Human Bio Book by WAHID WANIS

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Biology
PART 1
New syllabus
019
WAHID WANIS
Human biology 1 Wahid Wanis

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Introduction
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- This book is designed in a well organised pattern to be an exciting guide to
human biology that you can study easily.
- It includes all the topics required in the new syllabus.
- It includes practical work which contains the basic facts and techniques that
open the door to answer any question.
- The important scientific terms are written italic and underlined.
How to use this book for highest achievement
- Read carefully the topic for understanding.
- Rewrite the main scientific terms which are written in italic, bold and underlined, so that
you can remember the correct spelling.
- On a paper write the main titles of the topic, then try to write the points covering each title
from your own mind, if are written well this means that this topic is well studied as a first
step, if not, restudy the weak points and repeat the last step.
I hope that, it will help to maintain your interest in biology, and that it will play a valuable
role in developing your knowledge and understanding.
WAHID WANIS

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Contents
Topic page
1- Cell and tissue 6
2- Cell structure and organisation 7
3- Levels of organization……………………………… 8
4- Size of specimens. 9
5- Diffusion………………………………………………. 11
Active transport……………………………………… 12
Osmosis………………………………………………. 13
6- Nutrition ……………………………………………… 17
Carbohydrates ……………………………………... 17
Fats…………………………………………………… 18
Proteins……………………………………………… 19
Vitamins……………………………………………… 19
Mineral ions…………………………………………. 21
Roughages …………………………………………… 22
Water…………………………………………………... 22
Energy value………………………………………….. 22
Food test……………………………………………… 24
7- Enzymes and metabolism……………………….. 26

8- Photosynthesis …………………………………….. 32
Leaf structure ………………………………………. 38
Green house ………………………………………… 43
Mineral requirements………………………………. 45
9-
10- Diet……………………………………………………... 46
Mechanical and physical digestion ( teeth)……. 48
Human alimentary canal…………………………… 51
11- Transport in plants…………………………………. 61
Transpiration………………………………………… 65
Translocation………………………………………… 66
12- Transport in humans……………………………….. 69
Blood………………………………………………….. 69
Blood vessels………………………………………… 72
Heart……………………………………………………. 74
13- Respiration……………………………………………. 84
Respiratory 86
system………………………………….. 94
Practical applications………………………………
14- Excretion in humans ……………………………….. 96
Homeostasis …………………………………………. 102

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(1)
CELLS
AND
TISSUES

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CELL STRUCTURE
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Animal cell as seen under light microscope

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plant cell as seen under light microscope
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structure properties functions
Cell wall -Found in plant cells only. -Supports, protects and gives the cell
-Made of cellulose (non its shape.
living). -Allows the freely movement of the different
-Fully permeable (mans molecules
allow different molecules to
pass through it freely) .
Cell membrane -Found in both plant and -Surrounds the cell contents.
animal cells -Controls the movement of different molecules
-Made of carbohydrates, into and out the cell.
proteins and fats.
-Semi-permeable (partially
or selectively permeable)
Nucleus Contains DNA which is the -Controls the activities of the cell.
genetic material. -Carries the inherited information.
Cytoplasm Consists mainly of proteins . -Contains and supports the cell organelles.
-May contain stored food
Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll. -Absorbs light energy and converts it to chemical
or energy in photosynthesis.
chloroplastids
Mitochondria Are very small organelles. Site of production of energy by the process
(singular: ofaerobic respiration.
Mitochondrion)
Vacuole Consists of fluid surrounded - It helps in supporting the cell
by a membrane. - Regulates absorption of water
The fluid is called sap -Contains stored food.
,consists of nutrients and
ions

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Ribosomes -Found on the rough Used in synthesis (formation) of protein.
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endoplasmic reticulum(ER).
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-May be found free in
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cytoplasm
Rough Membranes that form sacs. -Carry ribosomes for protein synthesis.
endoplasmic (network of membranes) -Transport the formed protein
reticulum
vesicles Small vacuoles. Transport of materials.
Notice
Cells with high rate of metabolism require large number of mitochondria to provide enough energy for
this metabolism.
Animal cell as seen under electron microscope

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Plant cell as seen under electron microscope
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Similarities in both plant and animal cells
Both have:
cell membrane. cytoplasm. nucleus.

mitochondria. ribosomes. ER.
Differences between plant and animal cells
plant cell animal cell
Has a cell wall made of cellulose. Has no cell wall
Has a large permanent sap vacuole. Has no vacuole or temporary small

vacuoles known as (vesicles).
Usually contain chloroplasts No chloroplasts.
Usually contains stored starch. usually contains stored glycogen.

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Levels of organization
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1-Organelle
Is a living structure in a cell such as nucleus, chloroplast, vacuole and mitochondria.
2-Cell
The structural and functional unit of all living organisms
3-Tissue
A group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a specific functions.
(examples: bone, muscle, blood, and nervous tissue.)
4-Organ
A structure made up of a group of tissues working together to perform specific functions.
5-Organ system or system

A group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions.
Notice
Not all plant cells are identical and not all animal cells are identical but many cells differ in shape
and structure to perform certain function, these cells are known as modified cells.
Modified cell
means a cell changed in shape or structure or both than the typical form to be adapted to
perform a particular function.

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Practical work
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Preparing a sample of plant cells for light microscope
1- Cut a piece from an onion bulb, peel a piece of its thin skin using a forceps.
2- Add a drop of water onto a centre of a clean microscope slide, put the piece of onion skin onto it.
( Water is added to avoid dryness of the sample and to keep it turgid enough to be seen easily)
3- Gently lower a coverslip onto it as shown below to avoid trapping any

air bubbles that may affect viewing by formation of dark areas.
4- Use a filter paper to clean up the slide .

5- Look at the sample using the low powerlens of
the microscope.
Onion cellsas seen using light microscope

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Preparing a sample of animal cells for light microscope
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1- Gently rub off a little of your cheek cells using your finger nail or a tooth brush.
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2- Put the obtained cells on a clean microscope slide, and gently spread them out.
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3- Put on few drops of methylene blue to stain the cells to see the different parts easily.
4- Gently lower a coverslip onto it to avoid trapping any air bubbles that may affect viewing by formation
of dark areas.
5- Use a filter paper to clean up the slide .
6- Look at the sample using the low power lens of the microscope.
cheek cells as seen using light microscope

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(2)
MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES
INTO AND
OUT OF CELLS

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Movement of substances in and out of cells
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Includes
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1-Diffusion
2-Active transport or active uptake
3-Osmosis
Diffusion
The net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Down and up or against concentration gradient

 Down a concentration gradient means from higher concentration to lower concentration
 Up or against concentration gradient means from lower concentration to higher concentration
What causes diffusion

1- Random movement of the different molecules that provides energy for diffusion.
2- Presence of a difference in concentration of a certain substance.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1- Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the kinetic energy of the
molecules.
(If you hold a tube containing a substance such as ammonia in your hand, rate of
diffusion increases as the molecules of the substance gain heat from your hand)
2- Distance of diffusion
The longer the distance, the longer the time taken for diffusion and vice versa.
3-Air current
If the direction of current is similar to that of diffusion, it increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa.
4-Stirring
It increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the kinetic energy of molecules.

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5-Size of molecules
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Increase in size of molecules decreases the rate of diffusion and vice versa.
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6-Surface area to volume ratio
When increases , it leads to an increase in rate of diffusion.
7-Concenteration gradient( difference in concentration)

Increase in difference of concentration leads to an increase in rate of diffusion
Importance of diffusion of gases

1- Necessary for exchange of gases in all living organisms.
2- Necessary for obtaining carbon dioxide and release of oxygen in the process of photosynthesis.
Active transport or active uptake

Definition
Movement of particles in or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from a region of their lower
concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration gradient, using energy
released during respiration
Carrier proteins
 Protein found in cell membranes that force particles against their concentration gradient.
 Carrier proteins are specific( means each type of carrier has a specific precise shape that can bind with
specific particle).
How carrier proteins act

 The solute( molecule or ion) is taken in the binding site of the carrier
molecule.
 The carrier molecule rotates using energy to transfer the solute from
region of its lower concentration to region of its higher concentration.
Factors affecting active uptake:
1- Number of mitochondriaas in the mitochondria energy is

released by the process of aerobic respiration, this energy is used
in active uptake.
2- Concentration of oxygen:
Increase in oxygen concentration increases rate of aerobic respiration,
as a result of this more energy is produced to be used in increasing
rate of active uptake .

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3-Number of carrier proteins in the membrane.
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OSMOSIS
What is osmosis
Net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential( dilute solution)to a region of
lower water potential( concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane.
Plant cells and osmosis
If a plant cell is placed in high If a plant cell is placed in low potential of

potential of water (e.g. distilled water water (e.g. high concentrated solution of
or diluted solution.) salt or sugar).
The cell gains water by osmosis The cell loses water by osmosis
- The vacuole enlarges and the cell becomes - If it loses a small amount of water The
turgid. vacuole shrinks, and the cell becomes flaccid,
(Turgor pressure is the pressure acting but the cell membrane remains attached to the
against cell wall.) cell wall.
- The turgidity is necessary for supporting the - If the cell gains water, it gains its turgidity once
plant. more ( reversible process)
- The pressure inside the plant cell can be - If it loses more water, the cell membrane
increased due to absorption of water without separates away from the cell wall and the cell
being burst as it is surrounded by a rigid becomes plasmolysed.
cellulose cell wall.
(the space labeled X in the above figure is
occupied by the surrounding solution.)
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Plsmolysis
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 It is the shrinkage of cytoplasm of a plant cell ,so that the cell membrane begins to tear away from the
cell wall .
 It is an irreversible condition because it damages the cell membrane when it tears away from the cell
wall .
 It is a condition caused by the process of osmosis .
Animal cells and osmosis
If an animal cell is placed in higher water potential
- The cell gains water and bursts, therefore the pressure inside the animal cell cannot be higher than that
inside the plant cell.
If an animal cell is placed in lower water potential
- Cytoplasm shrinks and the cell shrivels up.

( It is not plasmolysed as plasmolysis includes separation of the cell membrane away from the cell wall
and the animal cell has no cell wall.)
Comparison
Diffusion Osmosis
1- It is applied for movement of any type of -It is applied for the movement of molecules of water
molecules only.
2- A partially permeable membrane is not - A partially permeable membrane must be involved .

always involved

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The differences between uptake of water and uptake of minerals by the root
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1- Uptake of water takes place by the process of osmosis which is a passive process (does not
need energy) while uptake of minerals takes place by the process of active uptake which is an
active process (needs energy).
2- In uptake of water, the molecules of water move from regions of their higher concentration
(potential), while in uptake of minerals the molecules move from regions of their lower
concentrations to regions of their higher concentrations (against their concentration gradient).
Remember that
No active transport for water or gases
Turgid and plasmlysed onion cells
Importance of osmosis to plants

 Absorption of water by the root .
 Prevents wilting of the plant and provides support by turgidity.

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Practical work
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1- If a piece of plant such as potato tuber is placed in a concentrated solution of salt or
sugar itslength decreases
This due to loss of water from the cells where water potential is higher to the
surroundingsolution where the water potential is lower.
( Decrease in length is represented as a negative value e.g. –1, -2 …etc.)
2- In the above condition

If a weight is hanged to the potato tuber as in figure below , the tuber becomes unable to support the
weight as its cells become flaccid)
3- If a piece of plant such as potato tuber is placed in distilled water or a dil. solution of salt
or sugar its length increases
This is because it gains water from the surrounding solution where water potential is
higher than that of potato tissues.
(Increase in length is represented as a positive value e.g. +1, +2 …etc.)
4- In the above condition
If a weight is hanged to the potato tuber as in figure below, the tuber becomes able to supportthe
weight as its cells becometurgid.
5- Salting (e.g. salting of fish) or sugaring of food (e.g. making jam) are important ways in
food preservation. Explain why.
As most microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi cannot live in media of high concentration of salt or
sugar, because such media have low water potential, as a result of this microorganisms lose water by
osmosis and then die.
6-Plants die as a result of irrigation with sea water .

Sea water has high concentrations of salts i.e. low water potential therefore water molecules move by
osmosis from plant roots (where water potential is higher) to the outside (where the water potential is
lower) as a result of this plants wilt and die.

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7- Mean or average length of samples = The total length of the samples divided by the number of
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Example
If 5 potato strips of the same length (e.g. 30 mm) are used and are placed in the same dish of water for
the same period of time and then final length is measured, the results are, 31,32,31,33and 37, to
calculate the mean add the lengths then divide the produced value by 5.
In the above example how to get a more reliable value
Exclude the value 37 as it seems to be anomalous ( wrong or abnormal) and calculate the mean of the
other 4 values.
8- Why repeating an experiment several times is important before taking a conclusion
For more reliable results as taking the average reduces the effect of errors that may be produced due
to defect in one or more of the samples or as a result of personal errors in measurements.
9- How to determine glucose concentration in potato
Put potato rods of the same length and obtained from the same potato in different concentrations of
glucose , the concentration of glucose that result in no change in length of potato is equal to that in
potato because at this concentration net movement of water is zero ( means that the amount of water
lost is equal to that gained)
10-If a plant stem is cut vertically as shown and each of the produced parts is placed in a
different concentration of sugar
The outer layer is a waxy , waterprooflayer therefore it is not affected by changes in water potential and
therefore it does not change in length , but the inner soft tissue in the one placed in high concentrated
sugar solution lost water by osmosis causing cells to shrink or become plasmolysed, therefore it decreases
in length than its outer waxy layer while the other one placed in distilled water (zero sugar) gained water
by osmosis therefore its cells become turgid and increase in length.

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(3)
BIOLOGICAL
MOLECULES

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Nutrition And Nutrients
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Importance of food
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1-For growth .
2-For tissue repair.
3-For production of energy.
4-For protection against diseases.
Classes of food :
1- proteins. 2- fats or lipids. 3- carbohydrates or saccharides
4- vitamins. 5- minerals. 6- roughages.
7- water .
Carbohydrates or Saccharides
Chemical structure
Composed of the three elements only which are carbon , hydrogen ,and oxygen , in the ratio 1: 2: 1.
Groups of carbohydrates
Name Examples Sources Formula Properties

Monosaccharides glucose grapes C6H12O6 1- Are the basic units of
carbohydrates.
fructose fruits
galactose 2- Are called simple sugars .
3- Are soluble in water .
4- Have sweet taste .
Disaccharides maltose Barley C12 H22O11 1- Each molecule can be decomposed into
two molecules of monosaccharides.
lactose milk 2- Soluble in water.
sucrose sugar cane
Polysaccharides starch potatoes (C12H22O11)n 1- Each molecule can be decomposed into

many molecules of mono and
cellulose vegetables n = many
disaccharides.
glycogen liver
2- Insoluble in water .
3- No sweet taste.

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4- Only starch is a white powder .
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Importance of carbohydrates
1- Production of energy by the process of respiration .
( One gram of carbohydrates produces about 17 kJ )
2- Stored in the cells:
- in plant cells it is stored in the form of starch .
- in animal cells it is stored in the form of glycogen .
3- Cellulose is used in formation of cell walls of plant cells .
Storage of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are stored in the form of polysaccharides because this insoluble form has no
osmotic effect.
 In mammals excess carbohydrates are stored in liver and muscles in the form of glycogen.
 Excess carbohydrates are also converted into fats to be stored under the skin and around certain
organs such as kidney
Notice
starch, glycogen and cellulose are formed of glucose.
LIPIDS
Chemical structure :
are composed of the three elements which are carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen .But the amount
of oxygen in fats is less than that in carbohydrates
The basic units : fatty acids and glycerol .
Lipids are fats and oil

- Fat is a lipid which is solid at room temperature such as butter.
- Oil is a lipid which is liquid at room temperature
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Importance of lipids
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1- Release of energy by the process of respiration .
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(The energy produced by fats is nearly double that produced by carbohydrates, it is about 39 kJ/gram)
2- Form a part of the cell membrane .
3- Stored in the body:

- as a food reserve .
- to protect and support certain organs such as kidneys.
- to act as an insulating layer that reduces the rate of heat loss.
4-Form a water proof layer for skin, fur, and feathers.
Sources of fats
Animal sources : meat, milk, cheese, butter and eggs
Plant sources : palm oil, maize, and cotton seed oil.
Carbohydrates are used as a source of energy for players and not fats although the energy
produced by fats is more than that produced by carbohydrates because the metabolism of
fats takes longer time
PROTEINS
Chemical structure
: it is formed of the following elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.
The basic units : are known as amino acids.
Dipeptide two amino acids joined by peptide bond

polypeptide more than two amino acids joined by peptide bond
Sources of proteins
Animal sources : meat, milk, fish, and eggs.
Plant sources : leguminous plants such as beans and lentils.

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Importance of proteins
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1- As a source of energy in case of starvation .
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( one gram of proteins produces 17kJ)
2- Growth and tissue repair .
3- Formation of enzymes and hormones.
4- Protection against diseases as antibodies produced by white blood cells are made of proteins .
5- Formation of haemoglobin which is found in red blood cells to transport oxygen.

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VITAMINS
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Are organic substances only needed in small amounts in the body to perform specific functions .
Vitamin Sources Importance Deficiency symptoms Properties
C (also -Citrus fruits such -Helps wounds to -Its lack causes a disease -Watersoluble vitamin
asorange and heal. known as scurvy. therefore it cannot be stored
known lemon. in the body.
as
ascorbic -Keeps blood
acid) -Fresh fruits and
vessels healthy.
vegetables - Spoils if food is heated or
canned.
-Keeps cement of Symptoms of scurvy
teeth healthy.
1- Pain in joints and -Destroyed by being exposed to
muscles.
air e.g. if food is grated or
2- Bleeding from gum and
-Keeps gum and other parts of the body. minced as this activates
3-Delayed healing of enzymes in food which destroy
teeth healthy. wounds. vitamin C.
- Helps the body - Refrigeration keeps the

to use iron. vitamin C content of the food
but to a certain limit.
- Stimulates the
immune system.
D - Butter, eggs -Helps absorption -Rickets in children. -Fat soluble vitamin,
(also and cod- liveroil. of calcium and Causes bones to be soft and therefore it can be stored in the
known deformed body (in liver).
as phosphorus.
calcifer- -Can be formed

ol) in the skin -Helps the
bybeing exposed -Soft bones or
deposition of
to sun rays. osteomalicia in adults.
calcium and

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phosphorus in
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bones and teeth. -Slow dentition
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A Liver and fish oil Healthy skin and Night blindness which is Fat soluble vitamin
epithelial tissues inability to see in dim light
Milk and eggs
Good vision Dryness of cornea leading
Green leafy plants to complete blindness.
carrots
Notice
1- Sailors are liable to be infected by scurvy because they use stored or canned food.
2- It is important to expose children to sun rays to avoid rickets, because vitamin Dcan be formed in their
bodies by the effect of the ultra violet rays of the sun.
Test for vitamin C
(Qualitative test)
When added to a blue dye known as DCPIP it decolorizes it ( causes it to be colourless)
How to compare vitamin C content of two types of juice
(Quantitative test)
1-In two test tubes put equal volumes of DCPIP of the same concentration.
2-Using a graduated dropper, pipette or a syringe, add the juice drop by drop on the DCPIP until it
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becomes colourless, the one that requires smaller volume or number of drops to decolorize DCPIP is the
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one that contains higher conc. of vitamin C.
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How to investigate the effect of storage on the vitamin C ( ascorbic acid ) content of a fruit
juice for example lemon juice
1-Take two equal samples of lemon juice , use one sample todetermine the number of drops needed to
decolorize certain volume of DCPIP.
2-Leave the other samples stored in lab. for 12 hours, then determine the number of drops needed to
decolorize the same volume of DCPIP.
3-Larger number of drops needed in the sample which is stored indicating that conc. of vitamin C
decreased after being stored.

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Mineral salts
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Mineral Sources Importance Deficiency symptoms
Calcium -Milk and its 1) Necessary for 1- Brittle (soft) bones .

products. formation of
bones and
teeth
2) Necessary for
-Many fruits blood clotting.
2- Brittle teeth.
and 3) Necessary for
vegetables. lactation.
3- Slow dentition in children.
Iron -Liver. - Necessary for - Anaemia

formation of
-Egg yolk. haemoglobin of (it is rapid tiredness and shortness of breathing due
red blood cells. to lack of haemoglobin which is used to carry
- Red meat.
oxygen to the different parts of the body to be used
-Leafy in production of energy by the process of aerobic
vegetables. respiration)
More mineral salts are needed
a- In hot days or in case of carrying out strenuous exercise because perspiration(sweat) rate is higher
leading to loss of salts in sweat.
b- In cases of diarrhea due to rapid loss of mineral salts.
WATER
Importance of water
1-It is the main component of the blood plasma.
2-Water secreted in the form of sweat is necessary for cooling down the body during hot days.
3-Environment for marine organisms.
Importance of water as a solvent

 Dissolved oxygen in water is necessary for respiration of marine organisms.
 Excretory productscan not be excreted except dissolved in water.

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 Enzymes and hormones cannot be secreted and work except dissolved in water.
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 Digested foodcan not be absorbed except dissolved in water.
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 Plants can not absorb mineral ions from soil except dissolved in water.
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ROUPHAGES (FIBERS)
Definition : fibrous, indigestible food (mostly cellulose). It stimulates the muscles of the
digestive system to move the food by a movement known as peristalsis .
Importance of rouphages
1- Stimulates peristalsis in the digestive system therefore it prevents constipation.
(because the muscles of the digestive system work more when there is harder, less digestible food)
2- Reduce the risk of cancer of colon because cancer can be started off by certain chemicals in food ,if this
food remains for a long time in the alimentary canal. These chemicals remain stuck to the
fiberswithout affecting the alimentary canal.
3- Helps in diet by providing feel of stomach fullness.
Sources of rouphages
1- All plant foods ( as their cell walls contain the indigestible cellulose).
2- Cereal grains and barley.
3-The whole meal bread (bread contains bran).
4- Brown or unpolished rice.

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ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD
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Definition : it is the amount of energy produced by complete combustion of a unit mass of food .
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Units of measuring energy
Joules (J) ,kilo joules (kJ), and calories
Units of measuring energy value of food
joule per gram ( J/g ) , kilo joule per grams (kJ /g) and calorie per gram.
One calorie = 4.2 joules
One kilo-joule = 1000 joules
Practical work
Comparing energy values of two types of food

1- Two equal samples (one of each type of food)are burnt to be
used in heating water in the test tube as in figure.
2- By comparing the increase in temperature in the two tubes
we can conclude which one of the twofoods has a higher
energy value than the other.
Practical precautions:
1- For fair comparison

a- The two pieces of food must be equal.
b- The volume of water in the two tubes must be equal.
c- The distance between the piece of food and the test tube must be equal, as increase indistance
increases the amount of heat lost to the surrounding air .
d- Two similar tubes must be used, as the difference in surface area exposed to the flame affects the
amount of heat gained by water, also the thickness of the wall of the tube or its material affect the
amount of heat that passes to the water.
2- Not all the heat produced by the food is recorded by the thermometer, because:
a- An amount of heat is lost to the surrounding air.
b- An amount of heat is gained by the needle or any other object used in holding the piece of food.
c- An amount of heat gained by the glass of the tube.
d- An amount of heat lost during evaporation of water.
3- How to reduce heat loss in this experiment?

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a- Put a stopper or a cotton wool in the top of the test tube.
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b- Insulate the sides of the container using a substance such as aluminum foil.
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c- Use a flat bottomless container under which the flame can spread out to reduce rate of heat loss in
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the surrounding air.
How to measure energy value of food
Using a calorimeter
 Put a known mass of food in the crucible.

 Measure the initial temperature
 Burn the sample of food completely
 Measure the final temperature
 Use the following formula

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Food test
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Positive Negative
Type of food Method
observation observation
1-Starch -Add iodine solution -Blue black or -The colour remains

yellow brown
( has a yellow brown color ) dark blue colour
2-Reducing - Add Benedict's solution and heat. -Orange red or - The color
sugar or brick red
(it has a blue colour as it contains Remains blue.
precipitate is
simple sugar copper salts)
formed
(e.g. lucose) Precautions
(the gradual
1- Hold the tube with a holder. change in colour
from blue to
2- Direct the opening of the tube green, yellow,
away from your face. orange then red)
3- Do not fill more than half of the
tube to avoid splashes when the
solution boils.
4- It is preferable to use a water bath

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3- Proteins (This test is known as biuret test) -Purple color -The colour remains
blue.
- Add potassium hydroxide, then add ( mauve or lilac)
drops of copper sulphate, the

colour becomes blue.
4- Fats or (This test is known as ethanol or -Milky emulsion -The solution

lipids. emulsion test)
or turbid solution remains clear
- Add ethanol, fats dissolve in is formed.
ethanol forming clear solution.
- Add drops of water to the clear
solution.
Enzymes are proteins therefore anything that contains enzymes gives positive result with biuret test.

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Notice
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If food is not a liquid, it needs to be cut up into small pieces and ground with a pestle and mortar then
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shaken with some water
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How to compare fat in two samples of food such as leaves and meat
prepare equal masses of leaves and meat, grind up each, put each in a beaker, add equal volumes of
ethanol of the same concentration to dissolve fats, add equal volumes of water, the more cloudy the
medium ,the more fat is present.
How to compare reducing sugar concentration in two samples of food

Get equal masses of the two fruits, crush each one and put the product of crushing of each fruit in a test
tube, add equal volumes of water and equal volumes of Benedict’s solution in each test tube, put the
tubes in a water bath, the one which becomes orange or orange red first contains a higher concentration
of reducing sugar.
The safety precautions in this experiment is to wear goggles, lab coat and to hold tubes using a holder and
to keep opening of the tube away from your face to avoid splashes during heating.
How to compare protein concentration in two samples of food such as two

different beans
 Soak seeds of the two different types of beans , weigh equal masses of each type.
 For each type grind up the seeds and dissolve as possible as you can, Add equal volumes of
potassium hydroxide followed by equal drops of copper sulphate, compare the produced colours,
the darker the purple ,the more protein is present.
 ( also a colourmetercan be used to compare the degree of the produced coloures.)
Metabolism
- All the chemical changes that take place within an organism .
Types of metabolism
1- Catabolism : are the metabolic reactions through which complex substances are broken into simpler
ones.
Examples : digestion and respiration.

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2- Anabolism : are the metabolic reactions through which complex substances are built from simpler
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ones.
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Example : photosynthesis.
Glands
- Are the organs or cells which produce certain chemicals (secretions)
Types of glands:
1- Exocrine or ductile glands
- Have ducts (tube- like structures through which their secretions pass).
- Their secretions are called enzymes.
2- Endocrine or ductless glands
- Have no duct .
- Their secretions are called hormones, that reach their target organs through blood.
Enzymes
Protein that acts as biological catalyst .
Biological catalysts
- Are the substances which speed up a metabolic reaction without being changed or change the
products.
Substrate :
- Is the substance on which an enzyme acts .

- Each enzyme has a certain substrate on which it acts .

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Examples :
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1- The enzyme pepsin which is secreted by the walls of the stomach its substrate is protein
Protein Pepsin polypeptides
2- The enzyme amylase which is secreted by salivary glands its substrate is starch.
Starch Amylase maltose ( a type of sugar )
The main characteristics of enzymes
- Enzymes are specific in their function
 Means that each enzyme speeds up a certain reaction only

because each enzyme has a region called the active site
where its substrate fits exactly.
 This allows the enzyme to act on a certain substrate .
 enzyme acts as a lock while its substrate acts as a key.
When enzyme binds to its substrate the structure formed is known as enzyme substrate
complex
Notice
Different sequences and number of different types of amino acids are responsible for giving protein a
certain shape, for example it gives the shape of the active site.

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Why enzymes are needed in humans
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Temperature in body is low, therefore the reactions cannot be fast enough, when enzyme bind
to its substrate, it lowers the energy needed for the reaction to start.
Extra cellular enzymes

Enzymes that the cell secrete to act on substrates outside the cell
Intracellular enzymes
which are formed inside the cell to act on substrates inside the
cell.
Enzymes are affected by temperature
-The activity of most enzymes increases by the increase in

temperature till about 35oC to 40oC then any increase in
temperature leads to a decrease in the activity of the enzyme.
- Increase in temperature increases rate of reaction as it increases

kinetic energy of molecules of both enzyme and its substrate making
them move around faster and this increases frequency of effective
collisions which increases the chance to bind together.
-Above 50oC the enzyme denature ( means that it loses its activity and
can not regain it even if the temperature changes to its optimum)
Optimum temperature of an enzyme
It is the temperature at which the enzyme works best.
Enzymes are affected by the pH value
 Each enzyme has a certain pH at which it works best.

 Any increase or decrease around this pH decreases the activity
of the enzyme.
 Extremes of pH changes may denature some enzymes.
Optimum pH of an enzyme
It is the pH value at which an enzyme works best .

Examples
The optimum pH of amylase is about 7 to 7.5
The optimum pH of pepsin is about 2 to 2.5.

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Many fruits such as apple change colour when cut open and left exposed to air
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Enzymes in apple cells catalise the reaction between oxygen in air and substances( such as iron) in the
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apple cells causing change in colour therefore changing pH or being exposed to heat caused enzyme to be
denatured so this reaction cannot take place and therefore no change in colour occurs.
How to investigate the effect of pH on colour change in apple
 Prepare solutions of different pH values such as 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 using buffer solutions.

 Cut pieces of equal volume from the same apple.
 Put two pieces in each Petri dish and add to its surface a pH solution (not to immerse it) . Measure the
length of time needed to start changing colour of apple surface, repeat and take the average then plot
the results in a graph.
 The shorter the time needed to change colour, the optimum the pH.
Effect of substrate concentration
 Increasing substrate concentration leads to an increase in rate of reaction, until substrate no longer acts as
a limiting factor, rate of reaction remains constant.
 At this point other factors limit the rate of reaction such as enzyme concentration

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Inhibitors
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Molecules that can reduce the rate of a metabolic reaction
Types of inhibitors
1-Competitive ( or active site directed inhibitor)

 A molecule has a similar shape to the substrate, so can fit in the active site instead of the substrate.
 Its effect is reversible ( not permanent) because it can be reduced by increasing concentration of the substrate.
2-Non –competitive (or non- active site directed inhibitor.)

 A molecule that can bind with a site other than the active site (in allosteric site).
 If the inhibitor binds with allosteric site it can disrupt bonds that hold the 3D- shape of the enzyme and
therefore can affect its active site.
 Not affected by increasing substrate concentration.
 Usually irreversible if binds permanently.

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Effect of inhibitors on the rate of the reaction
 Increasing concentration of the substrate can reduce the effect of competitive inhibitors because it increases
the chance for formation of enzyme-substrate complex.
 Increasing concentration of the substrate cannot reduce the effect of non-competitive inhibitors because
binding this type of inhibitors to number of enzyme molecules makes them unable to form enzyme-substrate
complex.
Notice
Enzymes are important in all living organisms to speed metabolic reaction at a rate which is
necessary to sustain life
Enzyme immobilization
The process of immobilization
Enzymes are attached to insoluble materials so that the enzyme can be held in place during the reaction
also can be removed and separated from the products to be used again.
Example of immobilized enzymes

Lactase which is used to act on lactose to be digested as many people have problems in digesting lactose
of milk because they cannot produce lactase ( this condition is known as lactose intolerance).
Methods of immobilizing enzymes

1. Absorbed onto an insoluble matrix such as collagen.
2. Held inside a gel such as silica gel.

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3. Held within a semipermeable membrane
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4. Trapped in a microcapsule such as alginate beads.
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Immobilizing enzymes using alginate beads
 Enzyme is mixed with a solution of sodium alginate (it is soluble) ,this mixture is dripped (usually
through a syringe) into a solution of calcium chloride so that the sodium ions are displaced by the
calcium ions, resulting in the formation of hard, insoluble beads of calcium alginate, in which enzyme
molecules are trapped.
 The alginate beads are left to harden .
 Beads are washed to remove sodium chloride and placed in a suitable container to create a column of
beads.
Other uses of enzyme immobilization

Conversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose using sucrose enzyme ( also known as invertase)
Glucose test in dibetes

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Advantages of immobilization
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1. Enzymes can be recovered and used over and over again which is useful when the enzyme is expensive
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or difficult to produce.
2. The product will not be contaminated by the enzyme because the immobilized enzyme can be
separated easily at the end of the process.
3. The matrix protects the enzyme as it acts as a physical barrier so that the enzyme is more stable at
extremes of pH and temperature.
4. Their effect can be controlled accurately as the enzymes can be reduced in number or more can be
added during the course of the reaction.
Disadvantages of immobilized enzymes

 Limited movement causing chance for collision between enzyme and substrate to be limited.
 Many active sites may be enclosed in beads not exposed to the substrate.
 The substance used in immobilization may be exposed to microbial attack if it is organic substance.
 Substrate diffusion through the material used in immobilisation is limited.
Other uses in industry
1- Protease enzymes used in making baby foods

Act on proteins in food to be broken down into small polypeptides or amino acids to be easily absorbed
by their digestive system.
2-enzymes in detergents (biological washing powder )

to act on large insoluble stains to be converted into small soluble molecules that can be easily removed
Examples
Lipase to act on fat stains
Protease to act protein stains such as blood and egg stains.
3-Production of glucose and fructose from sucrose using sucrose ( invertase)

enzyme)

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Practical work
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1- If a dropper is used in obtaining different samples
It has to be washed and dried each step to avoid mixing of different samples affecting the results.
2- A control experiment
An experiment contains all the conditions except the factor under investigation
Example :
If an experiment is set up to investigate the effect of a certain enzyme on milk, its control experiment is
the same experiment without adding the enzyme or adding denatured enzyme.
The aim of the control experiment to ensure that the changes that take place during the experiment are
due to the factor under investigation (the factor in the above example is the enzyme) .
3- If a Petri dish containing - non sterile or non disinfected - agar jelly is left in air for about
two days, colonies of microorganisms can be seen on the jelly because:
a- There is enough food substance in the jelly.
b- There is suitable temperature.
4-How to determine the time needed for digestion of a certain volume of starch using
amylase
Each minute take a drop of the mixture, add to it a drop of iodine solution, observe the colour formed,
repeat several times until no change in the colour of iodine solution takes place indicating that all starch
is digested into maltose.
5-How to investigate the effect of pH on activity of amylase

Put equal volumes of identical starch solutions in 4 test tubes, adjust the pH values in the test tubes as
follows 2, 4, 6 and 8 with the help of pH indicator or buffers ,add equal volumes of amylase (the
same conc.). Keep the temperature constant test for starch at intervals of 1 min to determine the time
taken for complete breakdown of starch at each pH.repeat the same experiment , calculate the average ,
plot a graph to determined the optimum pH.
6-To calculate rate of this reaction

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Volume of starch divided by time taken for its digestion
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7-How to investigate the effect of temperature on activity of amylase
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Put equal volume of identical starch solutions in 8 test tubes, put each in a water bath of one of the
following temperatures 20,25,30,35,40,45,60 and 65.
Add equal volumes of amylase (the same conc.).
test for starch at intervals of 1 min to determine the time taken for complete breakdown of starch at each
temperature. repeat the same experiment , calculate the average , plot a graph to determined the
optimum temperature.
Catalase enzyme
It is present in all living cells, it speeds up
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 )
which is a toxic material produced in living
cells into oxygen and water.
The filter paper soaked in catalase rises

because hydrogen peroxide is broken down into water and oxygen , this oxygen evolves forcing the filter
paper upwards, the higher the rate of the reaction , the shorter the time needed for filter paper to rise to
the surface.
The dialysis or visking tubing

- A tube made of artificial fibres or cellulose.
- It is partially permeable, this means that it allows small moleculesto pass through it but prevents
the large ones.
Examples
- It allows sugar molecules to pass and
prevents starch molecules.
- It allows amino acids to pass and
prevents protein molecules.
In the front figure
after time sugar can be found in the surrounding water because amylase can act on starch to be digested
into sugar that can diffuse out the tubing.

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(4)
NUTRITION
AND
ENERGY

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Balanced diet
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Balanced diet
The daily intake of food containing all the food stuffs in right proportions according to age ,sex ,work ,and
climate .
Special requirements
1- Babies need: 1-Females: Heavy workers need In cold countries

more fats and people need more fats
- calcium , - need more iron to carbohydrates to and carbohydrates to
phosphorus replace the blood they produce the energy produce enough
and vitamin D for lose during required for this work . energy to maintain
building their bones . menstruation. their body
- during pregnancy they temperature
- proteins for rapid
need more calcium and to form an
growth.
,iron ,phosphorus and insulating layer under
proteins for growth of their skin to reduce
- no need for iron in
embryo . heat loss.
the early age as the
2- Males :
baby is born with
- need more proteins
stored iron in his
as they build more
liver.
muscles.
2- Young children:
- need high energy
food for their muscular
activity.
- need proteins for
growth .
3- Old people need:
- fruits and vegetables
for vitamins.
- rouphages to
activate their
intestines.
- less fats to avoid
their precipitation in
their blood vessels.

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Notice
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- If a person is transferred from a light work to a heavy work, he loses weight, because he has to break
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down amounts of the stored food to produce the energy required for the heavy work.
Malnutrition
A condition caused by eating an unbalanced diet (food lacking one or more types of food or an increase
in quantities of one or more types of food )
Starvation
An expression refers to massive lack of food of all types .
Kwashiorkor
 Caused due to lack of protein.

 Children seen underweight or look fat due to eating mainly carbohydrates.
 If start eating protein they can grow normally.
 Characterized by edema (fluid retention), and an enlarged fatty liver
symptoms of kwashiorkor include:

 change in skin and hair color (to a rust color) and texture
 fatigue
 diarrhea
 loss of muscle mass
 failure to grow or gain weight
 edema (swelling) of the ankles, feet, and belly
 damaged immune system, which can lead to more frequent and severe infections
 irritability
 rash
Body mass index (BMI)

The BMI is currently the easiest and most commonly used measure of overweight and obesity.
How to calculate BMI

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BMI BMI Category
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Less than 15 Very severely underweight
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Between 15 and 16 Severely underweight
Between 16 and 18.5 Underweight
Between 18.5 and 25 Normal (healthy weight)
Between 25 and 30 Overweight
Between 30 and 35 Moderately obese
Between 35 and 40 Severely obese
Over 40 Very severely obese
Danger of obesity
 High blood pressure (Hypertension)
 High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides that can lead to
atheroschlerosis and coronary heart disease.
 Type 2 diabetes
 Stroke
 Gallbladder disease
 Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint)
 Breathing problems
 Some cancers (endometrial, breast, colon, kidney, gallbladder, and liver)
 Low quality of life, in movement, sports and psychological problems
Recommended dietary intake
Recommended dietary intake of protein

0.75grams of protein per kilogram of the body mass.
Example a person his body mass is 50 Kilograms needs daily 0.75 X 50 grams of protein.
Recommended dietary intake of carbohydrates

50% of the daily energy needs, less than 5% of that needs coming from sugar
Daily intake of carbohydrates must contain 30 grams of dietary fibres.
Recommended dietary intake of lipids

less than 35% of the energy needs, with less than 30% of which are saturated fats.
Recommended dietary intake of vitamins and minerals

calcium 0.6 grams /day
iron 12 mg( milligram) /day
vitamin A 0.8 mg/day
vitamin C 80 mg/day

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vitamin D 5µg (micrograms) /day
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Hygienic methods of food preparation,
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storage and preservation
1. Prevent microorganisms from getting into food at the different stages of food preparation.
2. Milk used in making food such as cheese must be pasturised.
3. Good housing of chicken to avoid food poisoning bacteria such as salmonella that can infect birds and
their eggs.
4. Components used in food preparation must be used before expired date.
5. Cook food properly to kill any microorganism that may be present.
6. Food should not be left open on the work surface because it may become contaminated by bacteria in
air or harmful microorganisms that can be transmitted by insects.
Food storage
1. Good food packing.
2. Cooked food and raw ( uncooked ) food should not be stored together as bacteria in uncooked food
may be transferred to cooked food.
3. Foods that have been frozen should not be refrozen after cooking because any bacteria that remain
may multiply when food is recooked.
Food preservation
1-Salting
Microorganisms can not live in high salt due to loss of water by osmosis
(but certain types of bacteria can withstand high salt concentration)
2-Pickling
Foods are bottled in vinegar (ethanoic or acetic acid) because most microorganisms cannot live in low pH.
3-Pasteurization
Food is heated between 63 and 65 oC.
This may not kill all types of bacteria especially those who form spores.
4-Ultra-heat treatment (UHT)

super heated steam at 135-160 oC is blown through food for 2 seconds.
(it may alter the taste.)
5-Canning
Packed in cans, heated, sealed and then reheated to 150 -160 oC.

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( but cans may be damaged when cooled)
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6-Drying
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By blowing hot air through food so that bacteria cannot digest or absorb the food.
7-Freezing
Cooling rapidly to about -10 oC.
8-Irradiation
Gamma radiation is passed through food to kill microorganisms.
( the produced toxins remain, some people think that radiation may lead to hams such as cancer)

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TEETH
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Each tooth consists of two regions
1- Root : the part of the tooth embedded in the gum .
2- Crown : the part of the tooth found above the gum.
1- Enamel
 It is the outer layer of the tooth.
 It is the hardest substance made by the body .
 Can be dissolved by acids .
2- Dentine
 living regions contains channels of cytoplasm .
 It is quite hard but not as hard as enamel.
3-Pulp (cavity)
 Contains nerves for sensation .
 Contains blood vessels to supply food and oxygen .
 Contains cells which make dentine .
4- Cement
 It is a bone - like substance .
 Have fibres growing out of it to attach the tooth to the jaw bone , and to allow the tooth to move
slightly.

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Types of human teeth
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Function of cusps
When the jaws close, the cusps interlock and slide against each other for grinding and crushing of food.
General functions of teeth

1- Help with the ingestion and mechanical digestion of food.
2- Bite off pieces of food.
3- Chop, crush or grind food into smaller pieces and this gives the food a larger surface area, which make
it easier for the enzymes to work, and helps to dissolve the soluble parts of food, it also facilitates
swallowing of food.
Wisdom teeth
- Are the molars found at the back of the jaw.
- Are so called because they grow later than others .

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Two sets of teeth in the life of humans
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Milky or deciduous teeth Permanent teeth
- Begin to grow when the child is 5 months - Are 32 teeth , 16 in each jaw .
- By the age of 18 to 20 months most - By 18 years old most people have them all.
children have a set of 20 teeth.
- Harder than the milky teeth .
- They begin to fall when the child is about
- Cannot be replaced .
seven years old ,to be replaced by
permanent teeth.
What is meant by dental decay ?

- The dissolving of a hole in enamel and dentine by the effect of the acids produced by certain bacteria
that feed on the food remains in mouth especially sugars .
- Infection may reach pulp where nerves are found, and this is very painful.
- Infection can spread rapidly through the pulp , and may form an abscess at the root of the tooth.
What is plaque?
 Some bacteria with substances from saliva form a sticky film over the teeth, especially next to the
gum and between the teeth, this is the (plaque.)
 Bacteria in plaque may infect the gum, which swell and becomes inflamed and bleed.
 Bacteria may work around the root and makes the tooth fall out.
 It accumulates on the teeth surface especially near gum.
Dental hygiene (care of teeth)
1- Do not eat much sugar

( because bacteria feed on sugar producing acids which dissolve the enamel .)
2- Use a fluoride tooth paste because:
- fluoride makes your teeth more resistant to decay.

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- fluoride helps in healing by formation of new enamel .
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- regular brushing helps to remove plaque .
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3- Make regular visits to a dentist .
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4- Your food should contain enough calcium , phosphorus and vitamin D which are necessary for
formation of enamel
Chewing process
Importance of chewing:
1- Facilitates swallowing .
2- Increases the surface area of food for the enzymes to act .
Mechanism of chewing :
1- The chewing muscles contract and relax to move the lower jaw up and down .
2- This movement makes the food squeezed by teeth to be cut and crushed.
3- Tongue helps chewing by moving food between teeth.
4- Mucus in saliva facilitates movement of teeth against cheek.

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The Human Digestive System
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It consists of :
1- The human alimentary canal ( gut )
includes :
a- mouth b- pharynx
c- oesophagus d-stomach
e- small intestine f- large intestine
2- The associated organs or the
digestive glands :
a- liver b- pancreas
c- salivary glands.
Definitions
1- Ingestion
It is the process of taking food and drink into a living
organism through the mouth.
2- Chemical digestion
It is the breaking down of large insoluble food
molecules into small water soluble molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes to be easily
absorbed and transported.
3-Mechanical digestion
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change of food molecules
4- Absorption of food
Movement of digested food molecules or ions through the wall of the small intestine into the blood or
lymph.
5- Assimilation of food
It is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used and
becoming part of the cells.
5- Egestion
It is the passing out of food that has not been digested, as feces, through the anus .

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The human alimentary canal is lined with
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1- Epithelial cells
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Small soft cells able to divide rapidly to replace the worn out cells
due to the friction with food.
2- Goblet cells
Secrete mucus to reduce the friction between food and the
alimentary canal.
3-Muscles
Mainly circular and longitudinal to contract and relax in a
movement called peristalsis.
Peristalsis
It is the rhythmic contractions of the muscles in

the walls of tubes such as the alimentary
canal to squeeze the contents along .
Action of peristalsis:
When a piece of food ( bolus ) reaches a part of the
alimentary canal such as oesophagus or intestine:
 Above the piece of food the circular muscles contract
while the longitudinal muscles relax.
 The opposite takes place around the bolus.
 As a result the food is pushed along the alimentary
canal
1- MOUTH
It contains :
1- Tongue
- Necessary for swallowing .
- It is the organ of taste .
- Moves the food between teeth .
- Mixes food with saliva.
2-Teeth
- For chewing food .
3- Salivary glands
- Are three pairs .
- They secrete a juice known as saliva.

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Components of saliva
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1- Water and mucus
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- Moistens food to be easily chewed and swallowed .
- Decreases friction between teeth and cheek cells.
- Help to get rid of the food remains found between teeth .
2- Amylase enzyme
- Acts on starch to be broken down into maltose sugar.
- It acts in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium
3- Bicarbonate or hydrogen carbonate

- Creates a suitable pH value for the enzyme amylase to act .
- Protects the teeth against decay by neutralizing the acids produced by bacteria in mouth
Notice
Amylase cannot finish its work because food is not kept in the mouth for long time.
2-Pharynx
- It is the common passage for both food and air.
- The effect of salivary amylase continues in the pharynx.
- It contains a part known as soft palate to close the nasal cavity during swallowing.
- It contains a piece of cartilage known as epiglottis to close trachea during swallowing to avoid the flow of
food into the respiratory system.
3- Oesophagus
- It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis.
- Effect of salivary amylase on starch continues in oesophagus.
4- Stomach
- It is the widest part in the alimentary canal .
- It is controlled by two sphincter muscles :
A- Cardiac sphincter : when it relaxes food passes to the stomach .
B- Pyloric sphincter : when it relaxes food leaves the stomach to the small intestine .
- It secretes a juice known as gastric or stomach juice .

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Components of the gastric juice
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-Hydrochloric acid
- To kill microbes that may enter with the food
as it denature their enzymes by lowering pH .
- To activate the enzyme pepsinogen into the active form
pepsin .
2-Pepsinogen
- An inactive enzyme.
- It is activated by hydrochloric acid to form pepsin .
- Pepsin acts on proteins to be digested into polypeptides .
3-Mucus:
To protect the wall of the stomach against hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
Mechanical digestion in the stomach

- Churning movement (contraction and relaxation of the stomach muscles) makes the food semi- fluid
Peptic ulcer or stomach ulcer

- It is an ulcer in the wall of the stomach when it is attacked by the gastric juice .
-This takes place due to the excessive secretion of gastric juice and lack of secretion of mucus.
- Smoking , alcoholic drinks and nervous stress are the main causes .
Notice
1- Stomach digests proteins but doesn't digest itself because :
- pepsin is secreted in an inactive form .
- stomach secretes a protective layer of mucus .
2- The enzymes that digest proteins are known as proteases .
3- Proteases are secreted in an inactive form in order not to digest the cells producing them as the cells
are made of proteins .
4- The effect of salivary amylase stops in the stomach as it acts in slightly alkaline medium while the
stomach is acidic .
5- The food mixed with the gastric juice and that leaving the stomach is known as chyme, it is acidic .

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5-Small intestines
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- It is the longest part in the alimentary canal .
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Its functions
a- complete digestion of food .
b- absorption of digested food .
Juices received by the small intestine

 Bile from liver
 Pancreatic juice from pancreas
 Intestinal secretions from the walls of intestine
Bile
- Greenish yellow .
- Formed in the liver .
- It is stored in the gall bladder .
- It is not considered as an enzyme as it does not act as a catalyst for metabolic reaction .
Its components:
A- Bile pigment
- Formed in the liver due to the destruction of dead red blood cells.
- Excreted with faeces giving its characteristic colour .
B-Bile salts
- Are used to emulsify fats
( Means breaks down the large droplets of fats into smaller droplets )
- Also it containsbicarbonates to neutralize the acidity of chymeand to create a slightly alkaline medium
as the enzymes of this part work in a slightly alkaline medium .
Pancreatic juice
A- Bicarbonates
- To neutralise the acidity of chyme .,and to create a slightly alkaline medium because the enzymes in
the small intestine act in a slightly alkaline medium.
B- Pancreatic amylase
- Like salivary amylase it acts on starch to be digested into maltose sugar .
C- Lipase
- Acts on lipids ( fats ) to be digested into fatty acids and glycerol .

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D- Trypsinogen
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- An inactive enzyme .
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- It is activated by certain chemical secreted by the walls of intestine forming the active trypsin
- Like pepsin it acts on proteins to be digested into polypeptides.
( pepsin and trypsin are called proteases as they act on proteins )
Intestinal enzymes
1- Lipase :
- Like the pancreatic lipase it acts onlipidsto be digested intofatty acids and glycerol .
2- Peptidase:
- Acts on polypeptides to be digested intoamino acids.
3- Maltase ( found on memebranes of smallintestine)
- Acts on maltoseto be digested into glucose.
Summary of digestion of the different food materials

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Absorption of digested food
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-Takes place mainly in ileum .
Cross section (T. S) in ileumStructure of a villus
Adaptation of ileum for absorption
1- Long to provide a large surface area for absorption .
2- Narrow to slow down the movement of food and this increases the rate of absorption .
3- Lined with villi which are adapted for absorption as follows :
a- Lined with epithelial cells with thin walls to make food pass easily .
b- Contain digestive enzymes to complete digestion of food before being absorbed .
c- Contain a network of capillaries to transport the absorbed food .
d- Contain lacteal vessels to carry the absorbed fatty acids and glycerol .
e- The epithelial cells of villi contain microscopic projections known as micro-villi to increase the
surface area of absorption .
f- Its cells contain a lot of mitochondria to produce the energy required for absorption by active
uptake .
Villi contain muscles to move villus so that it affects its surface area to be exposed to more food and this
increases rate of absorption of food, also this helps movement of blood in blood vessels that carry
digested food and lacteal vessels that carry absorbed fatty acids and glycerol.

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Mechanism of absorption of digested food
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1- Amino acids, monosaccharides, water, minerals and water soluble vitamins:
- pass through the epithelial cells of villi into the blood capillaries .
- blood capillaries of villi join together forming a blood vessel known as hepatic portal vein.
- hepatic portal vein carries the absorbed food to the liver .
- liver is the first organ that receives the absorbed food because of the following reasons:
a- To store the excess glucose in the form of glycogen
b- To break down the toxic materials by a process known as detoxification .
c- To break down the excess amino acids by a process known as deamination

producing urea.
2- Fatty acids and glycerol :

- Pass through the epithelial cells of villi to be carried mainly by the lacteal vessels.
- Lacteal vessels are parts of the lymphatic system.
Comparison
Hepatic portal vein. Hepatic vein.
1- It joins small intestine and liver. - It joins the liver and the inferior vena cava .
2- It contains a higher concentration of - It contains a lower concentration of glucose as the
glucose. liver stores the excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
- It contains a lower concentration of amino acids ,
because the liver breaks down excess amino acids by a

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3- It contains a higher concentration of process known as deamination.
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amino acids. - It contains a higher concentration of urea which is
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4- It contains a lower concentration of formed as a result of deamination.
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urea. - No toxic materials as the liver breaks down the toxic
5- May contain toxic materials. materials by a process known as detoxification.
Notice
The blood supply to the liver is unusual

Most body organs receive oxygenated blood through an artery, and the blood leaves this organ through
a vein. BUT:
1- The liver receives blood through two blood vessels an artery known as hepatic artery and also through
a vein known as hepatic portal vein.
2- The liver receives oxygenated blood through the hepatic artery and also receives deoxygenated blood
through the hepatic portal vein.
Comparison
Hepatic artery Hepatic vein
1- Is branched from aorta. - Leads to the inferior vena cava.

2- Carries oxygenated blood. - Carries deoxygenated blood as the liver uses oxygen in
production of energy by the process of respiration.
- Carries more urea which is formed as a result of
deamination .
- Has a low blood pressure.
3- Carries less urea. - Has thinner walls.
4- Has a high blood pressure.
5- has thicker walls.
LARGE INTESTINE
Functions of the large intestine
1- The main function is absorption of water from the undigested food.
2- Pushes the food remains outside the body by its peristaltic movement .
3- Certain bacteria which feed on remains producing vitamin B and K.
Notice
Small intestine absorbs 5- 10 dm3 per day while colon absorbs 0.3 – 0.5 dm3 per day.

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What happens if rate of absorption of water decreases
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 Loss of water from the body leading to diarrhoea and dehydration and excessive loss of ions such as
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sodium and potassium.
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 In case of diarrhoearehydration therapy is needed.
 Rehydration involves giving a drink containing water with small amounts of different salts and sugar.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
1- Detoxification or detoxication:
( Means breaks down the toxic materials to be excreted with urine .)
Examples of the toxic materials ;
 Drugs are modified in the liver before being excreted.
 Hormones( after finishing their effect) are converted in the liver into inactive compounds.
 Alcoholic drinks are broken down in liver.
2- Regulation of level of glucose in blood .

a- If the glucose level is high ( above the normal level which is 90:100 mg/cm blood):
- Pancreas secretes the hormone insulin to stimulate the liver cells to store the excess glucose in
the form of glycogen .
b- If the glucose level is low ( below 80 mg/ 100 cm blood)

pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon to stimulate liver cells to breakdown glycogen to
glucose.
3- Deamination of excess amino acids

Deamination is the removal of nitrogen containing part of amino acids as urea
followed by release of energy from the remainder of amino acid.
During deamination excess amino acids are broken down into

a- Organic acid
Which is then converted into fats or carbohydrates .
b- Amine group (NH2)
- reacts with hydrogen forming ammonia .
- Ammonia combines with carbon dioxide forming urea.
- Urea is excreted with urine .
Assimilation of amino acids in liver

An amount is used by liver cells in building proteins for formation of new cells, enzymes and plasma
protein such as fibrinogen which is needed for blood clotting .

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(5)
INTERNAL
TRANSPORT

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TRANSPORT IN HUMANS
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Systems responsible for transport
1- Circulatory system 2- Lymphatic system
Circulatory System
It is a system of tubes with a pump ( which is the heart) and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
Consists of
1- Blood 2- Blood vessels 3- Heart
1-Blood
- About 6 liters
- Slightly alkaline ( pH 7.4 )
Blood consists of
1- Red blood cells or ( erythrocytes or red corpuscles )
2- White blood cells or (leukocytes)
3- Platelets
4- Plasma
1- Red blood cells ( RBC’s)
Function
-Transport of O2.
- Transport small amount of carbon dioxide.
Are formed in
-Bone marrow
Its haemoglobin
-Composed of protein and iron .
-Combines with O2 forming unstableOxyhaemoglobin and the blood is called oxygenated
- Oxyhaedmoglobin decomposes releasing O2 around tissues , and the blood becomes deoxygenated .

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Adaptation of red blood cells
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1- Very small to be able to pass through the fine capillaries.
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2- Have elastic walls to squeeze themselves in the fine capillaries .
3-Contain haemoglobin to transport oxygen .
4-Biconcave to increase surface area for combination with oxygen .
5-Contain no nucleus to carry more haemoglobin to transport more oxygen.
6-Produced in very high rate, because they have short life ( about 120 days).
2- White blood cells or (white corpuscles)
Function
- Defense ( immunity )
-There are two main types:
1- Phagocytes
- Its function is to engulf foreign bodies such as
bacteria, microbes or germs.
How engulfing takes place
Phagocyte surrounds bacteria to be taken inside it, then it secretes enzymes to digest and use it as
food.
2- Lymphocytes
- Its function is to produce antibodies ( proteins ) that attack
microbes, germs or pathogens .
Effect of antibodies
-Make germs burst (lysis).
-Make germs clump (agglutination)to be easily engulfed .
-Marking germs to be easily engulfed .
-(Antitoxins) Neutralize toxins produced by pathogens (germs)

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Formation of WBC’s
-Are formed in bone marrow and lymph nodes.
3- Platelets
Function
- Necessary for blood clotting
Formation
-in bone marrow
4- Blood Plasma
Function
 It is the fluid in which blood cells and platelets flow, it transports different materials in a soluble form
such as carbon dioxide ,urea , hormones , digested food, antibodies, water and salts.
 Has a role in transport heat around the body from active organs such as liver.
Formed of
-Water and ions such as sodium, potassium , calcium and chlorine.
-Plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and globulin which are formed in liver .
Blood sample as seen under microscope

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BLOOD CLOTTING
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Importance of blood clotting
1- Protection against bleeding.
3- To avoid entering of pathogens in wounds.
Mechanism of blood clotting

1- When a blood vessel is cut, platelets secrete enzyme (thrombokinase) that catalyse conversion of
inactive prothrombin into active thrombin which finally acts on soluble protein in blood known as
fibrinogen into an insoluble form known as fibrin.
2- Fibrin is a sticky , thread-like protein that accumulate in the wound forming a mesh which traps blood
cells and platelets forming a temporary plug .
Blood vessels
1- Arteries 2- Veins 3-Capillaries
1- Arteries
Are blood vessels carry blood from the heart to the body.
Properties
-Narrow lumen.
-Thick walls.
-High pressure.
-Rapid irregular flow of blood.
-The small arteries are called arterioles
Adaptation of arteries to their function

 Have thick walls to withstand the high blood pressure.

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 Have elastic walls to help in forcing blood as they can dilate and recoil .
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 Embedded in muscles to be away from injury because
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they are difficult to be healed due to the high pressure inside them .
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 Have narrow lumen to maintain high blood pressure.
2- Veins
Are blood vessels carry blood from the body to the heart.
Properties
-Wider lumen than arteries.
-Thinner walls.
-Lower pressure than arteries and capillaries.
-Slow regular flow of blood.
-The smallest veins are called venules
-Body muscles help blood to be squeezed in veins .
Adaptation of veins
-Have wide lumen in order not to resist the blood flow .
-Have many semi- lunar valves to prevent the back flow of blood .
3-Capillaries
Are very fine vessels (one cell- thick walls) connect arteries and veins.
Adaptation
-Have fine gaps between cells of its wall to
allow exchange of materials .
-Large in number to increase the surface
area of exchange of materials between
blood and body tissues.
What can pass through capillary walls

 Phagocytes
 Components of plasma such as water, salts
( plasma proteins cannot pass as they are too large to pass.)
 dissolved waste products, food materials such as glucose and amino acids.
shunt vessels
A blood vessel that links an artery directly to a vein, allowing the blood to bypass the capillaries in certain
areas. Shunt vessels can control blood flow by constriction and dilation.

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THE HUMAN HEART
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It is a muscular organ, its muscle known as cardiac muscle.
Its function
Pumps blood to the different parts of the body
Longitudinal section(L.S.)through the heart
The two sides of the heart are separated by septum

It separates oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood.
The human heart consists of four chambers

 The two upper chambers are known as atria ( singular is atrium )
 Atria are also known as auricles
 The two lower chambers are known as ventricles .

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The atria and ventricles are separated by valves :
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 The right atrium and the right ventricle are separated by a valve known as tricuspid valve as it
consists of three flaps .
 The left atrium and the left ventricle are separated by a valve known as bicuspid or mitral valve as it
consists of two flaps only.
 Both bicuspid and tricuspid valves are described as atrio-ventricular valves as they are found
between atria and ventricles.

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Function of valves in the heart
To prevent the back flow of blood , and this allows blood to flow in one direction only .
How valves work in the heart

-Blood coming from atria forces them to open .
-Flaps float over blood to close the opening .
-The tendons prevent them from being turned back towards atria.
How semi-lunar valves work in the

blood vessels
- The flaps of semi-lunar valves act as pockets
- When blood tries to flow back, the pockets
become filled with blood and close .
- No semi-lunar valves in arteries except at their
beginnings as blood is not liable to flow back due
to the high blood pressure in them.
Functions of the blood vessels connected to the heart

1- Superior vena cava :
- Collects deoxygenated blood from the upper parts of the body to the right atrium .
2- Inferior vena cava:

- Collects deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of the body to the right atrium .
3- Pulmonary artery :

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- Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs .
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-In the lungs deoxygenated blood leaves carbon dioxide and carries oxygen to be oxygenated blood .
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4- The four pulmonary veins :
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-Carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the left atrium .
5- Aorta :
- It is the largest artery in the body .
- It carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body .
6- Coronary arteries
-Are branched from aorta to supply the heart muscle (cardiac muscle ) with food and oxygen .
-Leads to coronary veins which carry wastes of metabolism to vena cava.
Notice .
- All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery .
( and the umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood from foetus in the uterus to
his mother )
- All veins carry deoxygenated blood except the 4 pulmonary veins .
( And the umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood from mother to her foetus in the
uterus )
How heart works

The sequence of events which make up one heart beat is called cardiac cycle.
Stages of cardiac cycle
1-Atrial systole( contraction)

-The two atria contract, so pressure in atria becomes higher than that in ventricles.
-Atrio- ventricular valves (tricuspid & bicuspid) open so blood flows from atria to ventricles.
-Ventricles relax, therefore aortic and pulmonary valves close to prevent backflow of blood to the
ventricles.
2- ventricular systole(contraction)
-The two ventricles contract, so pressure in ventricles becomes higher than that of atria,
therefore atrio-ventricularvalves close.
- Aortic and pulmonary valves open causing blood to flow from ventricles into aorta and pulmonary
artery.
-Atrial diastole (relaxation), causing blood to enter atria through pulmonary veins and vena cava.
3-Ventricular diastole, atrial diastole

-Blood enters atria through pulmonary veins and vena cava and falls to ventricles.
-During this stage blood in aorta and pulmonary artery cannot flow back because the semi-lunar valves (
aortic valve and pulmonary valve ) become closed.

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Adaptation of the heart to its function
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1-Contains valves to prevent the back flow of blood.
2-The walls of atria are thinner than those of the ventricles because the function of atria is to push blood
to the ventricles only while the function of the ventricle is to push blood to a longer distance.
3- The walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right one because the left
ventricle pushes blood through aorta to all the body while the right ventricle pushes blood to the lungs
only .
4- The heart is made of a certain type of muscles ( cardiac muscle ) which never get tired.
5- The heart is protected by a membrane called pericardium .
6-Contains the pacemaker in the walls of the right atrium which produce impulses to allow contraction of
the heart .
Our circulatory system
-Is a closed circulatory system because the blood does not flow mainly outside the blood
vessels .
-Is a double( or dual circulatory system) because the blood goes though the heart twice in one complete
journey around the system.

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The double( or dual) circulation
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1- Pulmonary circulation
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 Its pump (its start) is the right ventricle and ends in the left atrium.
 Its importance is exchange of gases as deoxygenated blood carried from the heart in the pulmonary
artery to reach the lungs where blood becomes oxygenated, then it is carried back to the left atrium.
2- Systemic circulation
 Its pump (its start) is the left ventricle and ends in the right atrium.
 Its importance is distribution of food , oxygen and other useful materials and to collect waste products.
Advantages of double circulation

During flow of blood in fine blood vessels, it loses a lot of pressure, when returns back to the heart it gains
enough pressure to be forced back to reach the different body parts, supplying enough food and oxygen
and to remove waste products of metabolism especially from active organs.
Blood pressure
- It is the pressure created in arteries due to the flow of blood during heart beats.
- It is measured by an apparatus known as sphygmomanometer.
- The normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm/Hg.
- 120 is systolic pressure ,it is the pressure during contraction of the ventricles while 80 is
known as diastolic pressure , it is the blood pressure during relaxation of the ventricles.
Figure shows blood pressure in the different parts of the circulatory system.
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
causes
 genetic factors
 smoking
 stress

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 eating too much saturated fats
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
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 pregnancy
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 obesity
 lack of exercise
 kidney disease
 diabetes.
Prevention
Avoid the above causes
Treatment of hypertension
Using ACE ( angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors
When blood pressure falls, kidney produce an enzyme called renin which acts on plasma
protein called angiotensinogen to be broken down into smaller peptides each is made of 10
amino acids called (angiotensin I)
ACE acts on angiotensin I to be converted into a smaller peptides each is made of 8 amino
acids and is called angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II is a hormone that causes constriction of blood vessels leading to an increase in

blood pressure.
ACE inhibitors prevent production of angiotensin II to avoid high blood pressure.
The rhythmic sounds made by the heart

Lob(S1) : due to closure of the two values between atria and ventricles.
Dub(S2) : due to the closure of the semi-lunar values in the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Pulse
 Is the ripple of pressure which passes down on an artery due to heart
 beats.
 The rate of pulse represents the rate of heart beats.
How to measure pulse

- Use the first two fingers of your right hand and lie them on the inside of your left wrist, feel for the
tendon near the outside of your wrist, then you can feel the artery in your wrist pulsing as your
heart pumps blood through it. Count the number of ripples of pressure per minute.
- Repeat this step and take the average for reliability.

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Effect of exercise on heart beats
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- In normal conditions the heart beats 60-80 / min .
- The rate decreases during sleeping or relaxation as the energy needed by the body during
this period is low.
- During exercise the rate goes over 100 / min . because the muscles need more energy
therefore the heart has to pump more blood carrying food and oxygen to the muscles to
produce the required energy for this exercise and also to carry away the waste products of
metabolism.
Why resting pulse rate can be used as a measure of physical fitness
- The normal heart beats of players and those who carry out regular exercise are less than the other people
because
a- their heart muscle becomes stronger, able to perform the required functions with lower number
of beats.
b- volume of the heart chambers increases therefore their stroke volume becomes greater.
Factors affecting heart rate

- Adrenaline which is a hormone secreted by adrenal glands, it increases rate of heart beats.
- Exercise, drinking coffee and smoking increases rate of heat beats.
Long-term benefits of exercise on the cardiovascular system

 Helps to maintain body weight, to prevent obesity that may harm cardiovascular system.
 Reduces the levels of lipids including cholesterol in the blood.
Other effects of exercise

 Improve strength of tendons and ligaments
 Help in building healthy skeletal muscles.
 Strengthen diaphragm and intercostal muscles for more efficient breathing.
 Stimulates immune system
 Reduces risk of types of cancer.
 Makes people feel more happier and more satisfied.

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Heart attack or cardiac arrest
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Usually takes place when one of the coronary arteries becomes blocked causing the heart muscle to be
starved due to the lack of food and oxygen .
The main causes of this blockage ( or risk factors of heart attack )

1-Eating too much animal fats which precipitate on the inner walls of arteries leading to reduction in their
lumen and elasticity and this is known as atherosclerosis which reduces the ability of arteries to transport
blood and makes them more subjected to blockage by thrombus.
2-Too much salts which increase the blood pressure (Hypertension)

increasing the chance of damage of arterial walls and formation of thrombus .
3-Smoking which increases blood pressure and helps in precipitation of fats.
4-Stress which causes increase in blood pressure.
5-Age.
6- Genetic factors
When inherited it makes the person more likely to be affected by CHD.
How to avoid heart attack (preventive measures of heart attack)

1-Avoid smoking .
2-Regular exercise (to consume fats)
3-Avoid stress.
4-Eating diets that do not contain too much animal fats and salts.
5-Using drugs, such as Aspirin lower risk of formation of blood clots.
Statin and plant stanol esters

Statins
Chemicals that lower blood cholesterol level.
Effective in treatment of atherosclerosis.
They inhibit the enzyme used in synthesis of cholesterol.
Plant stanol
Found in most plants specially vegetable oil.
Lower blood cholesterol level.

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Beta-blocker
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 Beta blockers, also known as beta-adrenergic blocking agents, are drugs that reduce blood pressure.
 Beta blockers work by blocking the effects of the hormone epinephrine, also known as adrenaline.
 When you take beta blockers, your heart beats more slowly and with less force, thereby reducing blood
pressure.
 Beta blockers also help blood vessels open up to improve blood flow.
Uses for beta blockers
Doctors prescribe beta blockers to prevent, treat or improve symptoms in a variety of conditions, such
as:
 High blood pressure

 Irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia)
 Heart failure
 Chest pain (angina)
 Heart attacks
 Migraine
 Certain types of tremors
Treating heart attack
1-Stents angioplasty
little mesh tube inserted in the artery to keep artery open.
2-ballon angioplasty
Tiny balloon is inserted in the blocked artery then inflated using
Water to push the artery open, the balloon is then removed.

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By-pass surgery
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If there is a blockage in a branch of the coronary arteries, this part is replaced by a vein
from the same patient by means of a surgical operation.
 The advantage of this is to avoid tissue rejection which takes place if an artery from another
person is used .
 The disadvantage of this is that, the vein has thin walls and may be unable to withstand the high
blood pressure that flows in the artery.
 During transplant of this vein it has to be fixed in the right way because if it is fixed in an
opposite direction its semi-lunar valves resist the flow of blood .
Heart transplant
 Heart is taken from a person who has recently died and implanted in the patient.
 Heart of the patient is usually replaced by the transplanted one but in few cases the patient’s heart is
left to support the transplanted one.
 Heart transplantation cannot take place if the patient has diseases such as cancer , Sever diabetes,
lung , liver or kidney disease.
 Organ rejection can take place ( which means that white blood cells produce antibodies to attack the
new heart because it has different or non-self antigens) therefore tissue typing analysis usually is
needed to choose transplanted organ with tissues which are as close as possible to that of the patient.
 To avoid tissue rejection immunosuppressive drugs are used to reduce the activity of immune system,
but this has disadvantage as it causes the patient more liable to be infected.
Artificial heart
 Is a device made of plastics and metal alloys
 Used to keep patient alive until time of transplant
 Total artificial hear trials are not successful yet.
Notice
- People live at high altitudes have larger number of red blood cells than others because at high
altitudes there is lower concentration of oxygen therefore more red blood cells are produced to
overcome this difficulty.

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- Oxygenated blood is more bright than deoxygenated blood .
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Tissue fluid
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Definition
It is the components of blood which leak outsides capillaries to bath the body cells
( tissues ) , it is similar to plasma but contains some while blood cells( which can change their shape to be
squeezed through the gaps of capillaries)
Importance of the tissue fluid

 To supply the tissues with food, hormones, minerals, antibodies and water.
 To carry waste products of metabolism.
 Some white blood cells ( phagocytes ) can squeeze outside capillaries and get into the tissue fluid to
attack microbes.
Collecting the tissue fluid

 Small proportion of tissue fluid can return back to the blood capillaries .
(Because the pressure of the tissue fluid is lower than the pressure inside vessels.)
 By lymphatic vessels
(This takes place by simple diffusion and active transport .)

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noclonal antibodies (Mabs)
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Plasma cell
A type of lymphocyte that produce antibodies
Myeloma cells
A type of cancer cells that can divide in culture medium.
Hybridoma cells
Cells which are produced as a result of fusion of myeloma cells and specific plasma cells.
This fusion enable plasma cells to divide in culture medium outside the body.
Monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies against one specific antigen.
Monoclonal antibodies are obtained from a clone of single plasma cells (certain type of lymphocyte).
The hybridoma method in production of monoclonal antibodies.

 Mice injected with an antigen (against which monoclonal antibodies needed to be produced), so mice develop
immune response and produce B- lymphocytes that develop into plasma cells that can produce antibodies
against this antigen.
 After 2-3 weeks mice are killed and the spleen removed.
 Blood cells in spleen are centrifuged to separate plasma cells (among them some producing the desired
antibody)
 As plasma cells cannot divide in culture, they can be fused with myeloma cells using a fusogen to form
hybridoma cells.
 Those hybridoma cells are cultured in a large fermenter.

 The monoclonal antibodies are harvested and purified.

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Monoclonal antibodies and diagnosis
Uses of Monoclonal antibodies
1. Blood typing before transfusions

2. Tissue typing before organ transplantation.
3. Identification and location of tumours.
Monoclonal antibodies used to locate the position of cancer
 A mouse is injected with antigen from cancer cells, and plasma cells against it are isolated, fused with myloma
cells and are labeled using a radioactive chemical that produces gamma radiation.
 The labeled antibodies are then introduced into the patient to bind with any cancer cell and the produced
gamma radiations can be used to detect the position and size of cancer.
(A gamma-ray camera is used in this detection)
Monoclonal antibodies used to treat cancer
Monoclonal antibodies are prepared in the same way but used to attack cancer cells.
Examples
Herceptin is a type of monoclonal antibodies that treat breast cancer

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(6)
RESPIRATION

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RESPIRATION
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and the human respiratory system
1- Breathing
The muscular movements that keep air enter and leaves the respiratory system
2- Gaseous exchange
The exchange of gases across respiratory surfaces such as obtaining oxygen by blood and release of
carbon dioxide from blood into lungs.
3- Respiration
It is the release of energy form food substances in all living cells.
Types of respiration
1- Aerobic respiration :
It is the release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in
living cells in the presence of oxygen .
Equation of aerobic respiration :
2- Anaerobic respiration :
It is the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food substances in living cells
in the absence of oxygen .
Equation of anaerobic respiration in some organisms such as yeast :
Equation of anaerobic respiration in animal cells ( example muscle cells )

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Comparison between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
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Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
 Needs oxygen .  Oxygen is not needed .

 More energy is produced .  Less energy is produced
 No alcohol or lactic acid is made.  Alcohol is made in yeast and plant cells while lactic
acid is made in animal cells.
 CO2 is always made .  CO2 is made only in yeast and plant cells.
 Takes place in mitochondria .  Takes place in cytoplasm .
Uses of energy in the body of humans
1. In formation of new substances such as protein for growth , development and tissue repair .
2-In active transport .
3-In movement as contraction of different muscles requires energy.
4-In generation of nerve impulses .
5-Production of heat, to keep the body warm.
6-In cell division
Differences in composition
between inspired and expired air
Inspired air Expired air
20 –21 % oxygen 16 % oxygen
0.03- 0.04 % carbondioxide. 4% carbondioxide.
Less water vapour. More water vapour.
Lower temperature. Higher temperature.
- The inspired air contains the normal concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen in air.
- No difference in concentration of nitrogen and the other inert gases between inspired and expired air.
Adenosie triphosphate (ATP) as the energy currency of the cell

Its structure
 Organic molecule ( known as adenosine)
 Three phosphate groups

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How does it work as an energy currency
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 When energy is needed ATP can be broken down losing a phosphate group, as a result of this
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energy is released to be used in the cell and a similar compound known as adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) is formed.
 Adenosine diphosphate is formed of adenosine and two phosphate groups

 When enough energy is released during respiration phosphate is added to ADP to form ATP.
 When energy is needed ADP can be broken down losing a phosphate group, as a result of this
energy is released and a compound known as adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is formed.
ATP is known as an energy currency molecule
 Because it exchanges energy between the process that produces energy ( respiration ) and the
processes that use it up.
 It is a small soluble molecule therefore it is easy to transfer energy from one point to another in the
cell.
 It has high rate of turnover which means that ATP can be rapidly form ADP and vice versa.
Brewing or Fermentation
- It is the process of conversion of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide by yeast ( by means
of anaerobic respiration.)
1- In alcoholic drinks
(A) Beer
(B)
- Yeast is dissolved in a warm liquid containing the sugar maltose
which is obtained form germinating barley seeds.
-The liquid is covered to allow anaerobic respiration to breakdown
maltose into alcohol and CO2.
-CO2 makes the beer fizzy while alcohol gives the drink its effect on the nervous system.
(B) In wine .
-Similar way like beer is used, but the sugar comes from grapes .

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2-In bread making
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Yeast respire in dough releasing carbon dioxide that causes dough to rise and
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when placed in oven, carbon dioxide expand causing dough to be
porous and has a spongy texture.
Notice
In an air tight flask containing yeast, pH decreases due to accumulation of carbon dioxide which is an
acidic gas.
In anaerobic conditions number of yease decreases due to increase in level of alcohol and shortage of
food.
Production of lactic acid in muscles during exercise
During exercise, a lot of oxygen and food is needed for production of energy in muscles to
contract, therefore :
 Rate and depth of breathing increases to obtain the oxygen needed for exercise and to remove the
waste products such as carbon dioxide.
 The heart beats faster to pump more blood to supply the muscles with enough food and oxygen .
At certain limit , heart and lungs can not supply oxygen to the muscles any faster but more
energy is still needed ,therefore :
 Extra energy can be produced by anaerobic respiration producing lactic acid
 When you stop exercise you go on breathing hard to take extra oxygen to oxidise lactic acid i.e. to
recover the oxygen debt.
Oxygen debt
 A condition occurs in muscle tissues during strenuous exercise , when oxygen is consumed faster than it
can be supplied by blood.
Disadvantages of anaerobic respiration

 Less energy is produced .
 Accumulation of lactic acid leads to change in pH causing muscular fatigue.
High ventilation rate during exercise

Because during exercise aerobic respiration takes place leading to increase
in level of carbon dioxide in blood which is detected by chemoreceptors in
the respiratory centre in the brain and chemoreceptors in aorta and
carotid arteries which sends order to increase rate and depth of breathing
and rate of heart beats to remove the carbon dioxide even after exercise.
Recovery of oxygen debt ( re-pay)

After exercise heart and breathing rate remain high for a period of time to transport lactic acid and oxygen
to the liver to oxidize the lactic acid formed as a result of anaerobic respiration.

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(7)
GAS
EXCHANGE

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The human respiratory system
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It consists of :
1-Nose
 Lined with mucus and contains hair to trap dust and microbes.
 Lined with blood capillaries to warm inhaled air in order not to harm the respiratory system.
2-Pharynx
The common passage for both food and air therefore :

 It contains soft palate to close the nasal cavity during swallowing .
 It contains epiglottis to close the trachea during swallowing .
3-Larynx ( Voice box )

 It contains vocal cords which vibrate during movements of air producing sound.
4-Trachea or windpipe
 Lined with ciliated epithelial cells which contains cilia that beat to move the foreign particles away and
to sweep mucus.
 Contains goblet cells to secrete mucus to trap dust particles and microbes.

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 Lined with incomplete rings of cartilage :
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-To keep it open and to avoid its collapse .
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-To allow the expansion of oesophagus during movement of food through it.
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-For support .
5- Bronchi ( singular: bronchus)

- Each bronchus enters a lung .
- Lined with cilia to move the foreign particles away .
- Contain goblet cells to produce mucus to trap dust particles and microbes Lined with cartilage for
support .
6-Bronchioles
 The smaller branches of bronchi, end
with air sacs ( alveoli) .
7-Lungs
 The left lung is smaller than the right one as the heart bends to
the left .
 The left lung consists of two lobes only while the right one
consists of three lobes.
 It is protected by membranes called pleural membranes
encloses a pleural fluid to decrease friction between lungs, ribs and heart .
 Pleural membranes also ensure that the lungs adhere closely to the moving ribs and no air between
lungs and rib cage, if air enters like in accidents it makes lungs collapse.
 Contains air sacs or alveoli.( which are the respiratory surfaces in higher animals such as birds and
mammals )
8-Intercostal muscles
 Are two sets of antagonestic muscles, external and internal intercostal muscles.
( antagonstic means two sets of muscles oppose each other at each
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side of a joint, when one contracts the other relaxes.)
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 Found between ribs.
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 Their function is to lower and raise the ribs.
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9- Diaphragm
 a dome - shaped muscle separates thorax and abdomen .
Features or characteristics of gaseous exchange

surfaces in animals ( air sacs or alveoli)
1- Have thin walls to facilitate diffusion of gases.
2- Have large surface area to increase the rate of diffusion of gases.
3- Are permeable to gases.
4- Must be well ventilated.
5- Must be connected to a blood supply to transport gases.
6-Moist to facilitate diffusion of gases and to stop the cells of

alveoli from drying out.
Benefits of regular exercise
Increase depth and rate of breathing to obtain enough oxygen to be used in production of
enough energy , as a result of this:
 The diaphragm and intercoastal muscles are made to work harder.
 The elasticity of the air sacs is increased, increasing the ability of lungs to obtain more oxygen .
 Blood flow both to and from the lungs is also improved.

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Spirometer
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Advanced spirometer
Normal spirometer
How it is used
 Consists of an oxygen-filled chamber floating over a water bath.
 During its use breathing in and out takes place through the mouthpiece, during inspiration the chamber
containing oxygen falls , then rises during expiration.
 The apparatus contains valves to control movement of air so that expired air is forced through soda
lime to absorb carbon dioxide from expired air.
 After expiration the chamber do not rise to its original position as the oxygen absorbed is not replaced
by the same volume of expired air because carbon dioxide absorbed by soda lime leading to a decrease
in volume of air inside the chamber.
 The movement of the chambers are recorded on a kymograph or spirometer trace.

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Spirometer trace
From the above fig. determine the following values
Tidal volume
It is the volume of air breathed in and then breathed out during a single breath.
Residual volume
It is the volume of air which remains in alveoli during the process of breathing.
Vital capacity
It is the maximum volume of air that can be breathed in and then breathed out of the lungs by movement of
diaphragm and ribs.

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The respiratory ( Breathing ) cycle
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Inspiration ( inhalation ) Expiration ( exhalation )
 Means taking air into lungs .  Means to expel air out lungs.
Its mechanism : Its mechanism :
- The external intercostal muscles contract - The internal intercostal muscles contract while
causing ribs to move upwards and outwards the external intercostal muscles relax,
causing the ribs to move downwards and
inwards.
- The diaphragm contracts and flattens, pushing - The diaphragm relaxes and become domed ,
therefore :
down the contents of the abdomen, therefore
: * Volume of thorax decreases .
* Volume of thorax increases * The pressure inside it increases.
*The pressure inside it decreases so the * The elasticity of the lungs causes them to
lungs become inflated and air rushes become deflated so air is pressed outwards.
inside them.

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The effects of cigarette smoke
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Cigarette smoke contains tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide, and other harmful particles
1-Tar.
 It is a carcenogenic substance ( leads to cancer.)
 Irritates the lining of the trachea causing the
production of more mucus and the cilia stop
beating therefore :-
* Coughing takes place to expel mucus .
* Coughing damages the lining of the
bronchioles, and allow it to
be attacked by viruses and bacteria
causing chronic bronchitis.
* Excessive coughing can breakdown the
thin walls of alveoli decreasing the
surface area of gaseous exchange and
this is called emphysema.
chronic bronchitis and emphysema are chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
2-Nicotine
 It is a stimulant( makes you more alert
and active).
 It is addictive, means that once your body
has got used to it, it is very hard to do without it .
 Affects the nervous and the circulatory
system in general it acts as a stimulant by
increasing the release of adrenaline hormone
, this increases the rate of heart beat and
increases blood pressure by causing constriction
of many blood vessels.
 It also increases the tendency for fatty deposits to form inside blood vessels causing blood vessels to
lose their elasticity and to become narrow(this is called atherosclerosis)
3-Carbon monoxide
 Combines with haemoglobin forming carboxy-haemoglobin which reduces the oxygen carried by blood
 Babies born to mothers who smoke tend to be smaller as a result of lack of oxygen.

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Smoke particles
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When inspired, inflammation takes places causing the inner lining of the gaseous exchange surface to
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swell, so lumen of the respiratory pathway decreases leading to difficulty in breathing, abnormal cough
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and may lead to emphysema.
Evidence for the link between smoking and lung cancer

 Smokers are more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers.
 One third of all cancer deaths are due to smoking
 25% of smokers die of lung cancer.
 The risk of developing lung cancer starts to decrease as soon as smoking is stopped
 Risk of developing lung cancer increases in those start smoking in early age ,also increases by
increasing number of cigarettes and tar content of cigarettes.
Other effects of smoking

a- Physical dependence
Because tobacco stimulates nervous system, stop smoking leads to symptoms such as sleeplessness,
muscle pain, headache and nausea.
b- Psychological dependence
- Many people cannot stop smoking because they think that , smoking increases self confidence, or
increases nervous concentration.
- Many people can not stop smoking because it is linked with some activities such as drinking coffee,
watching TV..etc.
c- Tolerance
Means that the smoker must smoke more and more to get the same effect.
Passive Smoking
Inhaling smoke of cigarettes from the surrounding air by non smokers.

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Blood vessels joining heart and lungs
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Practical applications
Test for carbon dioxide

Bubble a sample of gas in lime water , it turns milky or
cloudy
How to measure the lung capacity (volume) of

a person
Breath out fully so that an amount of the liquid
is replaced by expired air, read the scale,
repeat the procedure several times and take
the average.
 In experiments of gases like that shown below, the apparatus has to be air tight, so
vaseline or petroleum jelly is used in sealing the different parts making it air tight
 The above experiment can be used also to

compare concentration of carbon dioxide
in expired and inspired air
- Lime water in the right side flask becomes milky
at first because expired air contains higher concentration
of carbon dioxide than inspired air.
- Breathing out must take place slowly during this
experiment to avoid increase in pressure in the left
side flask causing the indicator to be forced out,
and to provide enough time for carbon dioxide
to affect lime water.
How to show that bacteria is a living organism

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By putting the bacteria produced from bacterial culture in a closed test tube joined to a thermometer and a
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gas syringe, the reading of the thermometer increases and by testing the collected gas using lime water it
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becomes milky indicating the process of respiration of bacteria.
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 A model to represent respiratory system
notice
 Boiled water contain no dissolved oxygen.
Hydrogen carbonate indicator
- Its original colour is red .

- Increase in concentration of carbon dioxide makes it yellow ( increase in concentration of carbon dioxide
makes the medium acidic as carbon dioxide is acidic gas) .
- Decrease in concentration of carbon dioxide makes it purple .
( removal carbon dioxide from the medium makes it alkaline).
Examples
- If a plant is placed in this indicator , its colour becomes purple as the plant absorbs carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
-If a small invertebrate is placed with the plant in the indicator, no change in colour takes place ( it
remains red) because the carbon dioxide absorbed by the plant is replaced during respiration of the
invertebrate.
-If more invertebrates are placed with the plant, the colour of the indicator becomes yellow because the
carbon dioxide released during respiration of the invertebrates is more than that absorbed by the plant
during photosynthesis.

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In the above experiment
Lime water turns milky in flask B because expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired air.

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ht

Human biology 1 Wahid Wanis

- It includes all the topics required in the new syllabus.

- The important scientific terms are written italic and underlined.

How to use this book for highest achievement

- Read carefully the topic for understanding.

Human biology 2 Wahid Wanis

7- Enzymes and metabolism……………………….. 26

Human biology 3 Wahid Wanis

Human biology 4 Wahid Wanis

Human biology 5 Wahid Wanis

Human biology 6 Wahid Wanis

Animal cell as seen under electron microscope

Human biology 7 Wahid Wanis

cell membrane. cytoplasm. nucleus.

Differences between plant and animal cells

plant cell animal cell

Has a cell wall made of cellulose. Has no cell wall

Has a large permanent sap vacuole. Has no vacuole or temporary small

Usually contain chloroplasts No chloroplasts.

Usually contains stored starch. usually contains stored glycogen.

Human biology 8 Wahid Wanis

(examples: bone, muscle, blood, and nervous tissue.)

5-Organ system or system

Human biology 9 Wahid Wanis

3- Gently lower a coverslip onto it as shown below to avoid trapping any

4- Use a filter paper to clean up the slide .

Onion cellsas seen using light microscope

Human biology 10 Wahid Wanis

cheek cells as seen using light microscope

Human biology 11 Wahid Wanis

Human biology 12 Wahid Wanis

2-Active transport or active uptake

Down and up or against concentration gradient

What causes diffusion

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

Human biology 13 Wahid Wanis

7-Concenteration gradient( difference in concentration)

Importance of diffusion of gases

Active transport or active uptake

How carrier proteins act

Factors affecting active uptake:

1- Number of mitochondriaas in the mitochondria energy is

Human biology 14 Wahid Wanis

Plant cells and osmosis

If a plant cell is placed in high If a plant cell is placed in low potential of

Animal cells and osmosis

If an animal cell is placed in higher water potential

If an animal cell is placed in lower water potential

- Cytoplasm shrinks and the cell shrivels up.

2- A partially permeable membrane is not - A partially permeable membrane must be involved .

Human biology 16 Wahid Wanis

Turgid and plasmlysed onion cells

Importance of osmosis to plants

Human biology 17 Wahid Wanis

( Decrease in length is represented as a negative value e.g. –1, -2 …etc.)

2- In the above condition

4- In the above condition

6-Plants die as a result of irrigation with sea water .