Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals

Strain hardening
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening
Hardening curve of fcc single crystals oriented for single slip.
Stage I:
•After yielding, the shear stress for plastic
deformation is essentially constant. There is
little or no work hardening.
•This is typical when there is a single slip
system operative. Dislocations do not interact
much with each other. “Easy glide”
•Active slip system is the one with maximum
Schmid factor.

Stage II:
•The shear stress needed to continue plastic deformation begins to increase in an
almost linear fashion. There is extensive work hardening rate (θ≅G/300).
•Work hardening is due to interactions between dislocations moving on intersecting
slip planes.
•Generation of new dislocations results in the increase of passing, cutting and
consequently the flow stresses.
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Strain hardening
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening
Hardening curve of fcc single crystals oriented for single slip.

Stage III:
•There is a decreasing rate of work hardening.

•This decrease is due to an increase in the

degree of cross slip resulting in a parabolic
shape to the curve.
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Strain hardening
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening
Stage II:
• Reaction of primary dislocations with dislocations on secondary slip systems
generates a network of immobile dislocations (so-called Lomer-Iocks or Lomer-
Cottrell locks).
Lomer pointed out that dislocations moving on intersecting slip planes will
attract and combine if their Burgers vectors have suitable orientations.
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Strain hardening
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening
Stage II:

• Successive dislocations will get stuck at these locks in the crystal, à further increase
of the internal stresses à larger activity of secondary slip systems.

• To maintain the imposed strain rate during deformation, for each immobilized
dislocation another mobile dislocation has to be generated.

• This causes a rapid increase of the dislocation density in Stage II, which, raises the
flow stress τ = τpass + τc = αGb.√ρ

Thus the single crystal strain hardens

Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Strain hardening
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening

Hardening rate

(θ = dτ / dγ ≈ G / 300)

Consider a small time interval during which dislocations of density dρ are generated and
become immobilized after a slip length L.

eq. 6.59 : τ = α G b √ρ à dτ = α G b dρ / 2√ρ

eq. 6.31b : dγ = b L dρ à dγ = b (β / √ρ) dρ

Measurements have shown that the slip length of dislocations exceeds the average
dislocation spacing by about a factor one hundred, i.e., β ≈ 100
With α ≈ 0.6

è θ = dτ / dγ ≈ α G / 2b ≈ G / 300
Frank-Read source of dislocations
To maintain the imposed strain rate during deformation, for each immobilized
dislocation another mobile dislocation has to be generated.

Where do these dislocations come from?

These dislocations are provided by internal dislocation sources, e.g. the Frank-Read
source.
Frank-Read source of dislocations
To maintain the imposed strain rate during deformation, for each immobilized
dislocation another mobile dislocation has to be generated.

Where do these dislocations come from?

These dislocations are provided by internal dislocation sources, e.g. the Frank-Read
source.

dθ
τà
R
Dislocation line segment
Length dS
Γ: Line tension [J/m = N]

The line tension: the force that needs to be applied to sustain the curvature
Frank-Read source of dislocations

dθ
τà
R
Dislocation line segment
Length dS

Γ: Line tension [J/m = N]

From Peach-Koehler equation: F/dS = τ b à F= τ b dS à F = τ b R dθ

τ b R dθ = 2 Γ sin(dθ/2) ≈ 2 Γ dθ/2 = 2 (α G b2) dθ/2

τ = α G b / R ≈ Gb/2R
Frank-Read source of dislocations
τ ≈ Gb/2R

When R = l /2 :The radius of curvature (R) is smallest à the required shear stress is the
largest. In this case the shape of the curved dislocation is a semicircle.

Further motion of the dislocation increases the radius of curvature and, therefore, the
necessary shear stress decreases.

If a shear Stress τo ≈ Gb/l is applied, the semi-circle configuration expands and

eventually forms a closed loop with the original dislocation segment in its center. The
loop continues to expand and a second loop is formed.
Frank-Read source of dislocations

source can become deactivated if:

• the back stress is large enough.

Back stress: The stress exerted on the source by the dislocation loops, which opposes
the acting shear stress.

• the dislocation segment becomes smaller, for instance by reaction with other
dislocations, e.g. cutting by a forest dislocation.
Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals
Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening
Stage III:
• Reduction of the hardening rate is mainly due to the cross slip of screw
dislocations.
• Since the Schmid-factor on the cross slip plane is smaller than for the primary slip
plane, a sufficiently large shear stress is necessary to make the dislocation move on
the cross slip plane. In Stage III this is always the case.
• Cross slip increases the slip length of a dislocation (By circumventing the
obstacles).
• Most likely, a cross slip dislocation will meet an antiparallel dislocation on the new
glide plane so that both dislocations are annihilated, and the dislocation density
decreases.

• The decrease of the strain hardening rate is a recovery process. Since it occurs
during deformation, it is also referred to as dynamic recovery, as opposed to static
recovery during annealing.
Dissociation of Dislocations

The energy of a dislocation increases according with the square of the Burgers
vector. E = α G b2

Theoretically, a dislocation can reduce its energy if it decomposes into partial

dislocations.

In cubic and hexagonal crystals, the Burgers vector can dissociate into smaller
vectors which are associated with a planar fault of small energy.
Dissociation of Dislocations
FCC structure

A B CA B CA B CA B CA B CA B CA B C
Dissociation of Dislocations
A perfect dislocation

b2 b3
b1
Dissociation of Dislocations
Partial dislocations

b2 b3
Dissociation of Dislocations

Shockley partial dislocations in fcc crystals:

On the (111) slip plane a perfect dislocation with Burgers vector b1 = a/2[1-10] can
dissociate into partial dislocations (Shockley dislocations) according to

The motion of a partial dislocation with b2 leads

to a stacking fault. The trailing dislocation b3
removes this stacking fault.
Dissociation of Dislocations
Stacking fault

A B CA B CA CA CA C A C A B C

Stacking fault
Dissociation of Dislocations
dissociation width
Both partial dislocations are mixed dislocations, which can be decomposed into edge and
screw components according to:

The edge and screw components exert forces on each other, Fe or Fs, respectively, the
sum of which is always repulsive.

There is no interaction between the edge and screw components.

The partial dislocations would separate under the action of this repulsive force as far as
possible if their dissociation were not associated with an area enlargement of the stacking
fault.

If γSF is the stacking fault energy per

unit area [J/m2], the energy of the planar
fault (stacking fault) for a dislocation
spacing x and a length L of the partial
dislocations is:
ESF = γSF . L . x
Dissociation of Dislocations
dissociation width
Dissociation of Dislocations

The dissociation width depends primarily on the stacking fault energy.

The Shockley dislocations of a dissociated perfect screw dislocation are no longer screw
dislocations

A dissociated screw dislocation can only cross slip if the partial dislocations recombine
over a certain length to re-form a perfect dislocation, i.e. if they "constrict”.
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals

• Crystallites in polycrystals are subject to constraints (neighboring grains) during

plastic deformation.

• To maintain a perfect fit of the crystals along their common grain boundaries,
every grain has to participate in deformation and each grain has to adjust its
deformation to the shape change of the neighboring grains.

• The yield stress is reached only when all grains in a polycrystal deform plastically.

Single slip deformation of an individual

m grain (with high m) would lead to a shape
m
change, which is not shared by its
m m surrounding (with lower m).

m m
This shape change is suppressed by
elastic deformation which rapidly
m m generates high internal stresses, and
eventually causes the next neighbor
m m
grains (with lower m) also to reach the
critical resolved shear stress.
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals

as a dislocation concept:
• Due to the different slip system of neighboring grains, dislocations produced in the
active slip system of one grain cannot pass the grain boundary

• Hence, the dislocations have to pile-up at the grain boundaries as observed in TEM
micrographs.
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Pile-up of dislocations

• A dislocation source in the center of a grain will generate pile-ups on both sides of a
grain.
• The length of the pile-up in a grain is limited to half the grain size D/2
• The piled-up dislocations exert a back stress on subsequent dislocations.
• For an applied shear stress τ, the maximum number of (edge) dislocations which fits
in a pile-up of length D/2 is:

• The stress at the tip of the pile-up:

σ
m1 m2

τmax = n τ
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Pile-up of dislocations
In grain 2, at a distance x from the grain
σ
boundary the shear stress is : m1 m2

τ2 (x)= m2.σ + β(x) . τmax

Plastic deformation in grain 2 will be initiated
if at a distance xo from the grain boundary, the
source S2 has attained the critical resolved
shear stress : τ2 (x0) =τ0
à τ2 .D = constant = K’y
For very large D, the critical resolved shear stress of a single crystal is the minimum
necessary for plastic deformation.

the Hall-Petch relation:

Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
The Hall-Petch relation

The constant ky is referred to as the Hall-Petch constant and is different for different
materials
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals

Sachs model:

All single-crystal grains with aggregate or polycrystal

experience the same state of stress.

Only one slip system is activate in each grain.

The average Schmid factor ms is calculated by averaging

the Schmid factor of all grains. For a random distribution
of crystallites in a FCC polycrystal :
Schmid factor : ms = 0.447 è τ = 0.447 σ
Sachs factor : Ms = (1/ ms) = 2.238 è σ= 2.238 τ

If grains in a polycrystal were to deform by single slip,

they would undergo a shape change different from each
other (because of the different slip systems).
This would result in a separation of the crystallites.
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals
Deformation of Polycrystals

In a polycrystalline specimen
each grain exhibits varying
degrees of slip line markings.
Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals

In order to satisfy an arbitrary shape change, in the two-dimensional case we need a

minimum of two slip systems and in 3D five slip systems.

More specifically one needs five independent slip systems.

A slip system is independent of others if the deformation that it produces can not be
replaced by a combination of shears on the other slip systems.

Since there are 12 different slip systems in fcc

crystals, there are 384 different combinations
of five independent slip systems which will
generate an arbitrary shape change.

Hexagonal metals which deform only by basal

slip are brittle as polycrystals, but can be very
ductile as single crystals, for instance zinc.
Deformation of Polycrystals
Taylor model

Taylor model
A set of slip systems is selected for
which the total shear (G) is minimized.

For a single crystal:

σ . dε = τ . dγ è dε = (τ/σ) . dγ è dε = m . dγ

For a polycrystal :
dε = mT . d G = mT Σdγs
mT : average Schmid factor for 5 selected slip systems

The average Schmid factor for N crystal in a polycrystal mT.avg is calculated by :

" " "
= ∑*
,-"
#$.&'( * #$..

And for a random distribution of crystallites in a FCC polycrystal:

Average Schmid factor : mT.avg = 0.327 è τ = 0.327 σ
Taylor factor : MT = (1/ mT.avg ) = 3.06 è σ= 3.06 τ
Deformation of Polycrystals
Taylor model

Taylor model
• All single-crystal grains within the aggregate experience
the same state of deformation (strain);
• Equilibrium condition across the grain boundaries violated,
because the stress states required to activate multiple slip in
each grain vary from grain to grain;
• Compatibility conditions between the grains satisfied;
• Generally most successful for polycrystals
Deformation of Polycrystals
Sachs vs Taylor model

iso-stress iso-strain
Deformation of Polycrystals
Sachs vs Taylor model

Single slip multiple slip

Small arrows
indicate variable
stress state in each
grain
Increasing strain

Small arrows
indicate identical Multiple slip (with 5 or
stress state in more systems) in each
each grain grain satisfies the
Each grain deforms externally imposed
according to which strain
single slip system is
active (based on
Schmid factor)
 Deformation of Polycrystals
Sachs vs Taylor model

Taylor ambiguity :
There is more than one combination or set of five slip systems which results in the same
minimum shear, and each combination leads to a different grain rotation.