introduction to the subject. In Appendix 2, books are recommended for
further reading and the contents of a modest Human Factors library is proposed.
The list of references provides an extensive store of research information for those
who wish to apply more attention to one particular aspect of the subject. But
already, we should all now be on the same frequency.
26
References
Adolph E F & Associates (1947) Physiology of Man in the Desert New York: Interscience
Publishers
Aerospace (1986) Goodbye to bifocals Aerospace, 13, 6:39
AGARD (1980) Fidelity of simulation for pilot training NATO AGARD-AR-159
Airola P (1977) Hypoglycaemia: a better approach Phoenix: Health Plus Publishers
Aitken R C B (1969) Prevalence of worry in normal aircrew British Journal of Medical Psychology,
42:283
Akerstedt T & Gillberg M (1981) The circadian variation of experimentally displaced sleep Sleep,
4:159–170
Alkov R A , Borowsky M S & Gaynor M S (1982) Stress coping and the US Navy aircrew factor
mishap Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 53:1112–1115
American Airlines (1979) Computer based instruction In:IATA 5th General Flight Crew Training
Meeting, Miami, 15–19 October 1979, WP 3.10
Angiboust R (1970) Discussion period In:Aspects of Human Efficiency, W P Colquhoun (Ed),
Fondon: English University Press
Arendt J , Aldhous M & Marks V (1986) Alleviation of jet lag by melatonin: preliminary results of
controlled double blind trial British Medical Journal, 292:1170
Armstrong D (1991) Enhancing Information Transfer: The Aircraft Perspective Eos Angeles Aircraft
Certification Branch, Federal Aviation Administration, Long Beach, California
Asch S E (1956) Studies of independence and submission to group pressure Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 41:258–290
ASH (1983) Non-smoking provision in airlines Action on Smoking and Health, Mortimer Street,
London
Atkinson J W (1964) An Introduction to Motivation Princeton New Jersey: Van Nostrand
Atkinson J W , Heyns R W & Veroff J (1954) The effect of experimental arousal of the affiliation
motive on thematic apperception Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49:405–410
Baddeley A D (1976) The Psychology of Memory New York: Harper & Row
Baddeley A (1982) Your Memory: a user’s guide Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Bailey R H (1982) Human Performance Engineering: a guide for system designers New York:
Prentice-Hall
Baird J A, Coles P K L & Nicholson A N (1983) Human Factors in air operations in the South
Atlantic Campaign: discussion paper Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 76:933–937
Baranek L L (1949) Acoustic Measurements New York: John Wiley & Sons
Baron R A , Byrne D & Griffitt W (1974) Social Psychology Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Barrett T R & Ekstrand B R (1972) Effect of sleep on memory; III Controlling time of day effects
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 96, 2:321–327
Barthelmess S (1988) How to survive in a hijacking and hostage situation FSF, Cabin Crew Safety
Bulletin, 23, 4, July/August 1988
Beard R R & Grandstaff N (1970) Carbon monoxide exposure and cerebral function Annals of the
New York Academy of Science, 174:385–395
Beard R R & Wertheim G A (1967) Behavioural impairment associated with small doses of carbon
monoxide American Journal of Public Health, 5:2012–2022
Becker C E , Roe R L & Scott R A (1974) Alcohol as a Drug: a curriculum on pharmacology,
neurology and toxicology New York: Medcom Press
Bender W , Gothert M & Malorny G (1972) Effect of low carbon monoxide concentrations on
psychological functions Staub; Reinhaltung der Luft, 32, 4:54–60
Bennet G (1983) Psychiatric disorders in civilian pilots Aviation, Space and Environmental
Medicine, 54, 7:588–589
Benson A J & Burchard E (1973) Spatial disorientation in flight: a handbook for aircrew NATO
AGARD-AG-170
Billings, C E (1991a) Human-Centered Aircraft Automation: a concept and guidelines (NASA TM
103885). NASA/Ames Research Center, Mountain View, California
Billings, C E (1991b) Toward a human-centered aircraft automation philosophy The International
Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 4: 261–270
Billings C E , Wick R L , Gerke R J & Chase R C (1973) Effects of ethyl alcohol on pilot
performance Aerospace Medicine, 44, 4: 379–382
Blake R R & Mouton J S (1962) Overvaluation of own group’s product in intergroup competition
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64:237–238
Bonnet M H (1986) Performance and sleepiness as a function of frequency and placement of sleep
disruption Psychophysiology, 23, 3:263–271
Bootzin R R (1981) Insomnia Arts and Sciences, 4, 1:2–6, Magazine of the College of Arts and
Sciences, Northwestern University, III.
Botting D (1980) The Giant Airships Chicago: Time-Life Books
Brebner J & Sandow B (1976) Direction-of-turn stereotypes – conflict and concord Applied
Ergonomics, 7, 1:34–36
Brenneman J J (1985) Smoke detection and control, interior system design, fire proofing, occupant
protection, cabin equipment and use In: Proceedings of Cabin Safety Conference and Workshop,
Arlington, 11–14 December 1984, DOT/FAA/ASF100–85/01
Broadbent D M (1958) Perception and Communication London: Pergamon Press
Brown E L , Burrows A A & Miles W L (1972) Optimisation of maintenance manuals Paper 6065,
Long Beach, Douglas Aircraft Company
Brown J A (1975) Safety – A systematized commitment Safety in Flight Operations, Vol. 2
International Air Transport Association 20th Technical Conference, Montreal
Bruggink G M (1988) Reflections on air carrier safety FSF Flight Safety Digest, 7, 6 June 1988
Bryanton R (1985) IPECO. Sitting machine makers Aerospace, 12, 1:28
Buley L E (1970) Experience with a physiologically-based formula on determining rest periods on
long distance air travel Aerospace Medicine, 41:680–683
Bunnell D E , Bevier W C & Horvath S M (1983) Effect of exhaustive exercise on the sleep of men
and women Psychophysiology, 20:50–58
Burg A (1966) Visual acuity as measured by static and dynamic tests Journal of Applied
Psychology, 50, 6:460–466
Burnett J (1985) Statement by the Chairman of the NTSB In: Proceedings of Cabin Safety
Conference and Workshop, Arlington, 11–14 December 1984, DOT/FAA/ASF 100–85/01
Burnhill P , Hartley J & Young M (1976) Tables in text Applied Ergonomics,!, 1:13–18
Busby D E , Higgins E A & Funkhauser G E (1976) Protection of airline flight attendants from
hypoxia following rapid decompression Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 47,
9:942–944
CA (1986) Flying – how safe? Holiday Which, May 1986:134–137, London, Consumers
Association
Cameron S (1973) Job satisfaction: the concept and its measurement Work Research Unit,
Occasional Paper No. 4, London
Canter D (1980) Fires and Human Behaviour Chichester: John Wiley & Sons
Carruthers M & Murray A (1976) FI40; Fitness on 40 minutes a week London: Futura Publications
Chandler R F , Garner J D , Lowry D L , Blethrow J G & Anderson J A (1980) Considerations
relative to the use of canes by blind travellers in air carrier cabins FAA-AM-12–80
Chapanis A (1965) Words, words, words Human Factors, 7:1–17
Chapanis A (1975) Ethnic Variables in Human Factors Engineering Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press
Chorley R A (1976) Seventy years of flight instruments and displays Third H P Folland Memorial
Lecture, Royal Aeronautical Society, London, 19 February 1976
Claxton E (1980) Do children use verbal quantifiers in the same way as adults? Unpublished
project paper available from J Hartley, Keele University, Staffordshire
Cohen G (1989) Memory in the real world Hillsdale, New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Assoc
Colquhoun W P (1971) Circadian variations in mental efficiency In: Biological Rhythms and Human
Performance, W P Colquhoun (Ed), London & New York: Academic Press
Condom P (1983) Automatic voice recognition; a new form of pilot-system interaction Interavia, 38,
1:82–83
Cooper C L & Sloan S (1985) The sources of stress in the wives of airline pilots Aviation, Space
and Environmental Medicine, 56:317–321
Cooper K H (1970) The New Aerobics New York: Bantam Books
Cooper K H, Gey G O & Bottenberg R A (1968) Effects of cigarette smoking on endurance
performance Journal of the American Medical Association, 203, 3:189–192
Crane C R (1985) Human tolerance to toxic components of smoke In: Proceedings of Cabin Safety
Conference and Workshop, Arlington, 11–14 December 1984, DOT/FAA/ASF100–85/01
Cummins R O & Schuback J (1989) Frequency and types of medical emergencies among
commercial air travellers Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 9
Cuthbert B N , Graeber R C , Singh H C & Schneider R J (1979) Rapid transmeridial deployment.
II. Effects of age and countermeasures under field conditions In: Proceedings of The 14th
International Conference of The International Society for Chronobiology, Milan: II Ponte
Cutts M & Maher C (1984) Writing Plain English Stockport: Plain English Campaign
Czeisler C A , Weitzman E D , Moore-Ede M C , Zimmerman J C & Krauer R S (1980) Human
sleep: its duration and organisation depends on its circadian phase Science, 210:1264–1267
Damkot D K & Osga G A (1978) Survey of pilots’ attitudes and opinions about drinking and flying
Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 49, 2:390–394
Davies D R & Parasuraman R (1981) The Psychology of Vigilance London: Academic Press
Davis A (1983) Hearing disorders in the population; first phase findings of the MRC National Study
of Hearing In: Hearing Science and Hearing Disorders, M E Lutman & M P Haggard (Eds),
London: Academic Press
Davis D R (1949) Pilot Error London: HMSO
Davis D R (1958) Human errors in transport accidents Ergonomics, 2:24–33
Dean R D & Whitaker K M (1982) Fear of flying: impact on the US travel industry Journal of Travel
Research, Summer 1983, 7–17
DeCelles J L & Terhune G (1979) Flight instrumentation requirements for all-weather approach
and landing In: Proceedings of The International Air Transport Conference ASCE, New Orleans,
30 April-3 May 1979
Degani A & Wiener E L (1990) Human Factors of Flight-Deck Checklists: the normal checklist
(NASA CR 177549) NASA/Ames Research Center, Mountain View, California
Dexter H E (1975) Pilot fatigue study: a first look Aeromedical Committee Research Study, Air Line
Pilots Association, Washington
DHEW (1979) Involuntary smoking In: Smoking and Health – a report of the Surgeon General,
Chapter 11, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, DHEW publication 79–50066,
Washington
DHSS (1979) Eating for Health London: Department of Health and Social Security, HMSO
Dille J R & Linder M K (1980) The effects of tobacco on aviation safety FAA-AM-11–80
DOE (1981) Guidelines for environmental design and fuel conservation in educational buildings
London: Department of Education, HMSO
Donoghue J A Tests and trials, an accident aftermath Air Transport World, December 1989
Dorey F C (1983) Aviation Security New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co
DOT (1985) Transport statistics Great Britain 1974–1984 London: Department of Transport, HMSO
Drew G C (1967) The study of accidents Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 16:1–10
Drucker P F (1973) Management New York: Harper & Row
Dvorak A (1943) There is a better typewriter keyboard National Business Education Quarterly, 12,
2:51–58
Eastburn M W (1987) A management tool – the accident record In: Fourth Annual International
Aircraft Cabin Safety Symposium, University of Southern California, Las Vegas, Nev, 2–6 March
1987
Edel D H (1967) Introduction to Creative Design Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall
Edwards E (1972) Man and machine: systems for safety In: Proceedings of The BALPA Technical
Symposium, London
Edwards E (1975) Stress and the airline pilot In: BALPA Medical Symposium, London
Edwards E (1985) Human Factors in aviation Aerospace, 12, 7:20–22
Ehret C F (1981) New approaches to chronohygiene for the shift worker in the nuclear power
industry In: Night and Shift Work: Biological and Social Aspects. Advances in the Biosciences, A
Reinberg , N Vieux & P Andlauer (Eds), Oxford: Pergamon Press
Ehret C F , Potter V R & Dobra K W (1975) Chronotypic action of theophylline and of pentobarbital
as circadian zeitgebers in the rat Science, 188:1212–1215
Ekstrand B R , Barrett T R , West J N & Maier W G (1977) The effect of sleep on human long-term
memory In: Neurobiology of Sleep and Memory, R R D Colin & J L McGaugh (Eds), New York:
Academic Press
Elgerot A (1976) Note on selective effects of short-term tobacco abstinence on complex versus
simple mental tasks Perceptual and Motor Skills, 42:413—414
Eng W G (1979) Survey on eye comfort in aircraft: 1. Flight attendants Aviation, Space and
Environmental Medicine, 50:401—404
Eng W G (1979a) Survey on eye comfort in aircraft: 2. Use of opthalmic solutions Aviation, Space
and Environmental Medicine, 50:1166–1169
Englund C & Naitoh P (1978) A validation study of the Biorhythm Theory Naval Health Research
Center, San Diego (unpublished)
Evans P (1975) Motivation London: Methuen
FAA (1975) Flight attendant clothing FAA NPRM Notice No. 13–75, (40 FR 11737)
FAA (1980) Summary of safety resumes. Cabin safety FAA-ASF-80–83
FAA (1983) Flammability requirements for aircraft seat cushions FAA NPRM Notice No. 14–83, (48
FR 197:46250)
Farmer E W (1984) Personality factors in aviation International Journal of Aviation Safety, 2,
2:175–179
Farmer E W & Green R G (1985) The sleep-deprived pilot: performance and EEG response In:
The 16th Conference of the Western European Association for Aviation Psychology, Helsinki,
24–28 June 1985
Fast J (1971) Body Language London: Pan Books
Fentem P (1978) Answer to a question on physical fitness and higher mental function British
Medical Journal, 6150:1484
Feuer B (1984) The AFA EAP: members helping members In: The First International Aircraft Cabin
Safety Symposium, University of Southern California, 7–9 February 1984
Fineman S & Warr P B (1971) Managers: their effectiveness and training In: Psychology at Work,
P B Warr (Ed), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Finnair (1971) Coffee break gymnastics during the flight for Finnair pilots Helsinki, Finnair Medical
Department
Finsberg G (1982) Hansard, London, 26 January 1982, 16: col 337
Fitts P M (1951) Engineering psychology and equipment design In: Handbook of Experimental
Psychology, S S Stevens (Ed), New York: John Wiley & Sons
Flack M (1918) Flying stress London, Medical Research Committee
Flight International (1984) Airliner office equipment Flight International, 126, 3921:128–135
Folkard S , Monk T H , Bradbury R & Rosenthal J (1977) Time of day effects in school children’s
immediate and delayed recall of meaningful material British Journal of Psychology, 68, 1:45–50
Foushee H C (1982) The role of communications, socio-psychological and personality factors in
the maintenance of crew coordination Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 53:1062–1066
Foushee H C , Lauber J K , Baegte M M & Acomb D B (1986) Crew factors in flight operations: III,
The operational significance of exposure to shorthaul air transport operations NASA Technical
Memorandum 88322
FSF (1965) More illusions FSF, Pilots Safety Exchange Bulletin, 65–109
FSF (1970) What is your TUC? FSF, Cabin Crew Safety Exchange, 70–501/502
FSF (1979) Flight safety eroded as cabin assaults grow FSF, Cabin Crew Safety Bulletin,
March/April 1979
FSF (1980) The deaf passenger. The blind passenger FSF, Cabin Crew Safety Bulletin,
March/April 1980
FSF (1981) Wiper effect FSF, Accident Prevention Bulletin, August 1981
FSF (1982) Beverage/meal cart safety FSF, Cabin Crew Safety Bulletin, 17, 4
FSF (1984) Preflight crew briefings: a step towards improved communication FSF, Cabin Crew
Safety Bulletin, 19, 3
FSF (1985) Cabin safety: what the future holds FSF, Flight Safety Digest, April 1985; statistics
compiled from the NTSB data base
FSF (1986) Behaviour: using life vests and flotation cushions FSF, Cabin Crew Safety Bulletin, 21,
3, (4)
Fulton H B (1985) A pilot’s guide to cabin air quality and fire safety New York State Journal of
Medicine, 85, 7:384–388
Gabriel R F (1977) Some potential errors in human information processing during approach and
landing In: International Symposium on Human Factors, Air Line Pilots Association, Washington, 8
February 1977, Douglas Paper 6587
Gander P H , Graeber R C , Foushee H C & Lauber J K (1986) Crew factors in flight operations II:
Psychophysiological responses to short-haul air transport operations NASA Technical
Memorandum 88321
Gander P H , Myhre G , Graeber R C , Andersen H T & Lauber J K (1985) Crew factors in flight
operations I: Effects of 9-hour time-zone changes on fatigue and the circadian rhythms of
sleep/wake and core temperature NASA Technical Memorandum 88197
Gaume J G (1970) Factors influencing the time of safe unconsciousness (TSU) for commercial jet
passengers following cabin decompression Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine,
41:382–385
Gaume J G (1981) Advances in physiological conditioning and exercise monitoring procedures DC
Flight Approach, 37, Long Beach, Douglas Aircraft Company
GHS (1983) Cigarette smoking 1972–1982 OPCS Monitor Ref. 83/3, Office of Population
Censuses and Surveys, Kingsway, London
Glines C V (1976) Probable cause: pilot fatigue? The Airline Pilot, 45, 10:19–21
Goldman P (1984) Coffee and health – what’s brewing New England Journal of Medicine, 310,
12:783–785
Goldman P A (1984) Aircraft cabin safety: fire isn’t the only hazard In: First Annual International
Aircraft Cabin Safety Symposium, University of Southern California, 7–9 February 1984
Goodwin A R , Thomas S K & Hartley J (1977) Are some parts larger than others: quantifying
Hammerton’s qualifiers Applied Ergonomics, 8:93–95
Gorowitz S & MacIntyre A (1976) Toward a theory of medical fallibility Journal of Medicine and
Philosophy, 1:51—71
Gould J D & Grischkowsky N (1984) Doing the same work with hard copy and with cathode-ray
tube (CRT) computer terminals Human Factors, 26, 3:323–337
Graeber R C , Cuthbert B N , Sing H C , Schneider R J & Sessions G R (1979) Rapid transmeridial
deployment; 1. Use of chronobiologic countermeasures to hasten time zone adjustment in soldiers
In: Proceedings of The 14th International Conference of the International Society for
Chronobiology, Milan: II Ponte
Graham W (1978) Air carrier approach and landing accidents Prepared for the FAA Office of
Aviation Policy by Questek Inc., New York
Grandjean E (1973) Ergonomics in the Home London: Taylor & Francis
Grandjean E & Vigliani E (Eds) (1983) Ergonomics Aspects of Visual Display Terminals London:
Taylor & Francis
Gray M (1975) Questionnaire typography and production Applied Ergonomics, 6, 2:81–89
Green R G (1978) Communication and noise In: Aviation Medicine, G Dhenim (Ed), Vol. 1,
London: Tri-Med Books
Green R G (1985) Stress and accidents Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 56,
7:638–640
Greenwood M & Woods H M (1964) A report on the incidence of industrial accidents upon
individuals with special reference to multiple accidents (1919) In: Accident Research, W Haddon ,
E A Suchman & D Klein (Eds), New York: Harper & Row
Gregory R L (1977) Eye and Brain London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Greist J H , Klein H H , Eischens R R , Faris J , Gurman A S & Morgan W P (1979) Running as
treatment for depression Comprehensive Psychiatry, 20:41–53
Grether W F (1948) Analysis of types of errors in reading of the conventional 3-pointer altimeter
Aero-Medical Laboratory, Air Material Command, Report MCREXD-694–14a, 16 March 1948,
Dayton, Ohio
Guilford J S (1973) Prediction of accidents in a standardised home environment Journal of Applied
Psychology, 57:306–313
Gunning R (1968) The Technique of Clear Writing (2nd Edition) New York: McGraw-Hill
Hackman J R , Ed. (1990) Groups That Work (and Those That Don t) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Halberg F (1977) Implications of biologic rhythms for clinical practice Hospital Practice, 12,
1:139–149
Harper C R & Kidera G J (1973) Hypoglycaemia in airline pilots Aerospace Medicine, 44,
7:769–771
Harris N (1986) Positive health Safety and Risk Management, British Safety Council, March 1986
Hartley J (1981) Eighty ways of improving instructional text IEEE Transactions on Professional
Communication, PC-24, 1:17–27
Hartley J (1985) Designing Instructional Text (2nd Edition) London: Kogan Page; New York:
Nichols Publishing
Haward L R C (1974) Effects of domestic stress on flying efficiency Revue de Medicine
Aéronautique et Spatiale, 13:29–31
Haward L R C (1984) Effect of Autogenic Training upon the flying skill of pilots under stress In:
Proceedings of The 2nd International Interdisciplinary Conference on Stress and Tension Control,
Brighton, 30 August-3 September 1983, New York: Plenum Press
Hawkins F H (1966) Aspects of sight and reach in a civil aircraft cockpit Alan Cobham Prize Paper,
Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators, London
Hawkins F H (1973) Crew seats in transport aircraft Shell Aviation News, 418:14–21
Hawkins F H (1976) Some ergonomic aspects of cockpit panel design for airline aircraft Shell
Aviation News, 437:2–9
Hawkins F H (1977) Cockpit visibility Shell Aviation News, 440:20–25
Hawkins F H (1980) Sleep and body rhythm disturbance amongst flight crews in long-range
aviation. The problem and potential for relief Thesis, University of Aston, Birmingham
Hawkins F H (1984) Human Factors education in European air transport operations In: Breakdown
in Human Adaptation to Stress. Towards a multidisciplinary approach, Vol. 1, for the Commission
of the European Communities, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff
Hawkins F H (1984a) Autogenic Training as a stress management tool in air transport operations
In: Proceedings of The International Interdisciplinary Conference on Stress and Tension Control,
Brighton, 30 August-3 September 1983, New York: Plenum Press
HEC (1974) Recognising the alcoholic London, Health Education Council
Hefti H (1986) The cost of accidents Swiss Reinsurance Co, Zürich, April 1986
Heglin H J (1973) NAVSHIPS . Display illumination design guide II. Human Factors NELC/TD223,
Naval Electronics Laboratory Center, San Diego
Helmreich R L (1980) Social psychology on the flight deck In: Proceedings of a NASA/industry
workshop, Resource Management on the Flight Deck, San Francisco, 26–28 June 1979
Helmreich R L (1983) What changes and what endures: the capabilities and limitations of training
and selection In: The Flight Operations Symposium, Irish Air Line Pilots Association/Aer Lingus,
Dublin, 19–20 October 1983
Helmreich R L and Wilhelm J A (1991) Outcomes of crew resource management training The
International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1, 4:287–300
Hertzberg H T E (1960) Dynamic anthropometry of working positions Human Factors, 2,
3:147–155
Herzberg F (1966) Work and the Nature of Man New York: World Publishing
Herzberg F , Mausner B , Peterson R & Snyderman G (1959) The Motivation to Work New York:
John Wiley & Sons
Higgins E A , Chiles W D , McKenzie J M , Iampetro P F , Winget C M , Funkhauser G E , Burr M J
, Vaughan J A & Jennings A E (1975) The effect of 12 hour shift in the wake/sleep cycle on
physiological and biochemical responses and on multiple task performance FAA-AM-75–10
Hockey G R J (1970) Changes in attention allocation in a multicomponent task under loss of sleep
British Journal of Psychology, 61, 4:473–480
Holdstock L F J (1980) British Airways pre-command training programme In: Proceedings of the
NASA/industry workshop, Resource Management on the Flight Deck, San Francisco, 26–28 June
1979, NASA Conference Publication 2120
Holmes T H & Rahe R H (1967) The social readjustment rating scale Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 11:213–218
Hood W R & Sherif M (1962) Verbal report and judgement of unstructured stimulus Journal of
Psychology, 54, 1:121–130
Hopkin V D & Taylor R M (1979) Human Factors in the design and evaluation of aviation maps
NATO AGARD-AG-225
Hore B D & Plant M A (Eds) (1981) Alcohol Problems in Employment London: Croom Helm
Horne J A (1985) Sleep loss: underlying mechanisms and tiredness In: Hours of Work, S Folkard &
T H Monk (Eds), Chichester: John Wiley & Sons
Horne J A & Moore V J (1985b) Sleep EEG effects of exercise with and without additional body
cooling EEG and Clinical Neurophysiology, 60:33–38
Horne J A , Percival J E & Traynor J R (1980) Aspirin and human sleep EEG and Clinical
Neurophysiology, 49:409–413
Horne J A & Reid A J (1985a) Night-time sleep EEG changes following body heating in a warm
bath EEG and Clinical Neurophysiology, 60:154–157
Hovland C I & Weiss W (1951) The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness
Public Opinion Quarterly, 15:635–650
Howell K & Martin A (1975) An investigation of the effects of hearing protectors on vocal
communication in noise Journal of Sound and Vibration, 41:181–196
Howes D H (1957) On the relation between the intelligibility and frequency of occurrence of English
words Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 29:296
Hurst R (1985) Verbal communication and hearing deficiency The International Journal of Aviation
Safety, 3, 1:62–65
IATA (1975) Safety in flight operations The 20th Technical Conference of IATA, Istanbul, 10–14
November 1975
Idzikowski C (1984) Sleep and memory British Journal of Psychology, 75, 4:439—449
International Civil Aviation Organization (1989) Human Factors Digest No. I Circular 216-AN/131,
Montreal
Jenkins J G & Dallenbach K M (1924) Obliviscence during sleep and waking American Journal of
Psychology, 35:605–612
Johnson D A (1979) An investigation of factors affecting aircraft passenger attention to safety
information and presentations Report No. IRC-79–1, Interaction Research Corporation, Stanton
Johnson L C (1982) Sleep deprivation and performance In: Biological Rhythms, Sleep and
Performance, W B Webb (Ed), New York: John Wiley & Sons
Johnston A N (1992) The Development and Use of a Generic Non-Normal Checklist with
Applications in Ab Initio and Introductory AQP Programmes, Dublin: Aviation Psychology Research
Group, Trinity College
Johnston N (1985) Occupational stress and the airline pilot. The role of the pilot advisory group
(PAG) Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 56:633–637
Kalton G , Collins M & Brook L (1978) Experiments in wording opinion questions Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society, C, 27, 2:149–161
Kalton G , Roberts J & Holt D (1980) The effects of offering a middle option with opinion questions
The Statistician, 29, 1:65–78
Kalton G & Schuman H (1982) The effect of the question of survey responses: a review Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society, A, 145, Part 1:42–73
Karacan I , Thirnby J I , Anch A M , Booth G H , Williams I L & Salis P J (1976) Dose-related sleep
disturbances induced by coffee and caffeine Clinical Pharmacological Therapy, 20, 6:682–689
Khalil T M & Kurucz C N (1977) The influence of ‘Biorhythm’ on accident occurrence and
perfomance Ergonomics, 20, 4:389–398
Khan R L , Zarit S H , Hilbert N M & Niederehe G (1975) Memory complaint and impairment in the
aged: the effect of depression and altered brain function Archives of General Psychiatry, 32,
12:1569–1573
Klein K E , Wegmann H M & Hunt B I (1972) Desynchronisation of body temperature and
performance circadian rhythm as a result of outgoing and homegoing transmeridian flights
Aerospace Medicine, 43, 2:119–132
Klein K E & Wegmann H M (1980) Significance of circadian rhythms in aerospace operations
NATO AGARD-AG-247
Klein K E , Wegmann H M , Athenassenas G , Hohlweck H & Kuklinski P (1976) Air operations and
circadian performance rhythms Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 47, 3:221–230
Klema (1987) Unpublished report Oak Ridge, National Laboratories, Harvard and Taft Universities
Klemmer E T (1971) Keyboard entry Applied Ergonomics, 2, 1:2–6
Koffler Group (1985) Glare Office Systems Ergonomics Report, 4, 1
Koffler Group (1986) The ergonomics of office keyboards Office Systems Ergonomics Report, 5, 1
Kragt H (1978) Human reliability engineering IEEE Transactions on Reliability, R 27, 3
Krueger W C F (1929) The effect of overlearning on retention Journal of Experimental Psychology,
12:71–78
Kryter K D (1972) Speech communication In: Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design, H P
Van Cott & R G Kinkade (Eds), Wash.: US Government Printing Office
Lader M H (1983) Insomnia and short-acting benzodiazepine hypnotics Journal of Clinical
Psychiatry, 44:47–53
Lamers G L (1968) A comparative study of circular and vertical tape jet engine instruments
indicating five parameters of four engines NLR Technical Report, TR 68 047, Amsterdam
Lauber J K & Foushee H C (1983) Line-Oriented Flight Training In: The Flight Operations
Symposium, Irish Air Line Pilots Association/Aer Lingus, Dublin, 19–20 October 1983
Lautman L G & Gallimore P L (1987) Control of the crew caused accident Boeing Airliner,
April/June 1987
Lavie P (1984) The function of dreaming Neurology, 34, 9:1271
Lederer J F & Enders J H (1987) Aviation safety – the global conditions and prospects In:
Transportation Deregulation and Safety Conference, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111,
23–25 June (1987)
Loftus E (1979) Eye Witness Testimony Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press
Lubin A , Hord D J , Tracy M L & Johnson L C (1976) Effect of exercise, bedrest and napping on
performance during 40 hours Psychophysiology, 13:334–339
Luckiesh M & Moss F K (1927) The new science of seeing In: Interpreting the Science of Seeing
into Lighting Practice, Vol. 1, General Electric Company, Cleveland
Lyman E G & Orlady H W (1981) Fatigue and associated performance decrements in air transport
operations Nasa Cr 166167, NAS A-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field
MacKenzie-Orr M H (1988) Aviation security in an age of terrorism FSF, Flight Safety Digest, 7, 12,
December 1988
Mackworth N H (1950) Researches on the measurement of human performance MRC Special
Report Series 268, HMSO, London
Mandelbaum J (1960) An accommodation phenomenon Archives of Opthalmology, 63:923–926
Martinez E & DiNunno G (1990) Accident aftermath Air Line Pilot, February, 1990
Maslow H (1943) A theory of human motivation Psychological Review, 50:370–396
Mason C (1984) The emotionally disturbed passenger In: The First Annual International Aircraft
Cabin Safety Symposium, University of Southern California, 7–9 February 1984
McClelland D C (1965) Achievement motivation can be developed Harvard Business Review, 43,
6–14, 20–23, 178
McCormick E J & Sanders M S (1983) Human Factors in Engineering and Design, (5th Edition)
Japan: McGraw-Hill
McFarland R A (1953) Human Factors in Air Transportation New York: McGraw-Hill
McGuire W J (1969) The nature of attitudes and attitude change In: The Handbook of Social
Psychology, G Lindzey & E Aronson (Eds), Vol. 3, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley
McSweeny T E (1985) Status of FAA cabin safety efforts In: Proceedings of Cabin Safety
Conference and Workshop, Arlington, 11–14 December 1984, DOT/FAA/ASF100–85/01
Meier Muller H (1940) Flugwehr Und Technik, 1:412–414 and 2:40–42
Meister D (1971) Human Factors: theory and practice New York: John Wiley & Sons
Meister D (1982) The role of Human Factors in system development Applied Ergonomics, 13,
2:119–124
Melton C E (1980) Effects of long-term exposure to low levels of ozone: a review FAA-AM-80–16
Mertens H W & Collins W E (1985) The effects of age, sleep deprivation and altitude on complex
performance FAA-AM-85–3
Metz B & Marcoux F (1960) Alcoolisation et accidents du travail Revue de L’Alcoolisme, 6, 3
Miller R B (1954) Psychological considerations in the design of training equipment Report 54–563,
Wright Air Development Center, USAF
Mills J N , Minors D S & Waterhouse J M (1978) Adaptation to abrupt time-shifts of the oscillator(s)
controlling human circadian rhythms Journal of Physiology, (London), 285:455–470
Mohler S R (1969) Crash protection in survivable accidents Memorandum, Staff Study, FAA Office
of Aviation Medicine, Washington DC, 4 February 1969
Mohler S R (1976) Physiological index as an aid in developing airline pilot scheduling patterns
Mohler S R (1978) Modern concepts in pilot aging FSF, Human Factors Bulletin,
November/December 1978
Mohler S R (1980) Pilots and alcohol: mix with caution FSF, Human Factors Bulletin,
September/October 1980
Mohler S R (1982) Back problems and the pilot FSF, Human Factors Bulletin, 28, 4
Mohler S R (1983) Medicines and the pilot FSF, Human Factors Bulletin, 29, 3
Mohler SR (1984) Aircrew physical status and career longevity FSF, Human Factors Bulletin, 31, 1
Monash (1985) Resetting the body’s clock Monash Review, 2:1–2
Moore-Ede M C , Czeisler C A & Richardson G S (1983)Circadian timekeeping in health and
disease. Part 1. Basic properties of circadian pacemakers The New England Journal of Medicine,
309, 8:469–476
Morgan W P (1984) Physical activity and mental health In: Exercise and Health, H M Eckert & H
Montoye (Eds), Champaigne, 111.: Human Kinetics Publishers
Moser H M & Bell G E (1955) Joint USA/UK report AFCRC-TN-55–56–1955, Air Force Cambridge
Research Center, Cambridge, Mass.
Murray H A (1938) Explorations in Personality New York: Oxford Book
Murrell H (1976) Motivation at Work London: Methuen
Murrell H (1978) Work stress and mental strain WRU Occasional Paper No. 6, Work Research
Unit, Department of Employment, London
Myles W S & Chin A K (1974) Physical fitness and tolerance to environmental stresses: a review of
human research on tolerance to and work capacity in hot, cold and high altitude environments
DCIEM Report No. 74-R-1008, Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, Downsview,
Ontario
Myrstan A L & Andcrsson K (1978) Effects of cigarette smoking on human performance In:
Smoking Behaviour. Physiological and Psychological Influences, R E Thornton (Ed), Edinburgh &
New York: Churchill Livingstone
Naitoh P (1981) Circadian cycles and restorative power of naps In: Biological Rhythms, Sleep and
Shift Work, L C Johnson , D I Tepas , W P Colquhoun & M J Colligan (Eds), New York: Spectrum
NASA (1978) Anthropometry source book, 3 Vols NASA/RP/1024
NASA (1981) NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System: Quarterly Report No. 13 NASA Technical
Memorandum 81274, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field
National Design Council (1975) Design for People Cat. No. Id41 -23/1975, Information Canada,
Ottawa
Newbold E M (1964) A contribution to the study of the human factor in the causation of accidents
(1926) In: Accident Research, W Haddon , E A Suchman & D Klein (Eds), New York: Harper &
Row
Newsham D B (1969) The challenge of change to the adult trainee Training Information, Paper No.
3, HMSO, London
Nicassio P & Bootzin R R (1974) A comparison of Progressive Relaxation and Autogenic Training
as a treatment for insomnia Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 8:253–260
Nicholson A N , Pascoe P A , Roehrs T , Roth T , Spencer M B , Stone B M & Zorick F (1985)
Sustained performance with short evening and morning sleeps Aviation, Space and Environmental
Medicine, 56, 2:105–114
Nicholson A N & Stone B M (1982) Sleep and wakefulness handbook for flight medical officers
NATO AGARD-AG-270(E)
Nordlund C L (1983) Fear of flying in Sweden Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy,
12:150–168
Norman S D and Orlady H W (1988) Flight deck automation: promises and realities Final report of
a NASA/FAA/Industry workshop held at Carmel Valley, California NASA-Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field, California
NTSB (1977) Human Factors specialist’s factual report of investigation. Accident to Capitol
Airways DC8, Baltimore, 16 January 1977 NTSB-DCA 77-A-A008
NTSB (1981) Cabin safety in large transport aircraft: special study NTSB-AAS-81–2
NTSB (1983) National Transportation Safety Board: Investigation Manual Aircraft Accidents and
Incidents (Board Order 6200.1 A)
Nunn H T (1981) Line-oriented flight training In: Guidelines for Line-Oriented Flight Training, Vol. II,
J K Lauber and H C Foushee (Eds), Proceedings of a NASA/Industry Workshop NASA-Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, California
Oborne D J & Clarke M J (1975) Questionnaire surveys of passenger comfort Applied Ergonomics,
6, 2:97–103
Observer & Maxwell M A (1959) Study of absenteeism, accidents and sickness payments in
problem drinkers in industry Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcoholism, 20:302–307
O’Connor M & Woodford F P (1977) Writing Scientific Papers in English Tunbridge Wells: Pitman
Medical Publishing
O’Hanlon J F , Royal J W & Beatty J (1977) Theta regulation and radar vigilance performance In:
Biofeedback and Behaviour, J Beatty & H Legewie (Eds), New York: Plenum Press
Open University (1975a) Attitudes and Beliefs Course D 101, Block 7, Units 21–24, Open
University, Milton Keynes
Open University (1975b) Communication Course D101, Block 3, Units 7–10, Open University,
Milton Keynes
Oppenheim A N (1966) Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement Aldershot: Gower
Orlady H W (1975) The operational aspects of pilot incapacitation In: The IATA 20th Technical
Conference, Istanbul, 10–14 November 1975, WP/19
Orlady H W (1993) Airline pilot training for today and tomorrow In: Cockpit Resource Management,
Wiener E L , Kanki B G & Helmreich R L (Eds).
Orlady H W , Hennessy R T , Obermayer R W , Vruels D , & Murphy M (1988) Full-Mission
Simulation in Human Factors Research for Air Transport Operations (NASA TM 88330) NASA-
Ames Research Center, Mountain View, California
Orlady L M (1992) C/L/R – how do we know that it works? Safetyliner, III, 2, Chicago: United
Airlines
Orr D B , Friedman H L & Williams J C C (1965) Trainability listening comprehension of speeded
discourse Journal of Educational Psychology, 56:148–156
Ostberg O & Mills-Orring R (1980) Cabin attendants working environment – a questionnaire study
Technical Report No. 1980:74 T. Department of Human Work Sciences, University of Lulea,
Sweden
Owens D A (1984) The resting state of the eyes American Scientist, 72:378–387
Parker E S & Noble E P (1977) Alcohol consumption and cognitive functioning in social drinkers
Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 38:1224–1232
Payne J , Blake E & Fitzgerald C (1979) The ordeal at Three-Mile Island In: Nuclear News Special
Report, American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, III.
Petersen L (1979) Non-flying public in The Netherlands Scandinavian Airlines System marketing
survey, (unpublished), SAS, Stockholm
Peterson A P G & Gross E E (1978) Handbook of Noise Measurement (8th Edition) New Concord,
Mass.: General Radio Company
Peterson L R & Peterson M J (1959) Short-term retention of individual items Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 58:193–198
Pheasant S T (1983) Sex differences in strength – some observations on their variability Applied
Ergonomics, 14, 3:205–211
Phillips R J (1979) Why lower case is better Applied Ergonomics, 10, 4:211–214
Popplow J R (1984) After the fire-ball Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, April 1984
Poulton E C (1965) Letter differentiation and the rate of comprehension in reading Journal of
Applied Psychology, 49:358–362
Poulton E C (1970) Environmental and Human Efficiency Springfield, III.: Thomas
Poulton E C (1971) Skilled performance and stress In: Psychology at Work, P B Warr (Ed),
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Poulton E C (1985) Geometric illusions in reading graphs Perception and Psychophysics,
37:543–548
Presidential Commission (1986) Report of the Presidential Commission on the space shuttle
Challenger accident Hearings of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger
Accident: 6 February- 2 May 1986, Vol. 1, Appendix G – Human Factors Analysis
Presser S & Schuman H (1980) The measurement of a middle position in attitude surveys Public
Opinion Quarterly, 44:70–85
Preston F S (1972) An investigation into the workload and working conditions of cabin crew in
BOAC Report of the Air Corporations Joint Medical Service, BOAC
Preston F S (1975) Transport flying and circadian rhythms In: The IATA 20th Technical
Conference, Istanbul, 10–14 November 1975, WP/60
Preston F S (1979) Aircrew Stress In: The Symposium on Human Factors in Civil Aviation, The
Hague, The VNV Dutch Airline Pilots Association, 3–7 September 1979
Randel H (1971) Aerospace Medicine Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins
Rechtschaffen A , Gilliland M A , Bergmann B M & Winter J B (1982) Physiological correlates of
prolonged sleep deprivation Science, 221:182–184
Rechtschaffen A & Kales A (1968) A manual of standardised terminology; techniques and scoring
system for sleep stages of human subjects National Institute of Health Publication No. 204, Public
Health Service, USA
Reichmann W J (1961) Use and Abuse of Statistics Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Reinberg A , Andlauer P , Guillet P , Nicolai A , Vieux N & Laporte A (1980) Oral temperature,
ciradian rhythm amplitude, aging and tolerance to shift work Ergonomics, 23, 1:55–64
Reynard W D , Billings C E , Cheaney E S & Hardy R (1986) The Development of the NASA
Aviation Safety Reporting System (NASA Reference Publication 11 14). NASA-Ames Research
Center, Moffett Field, California.
Robinson J O (1972) The Psychology of Visual Illusion London: Hutchinson
Robson B M , Huddleston H F & Adams A H (1974) Some effects of disturbed sleep on a
simulated flying task Technical report 74057, RAE Farnborough
Roethlisberger F J & Dickson W J (1939) Management and the worker – an account of a research
programme conducted by the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Works, Chicago Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press
Rolfe J M (1972) Ergonomics and air safety Applied Ergonomics, 3, 2:75–81
Rolfe J M & Bekerian D A (1984) Witnesses In: ISASI Forum, Report of ISASI Conference, London
Airport, 1984
Rood G (1985) Aircraft cockpit and flight deck noise The International Journal of Aviation Safety, 3,
1:52–61
Ross H (1975) Mist, murk and visual perception New Scientist, 66, 954:658–670
Royal College of Physicians (1983) Smoking or Health London: Pitman Medical
Royal College of Psychiatrists (1979) Alcohol and Alcoholism London: Tavistock Publications
Rubin D H , Krasilnikoff P A , Leventhal J M , Weile B & Berget A (1986) Effect of passive smoking
on birth-weight The Lancet, 2, 8504:415–417
Ruffell Smith H P (1979) A simulator study of the interaction of pilot workload with errors, vigilance
and decision making NASA Technical Memorandum 78482, NASA-Ames Research Center,
Moffett Field
Rundus D & Atkinson R C (1970) Rehearsal processes in free recall: a procedure for direct
observation Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 9:99–105
Ryback R S & Dowd P J (1970) After effects of various alcoholic beverages on positional
nystagmus and coriolis acceleration Aviation Medicine, 41, 4:429–435
Sandelin J , Bennet S & Case D (Eds) (1984) Video Display Terminals; usability issues and health
concerns New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Schachter S (1973) Nesbitt’s Paradox In: Smoking Behaviour: Motives and Incentives, W L Dunn
(Ed), Washington: V H Winston & Sons
Schwartz F R & Kidera G J (1978) Method of rehabilitation of the alcohol-addicted pilot in a
commercial airline Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 49, 5:729–731
Seminara J L & Shavelson R J (1969) Effectiveness of space crew performance subsequent to
sudden sleep arousal Aerospace Medicine, 40, 7:723–727
Sexton G A (1983) Pilot’s desk flight station In: Proceedings of The 2nd Symposium on Aviation
Psychology, R S Jensen (Ed), Columbus: Ohio State University Press
Shephard R J (1982) The Risks of Passive Smoking London: Croom Helm
Sinclair M A (1975) Questionnaire design Applied Ergonomics, 6, 2:73–80
Singleton W T (1974) Man-Machine Systems Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Skegg D C G , Richards S M & Doll R (1979) Minor tranquillisers and road accidents British
Medical Journal, 1:917–919
Sleight R B (1948) The effect of instrument dial shape on legibility Journal of Applied Psychology,
32:170–188
Sloane S J & Cooper C L (1984) Health-related lifestyle habits in commercial airline pilots British
Journal of Aviation Medicine, 2:32–41
Smith M L , Glass G V & Miller T I (1980) The Benefits of Psychotherapy Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press
Smith R L & Lucaccini L F (1969) Vigilance research: its application to industrial problems Human
Factors, 11, 2:149–156
Smith S L (1979) Letter size and legibility Human Factors, 21, 6:661–670
Snow C C , Carrol J J & Allgood M A (1970) Survival in emergency escape from passenger aircraft
FAA-AM-70–16
SnyderR G (1976) Advanced techniques in crash protection and emergency egress from air
transport aircraft NATO AGARD-AG-221
Snyder R G (1982) Impact protection in air transport passenger seat design SAE Technical Paper
No. 821391
Steen D (1979) Canadian Pilot’s Fitness Manual Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside
Stone R B & Babcock G L (1976) Pilot error: human failure or system failure In: The 29th
International Air Safety Seminar of the Flight Safety Foundation, Anaheim, 25–29 October 1976
Strentz T (1985) Preparing victims of hostage situations In: Proceedings of The 2nd Annual
International Aircraft Cabin Safety Symposium
Strentz T (1986) Hostage psychological survival guide In: Proceedings of The 3rd Annual
International Cabin Safety Symposium
Sturtevant F M & Sturtevant R P (1979) Chronopharmacokinetics of ethanol In: Biochemistry and
Pharmacology of Ethanol, Vol. 1, E Majchroviez & E P Noble (Eds), New York: Plenum Press
Sumby W & Pollack I (1954) Visual contribution to speech intelligibility in noise Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America, 26:212–215
Swain A D (1974) Design techniques for improving human performance in production Industrial
and Commercial Techniques Ltd, Fleet Street, London
Swissair (1979) Comparison of success between ab initio and other candidates and initial
upgrading from copilot to captain In: The IATA 5th General Flight Crew Training Meeting, Miami,
15–19 October 1979, W/P 1.3 and 6.9
Szlichcinski K P (1979) Telling people how things work Applied Ergonomics, 10, 1:2–8
Talland G A (1968) Age and span of immediate recall In: Human Ageing and Behaviour, G A
Talland (Ed), New York: Academic Press
Taub J M & Berger R J (1973) Performance and mood following variations in the length of time
asleep Psychophysiology, 10, 6:559–570
Taylor F W (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management New York: Harper & Row
Taylor M R (1984) DVI and its role in future avionic systems In: The First International Conference
on Speech Technology, Brighton, 23–25 October 1984
Taylor R M (1985) Colour design in aviation cartography Displays, 6, 4:187–201
Temham K (1978) The automatic complacency Aerospace Safety, 35, 4:12–13
Thomson L J (1987) Who should treat medical emergencies on civil airlines? Aviation Medicine
Quarterly, 1:125–129
Tinker M A (1963) The Legibility of Print Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press
Torsvall L , Akerstedt T & Lindbeck G (1984) Effects on sleep stages and EEG power density of
different degrees of exercise in fit subjects EEG and Clinical Neurophysiology, 57:347–353
Troland L T (1934) Vision 1. Visual phenomena and their stimulus correlations In: A Handbook of
General Experimental Psychology, Worcester: Clark University Press
Turner J W & Huntley M S Jr (1991) The use and design of flightcrew checklists and manuals
DOT/FAA/AM-917, Washington, DC
United Airlines (1975) Approach plate questionnaire In: The IATA 20th Technical Conference,
Istanbul, 10–14 November 1975. W/P 35
Ursano R J (1980) Stress and adaptation: the interaction of the pilot personality and disease
US Army (1980) Aircraft crash survival guide USARTL-TR-79–22, Applied Technology Laboratory,
US Army Research and Technology Laboratories (AVRADCOM), Fort Eustis, Va
Van Cott H P & Kinkade R G (1972) Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design Washington
DC 20402: Superintendant of Documents, US Government Printing Office
Vernon T (1980) Gobbledegook London: National Consumer Council
Veroff J (1957) Development and validation of a projective measure of power motivation Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 54:1–8
Vette G (1983) Impact Erebus Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton
VisserC J (1988) Civil aviation remains vulnerable to terrorism FSF, Flight Safety Digest, 7, 4, April
1988
de Vries H A & Adams G M (1972) Electromyographic comparison of single doses of exercise and
meprobamate as to effects on muscular relaxation American Journal of Physical Medicine,
51:130–141
Vroom V H (1964) Work and Motivation New York: John Wiley & Sons
Vroom V H & Deci E L (1970) Management and Motivation Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Warr P B (Ed) (1971) Psychology at Work Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Webb W (1971) Sleep behaviour as a biorhythm In: Biological Rhythms and Human Performance,
W P Colquhoun (Ed), London: Academic Press
Wegmann H M , Hansenclever S , Michel C & Trumbach S (1985) Models to predict operational
loads of flight schedules Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 56, 1:27–32
Wegmann H M , Klein K E , Conrad B & Esser P (1983) A model for prediction of
resynchronisation after time-zone flights Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 54,
6:524–527
Welford A T (1966) The ergonomic approach to social behaviour Ergonomics, 9:357–369
Wheale J (1983) Crew coordination on the flight deck of commercial transport aircraft In: The Flight
Operations Symposium, Irish Air Line Pilots Association/Aer Lingus, Dublin, 19–20 October 1983
Whiteside T C D (1952) Accommodation of the human eye in a bright and empty field Journal of
Physiology, 118:65
Wickens C D (1992) Engineering Psychology and Human Performance New York: Harper Collins
Wiener E L (1977) Controlled flight into terrain accidents: system-induced errors Human Factors,
19, 2:171–181
Wiener E L (1983) The role of the human in the age of the microprocessor In: Proceedings of
Princeton University Symposium on Air Traffic Control, Princeton, New Jersey, September 1983
Wiener E L (1985) Cockpit automation: in need of a philosophy In: Proceedings of the Fourth
Behavioral-Technology Conference, Long Beach, California. Warrendale, Pa: Society of
Automotive Engineers SAE Technical Series Paper 851956
Wilkins A J (1985) Discomfort and visual displays Displays, 6, 2:101–103
Wilkinson R T (1969) Sleep deprivation: Performance tests for partial and selective sleep
deprivation In: Progress in Clinical Psychology, L E Abt & B F Reiss (Eds), New York: Gruñe &
Stratton
Williams A R T & Blackler F H M (1971) Motives and behaviour at work In: Psychology at Work, P
B Warr (Ed), Harmondsworth: Penguin Books
Williams H L , Hammack J T , Daly R L , Dement W C & Lubin A (1964) Responses to auditory
stimulation, sleep loss and the EEG stages of sleep EEG Clinical Neurophysiology, 16:269–279
Wilson J W & Bateman L F (1979) Human Factors and the advanced flight deck In: The 32nd
International Air Safety Seminar, London, 8–11 October 1979
Wilson J W & Hillman R E (1979) The advanced flight deck In: Aerospace Electronics in the Next
Two Decades, The Royal Aeronautical Society’s Spring Convention, London, 16–17 May 1979
Winkel J (1983) On the manual handling of wide-body carts used by cabin attendants in civil
aircraft Applied Ergonomics, 14, 3:162–168
Winkel J & Jorgensen K (1986) Evaluation of foot swelling and lower limb temperatures in relation
to leg activity during long term seated office work Ergonomics, 29, 2:313–328
Wise L M (1980) Residual effect of alcohol on aircrew performance SAFE Journal, 10, 2:28–31
Wolcott J H , McMeekin R R , Burgin R E & Yanowitch R E (1977) Correlation of general aviation
accidents with the Biorhythm Theory Human Factors, 19, 3:283–293
Wright P (1977) Presenting technical information: a survey of research findings Instructional
Science, 6:93–134
Wright P (1981) Five skills technical writers need IEEE Transactions on Professional
Communication, PC-24, 1:10–16
Wright P & Barnard P (1975) Just fill in this form: a review for designers Applied Ergonomics, 6,
4:213–220
Wright P & Lickorish A (1983) Proof reading texts on screen and paper Behaviour and Information
Technology, 2:227–235
Yerkes R M & Dodson J D (1908) The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Journal of Comparative Neurological Psychology, 18:182–459

HAWKING, F.J. Human Factors in Flight. 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HAWKING, F.J. Human Factors in Flight. 2017

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HAWKING, F.J. Human Factors in Flight. 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Human Factors in Flight

Published 2016 by Routledge

First issued in hardback 2017

Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © Frank H Hawkins 1987

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the

ISBN 13: 978-1-138-40128-0 (hbk)

Design and production: Uniepers Uitgevers, Hoorn, The Netherlands

3 Fatigue, Body Rhythms and Sleep 56

4 Fitness and Performance 84

5 Vision and Visual Illusions 107

6 Motivation and Leadership 131

7 Communication: Language and Speech 152

8 Attitudes and Persuasion 172

9 Training and Training Devices 189

11 Displays and Controls 241

12 Space and Layout 269

13 The Aircraft Cabin and its Human Payload 286

14 Education and Application 326

I wish to express my appreciation to those who have provided assistance in reviewing

I am grateful to the administrators of the US Aviation Safety Reporting System

transport aircraft compared with the single-operator task in a car.

Referenced regulations, abbreviations and definitions

(Transport Category Aircraft Operations). Part 121 is not applicable to non-US

A hundred years of Human Factors

Defining Human Factors

Human Factors and ergonomics

Disciplines utilised in Human Factors

performance of people of different ethnic backgrounds. No proper analysis of

A conceptual model of Human Factors

In the centre of the model is man, or the Liveware. This is the

The first of the components which requires matching with the

Live ware-S oftware

The second interface with which Human Factors is concerned is

Live ware-E n vironment

One of the earliest interfaces recognised in flying was between

The last interface with which Human Factors is concerned, is

A foundation for progress

You might also like