IE 370

Manufacturing Processes 1
 Lecture 2
Chapter 2 - Properties of Materials
…. an overview
Physical and mechanical
properties

2
 Introduction
• Successful products begin with the appropriate materials
• Materials rarely come in the right shape, size, or quantity for use
• Parts and components are produced by subjecting engineering materials to one or more
processes

• To decide on the right materials and their manufacture, we need to learn about:
• Structure of the materials
• Properties of the materials
• Performance of the materials under working conditions
• Processing of the materials

3
 Engineering Materials

Metallic Nonmetallic

Ferrous Nonferrous Organic Inorganic

Aluminum Plastics Minerals
Cast iron
Copper Wood Cement
Malleable iron
Lead Paper Ceramics
Steel
Titanium Rubber Glass
Leather Graphite

4
 Material Properties
• Physical properties: (how materials feel and look)
Density, melting point, optical properties, thermal properties, electrical
properties, magnetic properties, conductivity, acoustical (sound/transmission,
absorption)
• Mechanical properties (how materials behave responding to applied forces):
Strength (tension, compression, etc.), Toughness, Stiffness, Elasticity, Plasticity,
Ductility, Brittleness, Hardness
• Chemical properties: Composition (oxide or compound), Acidity or Alkalinity,
Weathering, Corrosion
• Dimensional properties: Size, Shape

5
 Mechanical Properties
• How a material responds and behaves under applied loads and
forces, is determined through specified testing approaches

• Strength of a material is important in processing materials and

product behavior

• Tests to determine static properties of materials include:

• Tensile test
• Compression test
• Hardness test
• Impact test

6
 Static Testing
 Constant force on a material is called a static force
 To determine the static properties
 Tensile test
• Uniaxial tension force
• Generates an engineering stress-strain curve
• Common test for determining mechanical properties of
Strength, Schematic of the load frame showing how
upward motion of the darkened yoke can
ductility, produce tension or compression with respect
to the stationary (white) crosspiece.
stiffness,
toughness,
elasticity, etc.

7
 Tension Test
o Common test for determining mechanical properties
• Strength, ductility, stiffness, toughness, elasticity, etc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHZALtqAjeM&t=32s

8
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 2-6 Engineering stress-strain diagram for a

low-carbon steel.

9
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

• Key features
• Proportional limit – Yield point:
below this limit, the strain is directly
proportional to stress, and material
is in elastic phase

• Ratio of stress to strain is the

modulus of elasticity (Young’s
Modulus); E, which measures
stiffness σ
𝐸=
ε

• E equals the slope of the elastic line

Figure 2-6 Engineering stress-strain diagram for a low-carbon steel.
in the stress-strain curve
10
Stiffness and Other Properties

11
Some Definitions

• Yield point is where there is a fast increase in strain with a slow

increase in stress
• Elastic limit: maximum stress that can be applied without resulting
in permanent deformation
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: Stress at which the load-bearing ability peaks
• UTS: maximum stress the material can withstand

12
 Some Definitions
• Stiffness: indicates the ability of the material to resist deflection or stretching
when loaded and is indicated by Young’s modulus (E)
• High values of E mean more strength
• Toughness: amount of energy per unit volume
that the materials withstand before fracture
• Total area under the stress-strain curve
• Resilience: amount of energy the material can
absorb while in the elastic range
• Area under the elastic region

13
 Stress vs Strain
• Stress is the force or the load being transmitted
through the material’s cross sectional area
𝑊
𝑆=
𝐴

• Strain is the distortion or deformation of a

material from a force or a load. W
It is the relative elongation
Tension loading and the resultant elongation
∆𝐿
𝑒=
𝐿

14
Engineering vs. True Stress and Strain
• While testing a specimen, the length and cross-sectional area
change.
• If the changes are ignored, then the resulting curve is termed
engineering stress-strain curve and the estimated values
are the engineering stress and engineering strain values

• The true stress and true strain values are calculated considering
the actual (instantaneous) dimensions of the specimen.

• True stress and true strain are used for accurate definition of
plastic behavior of ductile materials by considering the
actual (instantaneous) dimensions

15
Engineering vs. True Stress and Strain
• Engineering stress, S, is the applied load (W) divided by the original cross-
sectional area (A0) of a material. Also known as nominal stress.
• Engineering strain, e, is the elongation, ∆L, divided by the original length L0.
Also known as nominal strain.

• True stress, σ, is the applied load (W) divided by the actual cross-sectional
area, A, (the changing area with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.
• True strain, 𝜀, equals the natural logarithm of the percentage of current length
over the original length.

16
Engineering Stress and Strain
• Engineering stress, S (MPa) is the ratio of tension load, W to the
original cross sectional area of the specimen
𝑾
𝑺=
𝑨𝟎

• Engineering strain is the response of the specimen, e : relative

elongation
∆𝑳
𝒆=
𝑳𝟎

17
 True Stress and True Strain
• Cross sectional area changes while in the test

𝑊 𝐿
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ln
𝐴 𝐿0

• The determination of true strain is complex. In place of the change in

length divided by the original length that was used to compute
engineering strain, true strain is defined as the summation of the
incremental strains that occur throughout the test.

18
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7g4MTSzESc

True Stress and True Strain

• What is the engineering and true strains of a steel rod stretched from 10” to 10.18”?
• e Engineering strain = 0.18/10 = 0.018
• 𝜀 True strain = ln(10.18/10) = 0.01784

• For small stresses, true and engineering values are close

• As stress increases, they become different (when e = 0.1, 𝜀 = 0.0951 and
when e = 1.0, 𝜀 = 0.69)
• True strain is more accurate

19
 Example and Solution:

1- A rod 150cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN.

What will be the stress?

20
 Example and Solution:

1- A rod 150cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN.

What will be the stress?

The stress = load / area

Load = 20,000 N
area of circle A = πr2 or πd2/4
Area = π (20)2/4 = 314.159 mm2.

Stress = 63.66 N/mm2 = 63.66 MPa

21
 Example and Solution:

2 - What will be the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a
load of 4000 N if the stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 MPa?

22
 Example and Solution:

2 - What will be the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a
load of 4000 N if the stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 MPa?

As stress = load / area

Area = load/stress
area of circle A = πr2 or πd2/4
A = πd2/4 = 4000 / 95 = 42.10 mm2

d = 7.3 mm

23
 Example and Solution:

3 - Calculate the Young's modulus, when 1.5N/m2 stress is applied to produce a

strain of 0.2?

24
 Example and Solution:

3 - Calculate the Young's modulus, when 1.5N/m2 stress is applied to produce a

strain of 0.2?

Given parameters are;

Stress, σ = 1.5 N/m2

Strain, ε = 0.2

Young's modulus is given by, E = σ/ε

E = 1.5/0.2 E =7.5 N/m2

25
Ductility and Brittleness
• Necking is a localized reduction in cross sectional area

• For ductile materials, necking occurs before fracture

• For brittle materials, fracture occurs without necking
Figure 2-8 A standard 0.505-in diameter tensile
• Brittle materials (behave like concrete and glass) do specimen showing a necked region developed
not have a yield point, and do not strain-harden prior to failure.

• One measure of ductility is the percent reduction of

area at the necked region:
A0  A f
Percent Reduction in Area = R . A .   100 %
A0
• Another measure is the percent elongation

26
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZYUBmmtQlI

Ductile vs. Brittle Materials

• Ductile materials are capable of undergoing relatively large strains
(at room temperature) before failure
• Example: steel, aluminum, copper
• Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness)
before fracture
• Characteristic feature of ductile material is necking

• Brittle materials fail in tension at relatively low

values of strain.
• Example: concrete, glass, cast iron, stone
• Little or no plastic deformation or energy
absorption before fracture.
• Characteristic feature of brittle materials –
fracture surface perpendicular to the stress.

27
s

28
29
Strain Hardening
• Work hardening, also known as strain hardening
is the strengthening of a metal by plastic
deformation
• When metals are plastically deformed, they
become harder and stronger (strain hardened)
• This strengthening occurs because of dislocation
movements and dislocation generation within
the crystal structure of the material
• Loading and unloading within the elastic region
will result in cycling up and down the linear Stress-strain diagram obtained by
portion of the stress strain curve unloading and reloading a specimen.

30
Hardness Testing
• Hardness is the resistance to permanent deformation in the form of
penetration or indentation

• Brinell Hardness Test

• Measures the indentation of a steel ball
• Yields a Brinell hardness number based on diameter of indentation
• Rockwell Test
• Small steel ball or diamond tip cone (called a brale) causes an indentation
• Indentation is measured based on depth
• Vickers Hardness Test Brinell test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJXJpeH78iU

• Micro-hardness Test Vickers test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Z90OZ7C2jI

Rockwell test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2JGNlIvNC4

31
Hardness Testing

Vikers Hardness test

Brinell Hardness test
Rockwell Hardness test 32
Hardness
Conversion
Table

33
2.3 Dynamic Properties
• In many engineering applications, products or components are subjected
to various types of dynamic loading.
• These may include
• Sudden impacts or loads that vary rapidly in magnitude,
• Repeated cycles of loading and unloading
• Frequent changes in the mode of loading, such as from tension to
compression.
• Tests have been developed to evaluate the toughness or fracture
resistance of materials subjected to dynamic loads

34
Impact Testing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo

• Impact test is a test which determine the impact resistance of the materials.
• Izod Impact resistance test
• Charpy Impact resistance test

35
Dynamic Properties
• Bending impacts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKmGs8nu9Ec

• Torsion test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-u6bt-bulM

• Fatigue testing
• Materials can fail if they are subjected to repeated applications of
stress
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4s_gyzshNPQ

36
Fatigue Testing
• Cyclic loading or periodic loading
• Stress vs. number of cycles curve

• At a certain load how many cycles to the fracture

37
Fatigue and Endurance limit
• Stress versus number of cycles curves are useful in determining endurance limits
• Endurance limit is the stress below which the material will not fail regardless of the
number of cycles
• Fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be sustained for a number of loading
cycles
• At a certain load how many cycles to fracture
• How many cycles  service life
• Keyboard keys: how many key strokes!

For 100,000 cycles, maximum

stress is 380 MPa (fatigue
strength)
Endurance limit: 350 MPa
Endurance limit: 350 MPa 38
ASTM Standard for Material Testing

39
ASTM Standards for Mechanical Properties
Evaluation

40
Review questions
• Chapter 2: 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 18, 21, 23, 25, 37, 45

• A tensile specimen is elongated to twice its original length. Determine the

engineering strain and true strain for this test.
• A strip of metal is 250 mm long. It is stretched in two steps, first to 300 mm and
then to 400 mm. Show that the total true strain is the sum of the true strains in
each step. Check also for the engineering strain.

41
42