Chapter 6

Mechanical properties
6.1 Basic elements of elasticity
Solid composes of (fig. 6.2)
- atoms spheres
- interatomic potential spring
External force applied on solid springs stretch
Internal force
state of the stresses
Tension: F/q = E l / l0 or = E
Shear : F/q = G x / d or = G

6.1

G < E means a material has a higher resistance against

deformation by tension or compression than in shear.

Solid cube
On a cube face composes of 3 stresses: 1 normal and 2 shear.
If the coordinate system can be chosen in order to obtain the
only normal stresses are non-zero

xx xy xz

yx yy yz

zy
zz
zx

1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0
3

1 2 3 are the principle stresses.

The maximum shear stress occurs at 45o to the direction of

the principle stress.
Aslip plane = Ao/ cos
Presolved = Pcos
RSS

= (P/A) cos cos

If and = 45o
RSS
= (1/2)
A0 cross sectional area of single crystal rod
- angle between the rod axis and the normal to the slip plane
P - axial load
- angle between load axis and slip plane direction

The stress applied to the crystal can be divided in to 2 parts.

- hydrostatic stress, H
- a diviatoric stress, D relevant to the plastic
deformation of crystal
= H + D
The hydrostatic stress is the average normal stresses
P = (1/3)(1+2+3)
In most metals: changing the mean stress makes no difference
to their plastic deformation.
From Hookes law: the shape change dues to the applied
stress is a strain tensor, , as in eq. 6.8 and 6.9.

xx

yx
zx

xy xz

yy yz
zy zz

Normal strain:
Shear strain:

1 0
0 2
0 0

0
3

6.9

xx yy zz
xy xz yx .

xy =

(1/2) xy

1+ 2 + 3 = xx + yy + zz = V/V
From Hookes law: the stress and strain tensors
= C
C is the tensor of elastic constants

6.10

6.11

The stress applied in one direction, x direction, this will

cause strain in x, as well as in y and z directions.
xx = xx/E
yy = zz =

-xx/E

- Poissons ratio = - yy / xx
xx stress acting normal to x plane in x direction
An isotropic solid:
G - shear modulus
E - Youngs modulus
G = E /2(1+)

6.15

6.2 The flow curve

Hookes law is valid only for very small strain < 10-4
Metallic materials can be deformed plastically and the
shape change remain after unloading.
Material can be divided into 3 groups due to their
plastically deformed.
a. brittle materials: f 1% (ceramics, hard materials)
b. ductile materials: f 10% (metals and alloys)
c. superplastic materials: f 1000% (special fine
grained alloys)

True strain: dt = dl/l

t = ln (1+)

6.15

True stress: t = F/q = (F/q0)(q0/q)

t = (1+)

6.19

True stress-true strain curve can be calculated from

engineering stress-strain curve.
F
dF/dt

= t . q
= q.(d t / d t) + t .(d q / d t )

6.20
6.21

The stability of plastic deformation is determined by

-Physical hardening (slope of the flow curve)
d t / d t > 0
-geometrical effect (reduction of cross section)
d q / d t < 0
If the hardening coefficient dt / dt is large
deformation proceeds in a stable mode.
The hardening coefficient decreases with increasing strain
At critical strain, the physical hardening and geometrical
softening balance.
At larger strains geometrical softening dominates, the
cross section is locally reduced. The physical hardening
cannot compensate the geometrical softening anymore,
necking occurs. True stress further increase but engineering
stress decrease.
When necking occurs, deformation becomes unstables.

To identify necking or instability the true stress is plotted

versus the engineering strain. The tangent of the t - curve
which intersects at = -1 defines the true stress t and the
uniform strain u at maximum load (UTS) the point of instability.
Problem of materials testing (fig. 6.10)
- Tension test the geometrical softening at relatively low strain
-Compression test friction between surface of specimen and
compression plates.
- at large stain specimen become bigger in
the middle (barrelling)
-Torsion test large degree of deformation can be obtained
- deformation during torsion is not constant in the
cross section (at axial: = 0, at surface
= max
- Hardness test

6.3 Mechanisms of plastic deformation

6.3.1 Crystallographic slip by dislocation motion
When a metal is plastically deformed, the crystal structure
remains the same even through the shape changes. Metals
slip or glide on groups of parallel slip planes usually with low
index planes, i.e. {111} plane for fcc crystal.
Fig. 6.15, b 1 atomic spacing
x - displacement of the 2 crystal blocks
shear stress needs to move 2 crystal blocks along
crystallographic plane by one atomic spacing, b, can be
calculated.
increasing with x and reach max at distance of (1/4)b
= 0 at x = b equilibrium configuration of the crystal.
max

(G/2 ).(b/d)

6.30

max = th
Theoretical shear strength should equal to critical resolved
shear stress.
But th > Trss by some orders of magnitude
(table 6.1)
i.e. Copper : th 1.4 GPa
0 0.5 MPa

( 4 order of magnitude)

Because we assume that all the atoms move

simultaneously. In fact atoms move step by step like a
caterpillar as in fig 6.16 as motion of dislocation. Fig 6.17
A dislocation with Burgers vector, b, move through a crystal
of thickness l2
Crystal will be shear by
= b / l2
n dislocations move by a distance of dL
d

=
=

n.(dL/l1). (b/l2)
.b.v

6.31a

If the dislocation are immobilized after slip distance L then

d dislocation have to generated in a small shear increment
d
d = b.L.d
6.31b
If dislocation subjected to force F or shear stress (fig.
6.17) the work of slip w
w
= l1 l3 b
6.32a
w
= F l3 l1
6.32b
F - force / unit length act on a dislocation of length l3
From 6.32 a, b

The Peach-Koehler equation :

F
= (.b) x s

6.33

6.34

s line element vector tangential to dislocation line

From fig 6.18

To move a dislocation on its slip plane, it has to pass through a
higher energy configuration. This required a force corresponds to
a shear stress on its slip plane eq. 6.33. This stress is called
Peierls stress, p
The Peierls stress - proportional to shear modulus
- depend exponentially on the ratio of lattice
spacing, d, to the Burgers vector, b.
d b p
d

= a/h2 + k2 + l2

d is the largest for low index planes

For fcc
d is largest for {111} plane.
b is the smallest on the close-packed direction <110>
d/b is the largest - p is small
slip system of fcc -

{111}<110> fig. 6.19

4 {111} planes
3 directions of each {111} plane
12 slip systems

For hexagonal system, fig 6.20

For c/a
the most densely packed plane is the basal plane (0001)
the direction <11 -20>
each (0001) plane with 3 directions
For c/a
the basal plane is not the most densely packed plane
the most densely packed planes are the prism and pyramidal
planes inside hexagonal fig 6.20 b
There are more slip system than the above.
For bcc system
The maximum densely-packed direction is <111> direction.
There is no obvious maximum densely packed plane.
The most densely packed planed {111} but packing density is
only slightly higher than {112}, {123} fig.6.21.
In bcc slip system are
{110}<111>, {112}<111>, {123}<111> or {h k l}<111>
The Peierls stress: crystal structure with low crystal symmetry
(ceramics and intermetallic compounds) are brittle.
Slip planes and directions are not densely-packed so the
Peierls stress is high and can exceed the fracture stress,
therefore no appreciable dislocation motion occurs prior to
initiation of fracture.

6.3.2 Mechanical twinning

Deformation without crystallographic change
- slip
- diffusion: occur at higher temperature
- mechanical twinning
- occurs at low temperature deformation
- very thin and have a lenticular shape, fig 6.22
Twinning is shear deformation
- a crystalline volume is transformed into an orientation
with mirror symmetry relation, fig 6.23, to the parent material.
- twin and matrix are related by 180o rotation about the normal
to the twinning plane.
The geometry of mechanical twining is characterized by the twinning
plane {h k l} and the direction of shear (displacement) <u v w>
-The amount of shear during twinning is fixed
cubic crystal shear strain t = 2/2
-Twinning requires the shear deformation in a specific direction and
cannot occur in opposite direction
-During twinning the specimen changes its shape. It becomes larger in
one direction and shorten in another direction.
- during tensile deformation twinning has to elongate the specimen in
tensile direction.
-In cubic crystal, there are 12 twinning systems. There is always one
twinning system which will support the required shape change which is
not the case of the less symmetrical crystal system.
- for hexagonal lattice, fig. 6.26, c/a ratio affects twinning
c/a < 1.73 the crystal becomes longer by twinning
c/a > 1.73 the crystal becomes shorter by twinning

If hexagonal material is compressed perpendicular to the

basal plane, it can only deform by twinning if c/a >1.73
c/a > 1.73 can deform by twinning
c/a > 1.63 can deform by slip
This constraint has an effect on the formability of hexagonal
metal.
During forming, rolling, material becomes thinner, longer as
a result of slip grain rotation basal plane becomes
parallel to the rolling plane
- if c/a > 1.73 specimen becomes thinner by twinning
- if c/a < 1.63 pyramial and prism slip, fig. 6.27
- if 1.63 < c/a < 1.73 neither slip or twinning can accomplish
therefore, these materials are difficult to
deform plastically or brittle.
example; Mg c/a = 1.624
- can only deform by basal slip
- single crystals are ductile
- polycrystals are brittle
Mechanical twinning similar to martensite transformation
proceeds with the speed of sound.
In stress-strain curve: twinning is characterized by a serration
of the flow stress curve, fig 6.28
- stress drop is due to twinning rapidly provides a
deformation which is larger than the length change imposed
by the mechanical testing machine. Specimen is partially
unloaded for a short time.

-The larger the distance between an atom and the twinning plane
requires a higher energy. So the mechanical twins are very thin to
keep the elastic distortion small and minimize the elastic energy.
- The critical resolved shear stress for twinning is much larger
than slip by dislocation motion.
- At room temperature Cu deforms by slip only
- At low temperature (80K) Cu deform by mechanical twin.
- if the energy for twin is small, twinning is likely to occur.
- Deformation twins are not the same as annealing twin which are
generated during recrystallization or grain growth. Annealing twin
causes by a growth fault during boundary migration. Deformation
twin causes by shear.
- material with strong dependency for mechanical twin usually
show a high density of annealing twins.

10

6.4 The critical resolved shear stress

6.4.1 Schmids law
The resolved shear stress in the slip system cause
dislocation to move, not the applied tensile stress. The
resolved shear stress, , is related to tensile stress, ,
fig,. 6.30
= cos. cos = m
6.37
is the angle between tensile direction and slip plane normal
is the angle between tensile direction and slip direction
m = cos. cos = Schmid-factor
0 l m l 0.5 for tensile deformation
If there are more than one slip system the different slip
systems usually have different Schmid-factor. The largest
Schmid-factor experiences the highest shear stresss.
If the resolved shear stress > a critical value, 0
dislocations move. The critical shear stress should be the
same for all slip systems. 0 is constant.
If plot yield stress VS 1/ (cos. cos ) straight line fig 6.30.
The critical resolve shear stress 0 is the magnitude of stress
required to activate a slip system.
The minimum stress required to move a dislocations in the slip
system is the Peierls stress, p .
In ductile material: can either 0 > p or 0 < p
In the case of 0 < p
- because of the temperature dependence of the
Peierls stress ( thermal activation)

bcc metals and alloys

brittle material: -yield stress > fracture stress
- the Peierls stress determines the critical
resolved shear stress
- the Peierls stress decrease with increasing
temperature
- the critical resolved shear stress, 0 decrease
with increasing temperature
Therefore in bcc
- there is the brittle to ductile transition temp( Tt DBTT)
T > Tt
y < f ductile plastic deformation
- material with high Peierls stress the transition temp also high.
-iron
Tt ~ -100oC
Bi
Tt ~ +20oC

11

Fig. 6.32
Ni fcc- 0 and its temp dependence are much smaller than for the bcc
metals.
In fact bcc and hexagonal materials 0 > p .
Therefore there are other mechanism which affect dislocation motion.
6.4.2 Dislocation model of the critical resolved shear stress
6.4.2.1 Elastic properties of dislocations
A dislocation elastic distortion
elastic strain field- the dislocation core
- a hollow cylinder, fig 6.33
A crystal is partly cut along a crystallographic plane and both adjacent
crystal parts are displaced in the plane of cut
- in radial direction edge dislocation
- in axial direction screw dislocation
For screw dislocation, fig 6.33 and 6.34
z = b/2r
Hookes law
z = Gz = Gb/2r
xz = Gxz = (Gb/2) [y/(x2+y2)]
yz = Gyz = (Gb/2) [x/(x2+y2)]
For edge dislocation, fig 6.35, there are both normal and shear stresses.
E(e) the total energy per unit length of edge dislocation
E(s) the total energy per unit length of screw dislocation
E(d) the energy of dislocation per unit length
E(e) E(s) = E(d) Gb2

12

6.4.2.2 Interaction of dislocation

Dislocations interact via their elastic strain fields.
The force of interaction is given by the Peach-Koehler eq.
The interaction between 2 parallel edge dislocation, fig 6.36.
F12 dislocation 1 with its stress field 1 exerts on dislocation 2 with
Burgers vector b2 and line element s2.
F12 = ( 1 . b) x s2
6.53
For parallel edge dislocations: 2 edge dislocations with the same
Burgers vector
- lie in the slip same slip plane
F = (Gb2)/(1-)2r
- lie in different slip plane
The force depends on angle between the Burgers vector and the
vector distance joining the two dislocations.
- edge dislocations with the opposite sign
> 45o attract
< 45o repulse
= 45o equilibrium
- edge dislocation with the same sign
> 45o repulse
< 45o attract
= 45o unstable equilibrium (meta stable)
- Edge dislocations with the same sign lie in different slip plane will be
in equilibrium when = 90o or they will arrange in a plane normal to slip
plane, one above the other, distance h apart.

13

Fx the force which dislocation experiences during its motion due to

dislocation on parallel slip plane
- depend on the position of the mobile dislocation
xy = Fx/b ~ Gb/
pass = 1Gb/d =
1Gbp
1 the geometric factor
d - 1/p the average spacing of the parallel (primary)
dislocation, fig 6.37
pass - the shear stress to move a dislocation past other
parallel dislocation, passing stress
Dislocation of non-parallel secondary slip systems intersect the
primary slip plane and cut through the primary dislocations during
their motion.
The cutting process: steps are generated
There are 2 types of steps
- kinks - steps parallel to the glide plane
- can be further move
- jogs - step incline to the glide
- immobilized dislocation dipole
The step is created, therefore the energy increases provided by the
external stress.
lf - the free average dislocation line length
c - cutting stress = (1/2)Gb/ lf
f - the density of the forest dislocation
Since dislocation do not belong to the primary slip plane called
secondary dislocations or forest dislocations.
f = 1/lf , c = (1/2)Gbf
6.58
Total dislocation: = f + p
o = 1Gbp
6.59
= 0.5

14

6.43 Thermally activated dislocation motion

The measured critical resolved shear stress are usually smaller
than those calculated because thermal activation is neglected.
The critical resolved shear stress at T = 0K
- The Peierls stress p =
- The Peierls stress decreases with increasing temperature in
proportion to T2
The critical resolved shear stress of bcc and low symmetrical
crystal structure depends strongly on temperature since it is
determined by the Peierls stress.
In fcc and hexagonal metal: the calculated Peierls stress is much
smaller than the measured critical resolved shear stress.
In this case o is determined by the passing and cutting stress
due to the other dislocation in crystal
Carefully grown single crystals or polycrystal after long annealing
time still have dislocation ~ 1010 m/m3
The passing stress
- depends slightly on temperature (via the temperature
dependence of the shear modulus G)
- is referred as the athermal flow stress, G
- long range stress (xy ~ 1/r)
The cutting stress c
- short range stress , it acts only during the cutting process
- the cutting stress has to be overcome in order to move
dislocation
o = G + c
o - depends mildly on temperature, fig 6.41

For sufficiently high temperature:

- o G is sufficient to move a dislocation fig 6.41
At very high temperature T > Tmelt
- additional diffusion controlled process become active
which cause plastic deformation at a stress level
< c

15

6.5 Strain hardening of fcc single crystal

6.5.1 Geometry of deformation
Multiple slip
- slip begin on the primary slip system o
- the slip system is only one of several equivalent system
fcc: { 1 1 1} < 1 0 -1> = 12 systems
- After primary slip has occurred to a certain extent, the geometrical
factors may change sufficiently to cause o to be reached on a
second (conjugate) slip system, fig 4.4.
Fig. 4.5
- point 1 position of the axis of loading relative to the orientation
of fcc crystal
- in the standard stereographic triangle, slip occurs on the
(1 1 1) plane [-1 0 1]
- deformation proceeds the axis of loading tends to move along
the broken line toward slip direction
- when the axis reach point 2 the resolved shear stress on
conjugate slip system, (-1 -1 1) [1 0 1], becomes equal to that on the
primary slip system.
- Theoretically, the primary and conjugate slip systems should both
be active. Therefore, the axis of loading should move from point 2
toward [-1 1 2]
- Actually, slip usually continues on the primary slip system until a
certain amount of overload has occurred, fig. 4.6
- slip then shift to the conjugate slip system and continues to
overshoot again develop.
- Then the axis of loading reaches the [-1 1 2]

16

Geometric factor and strongly influence the magnitude

of applied stress, F/A,
In cubic: geometric factor influence is moderate by the
availability of alternative slip system
In low symmetry: geometric factor is important
The most favorable value of geometric factor
cos cos = 0.5
6.5.2 Dislocation model of strain hardening
Single crystals that deform by single slip reveal a typical
loading curve as in fig. 6.45, there are 3 stages
Stage I Easy glide regime ; very small hardening coefficient
Stage II Large linear increasing of strength
II = d/d G/300
Stage III Decrease of the hardening rate d/d (dynamic
recovery)

Stage I the primary slip system moves when the flow stress
exceed 0
Stage II the reaction of primary dislocation with dislocations
on secondary slip system that generates a population
(network) of immobilize dislocations called Lomer-locks or
Lomer-Cottrell lock, fig. 6.46.
The succeed dislocation will get stuck at these lock and
immobilized but they contribute to increase of the internal
stress.
Each immobilized dislocations cause the generation of a
mobile dislocation in order to maintain the imposed strain rate
(during tensile test)
stress to maintain plastic flow = pass + c = Gb
Increase strongly because pass , c increase.
Thus the single crystal strain hardens. Fig. 6.47
The hardening rate II in stage II is almost independent of
the crystal orientation or even crystal structure.
II = d/d G/300

17

18

Flow stress increases in stage II the dislocation density

strongly increase
How dislocation are generated?
Dislocation source are in the internal of crystal which is
known as the Frank-Read source fig. 6.48.
- a source consists of a mobile dislocation segment of
length l in slip plane
- stress is applied dislocation bows out
R = Gb/2
R radius of curvature
- shear stress
R - small - large
- Further motion of dislocation R increase, decrease
0 = Gb/l
- shear stress is applied semi-circle close loop
loop expand and the second loop is formed.
- The Frank-Read source can generate many dislocation
loops and supply mobile dislocation
- The dislocation loops exert a back stress on the source
which opposes the acting shear stress.
- If the back stress is large enough the source ceases to
provide dislocation.
Stage III
- is the longest stage of the hardening curve
- the strength continues to increase but the hardening rate
decreases
- the decreasing hardening rate is due to cross slip of screw
dislocation

- a cross slip dislocation increase the slip length of

dislocation and usually will meet an anti parallel dislocation on
the new glide plane so both dislocations are annihilated
dislocation density decreases.
- the decrease of the strain hardening rate is a recovery
process since it occurs during deformation
dynamic recovery
In most metals and alloys
III is much larger than the stress necessary to reach the
critical resolved shear stress of the cross slip system.
III - depends strongly on material fig. 6.50
e.g. Ag and Al have
lattice parameter, shear modulus and melting
temperature similar
- have very different values of III
- depends strongly on temperature
III decreases drastically with increasing deformation
temperature fig. 6.51
- The reason for this behavior is the dissociation of
dislocation into partial.

19

6.5.3 Dissociation of dislocations

In cubic and hexagonal crystals
- Burgers vector dissociate into smaller vector which are
associated with a planar fault of small energy.
fcc a dislocation with Burgers vector
b1 = (a/2)[1 -1 1] on (1 1 1) plane
- can dissociate into partial dislocation (Shockley
dislocation) fig. 6.52
(a/2)[1 -1 0] = (a/6)[2 -1 -1] + (a/6)[1 -2 1]
b1 = b 2 + b 3
The motion of a partial dislocation b2 lead to stacking fault
The trailing dislocation b3 remove the stacking fault
Since partial dislocation cause stacking fault dissociation
width of dislocation depend on the stacking fault energy
which is very different for metals e.g.
Stacking fault energy for Al = 180 mJ/m2 and
Ag = 20mJ/m2 . Dislocations in Ag are more widely
dissociated than in Al .
The dissociated screw dislocation can only cross slip if the
partial dislocations recombine over a certain length to re-form
a perfect dislocation.
III due to cross slip
III of Ag > III of Al
Therefore, Al has lower strength than Ag.

20

6.6 Strength and deformation of polycrystals

The grains of polycrystal have different orientations when
an external tensile stress is applied crystals that are
favorably oriented, high Schmid factor, deform first. While
other which are less favorably oriented are still stressed
below the critical resolved shear stress.
The grains which are favorably oriented deform
The next neighbor grains which are less favorably
oriented internal stress increases reach the critical
resolved shear stress
Only when all grains in a polycrystal deform plastically the
yield stress is reached.
- Dislocations in the slip system move and stop at the grain
boundary cause dislocation pile up which exert a back stress
on subsequent dislocation which is opposite to the shear
stress.
- The succeeding dislocation assume position such that the
applied shear stress and the back stress balance.
- The back stress increases with increasing number of pile
up dislocations
- The spacing between successive dislocation increase
away from the pile up
- The length of the pile-up in a grain is limited to half the
grain size. Number of dislocations which in a pile up of length
D/2 can be calculated by e.q. 6.88.
If applied stress:
F = b is repulsive force
At the tip of the pile up there is a stress
max = n

6.89

max affects the plastically undeformed next neighbor grains 2

increases the active stress in its slip systems. Plastic
deformation in grain 2 will be initiated at a distance xo from the
grain boundary, which is at S2. At S2 attained the critical
resolved shear stress 2 (xo) = 0
0 =

m2 + (x0).{ [ (1-)]/2.G.b}.D.2

6.91a

- the shear stress in the original grain 1

2D

= constant =
= 0 + ky /D

0 + ky /D

ky

6.91b
6.92a
6.92b

ky = ky /m
6.92b The Hall-Petch relation
21
D small, large strengthening by grain refinement
ky - the Hall-Petch constant is different for different materials

Fig. 6.56
- if each grain deform by single slip shape change grain
separation but in fact no
- considering 3D polycrystal surrounding by 14 grains the shape
change needs 5 independent slip systems
For example:
Hexagonal crystal - 3 slip systems
basal plane with 3 slip directions only 2 slip
systems are independent because the third system is
the combination of the first 2.
- polycrystal brittle, fig. 6.57
- single crystal - ductile
Cubic have 5 independent slip systems therefore polycrystals of cubic
materials are ductile, total shear, d = --- 6.93
is minimized.
For single crystals: d = m d
For polycrystals:
d = mT d
6.94
m Schmid factor
mT average Schmid factor
MT - Taylor factor for tensile factor
MT = 1/mT
= 3.06

6.95

Schmid factor for polycrystal during tensile deformation

mT = 1/3.06 = 0.327
6.96
Tensil stress strain diagram of polycrystal translated into shear
stress-stain curve. Schmid factor for single crystal or considered
polycrystal with unconstrained deformation
For single crystals- Sachs factore = ms
MT = 1/mS = 2.24

22

6.7 Strengthening mechanisms

6.7.1 Solid solution hardening is caused by the interaction
of an alloying elements with dislocations which increases
resistance to glide. There are 3 different ways in which solute
atoms can interact with dislocaitons.
a) Parelastic interaction: solute atoms causes compression
or tension stresses to the lattice depending on their sizes
cause elastic distortion. An edge dislocation has compression
and tension region.
Elastic energy is reduced if solute atoms segregate at
dislocation, fig 6.60. If dislocation moves, dislocation and
solute atoms have to separate results in an interaction
energy. The parelastic interaction force, FP.
Edge dislocation hydrostatic stress field around dislocation
Screw dislocation- no hydrostatic stress do not show
parelastic interaction with solute atoms.
If solute atom has non-isotropic distortion (C in -Fe)
screw dislocation contribute to parelastic interaction.
b) Dielastic interaction: the energy density dislocation is
proportional to shear modulus. Solute atoms in alloy cause
shear modulus of alloy higher than pure metal.
Fd dielastic interaction force for screw dislocation and solute
atom
c) Chemical interaction (Suzuki effect)
- Stacking fault depends on chemical composition
stacking fault energy decreases solute atom
concentration increases
- Stacking fault energy decreases
dissociation width of dislocation increases which
reduce dislocation density

- stacking fault energy decreases solute atom segregate to

dislocation.
- dislocation moves
leave the segregated solute atoms behind
change composition of dislocation core increase
dislocation energy.
The increase of the critical resolved shear stress for plastic flow
by solid solution hardening can be calculated
Fmax = Fpmax + Fdmax
6.107
The critical resolved shear stress of a solid solution increases
with the square root of the concentration, fig 6.61. The increase
in strength depends on the nature of the alloying atoms, fig 6.62.
Previously:

the dislocation mobile

the solute atoms immobile

- If solute atoms can diffuse segregate to the dislocation,

fig 6.63,
plastic deformation

dislocation moves from their solute cloud and can move at

lower stress (stress requires is less than the dislocation moves
through the average concentration of solute atom)
- yield phenomena of carbon steel : the mobility of C atoms
in Fe is sufficiently large that they can diffuse to a stationary
dislocation.

23

- short interruption of deformation, fig 6.64, (stress is relieved for

a short time) no yield point phenomena are observed. Solute
atoms cannot segregate since solute atoms do not have enough
time to segregate.
- longer interruption cause yield point phenomena to reappear.
At high temperature
- the mobility of solute atoms become larger enough
- they can follow dislocation during its motion and segregate to
its core.
- the repeated segregate and detachment processes cause the
flow stress to oscillate serrations on the hardening curves are
observed
- dynamic strain aging or the Portevin Le Chatelier effect, fig
6.65.

24

6.7.2 Dispersion hardening

- a metal contains nonmetallic particles substantially
strengthening
- particle-dislocation interaction
- dislocation cannot cut a hard particle bowing out or
circumvent, fig 6.66.
- the shear stress = Gb/( l 2r)
2r the particle diameter
l - average particle spacing
(l 2r) - the average free dislocation segment length
- obtain dislocation loop around particles and free
dislocation that can move on
The Orowan mechanism.
l is difficult to determine experimentally
l = r/f
f = N. (4/3)r3

f total volume of particle

particle sphere
N no. of particles/unit volume
- the particles are usually very small compared to their
spacing.
OR (G.b.f) / r
- the flow stress in dispersion hardened alloy strongly
depends on the degree of dispersion, f/r. It is most effective if
the particles are very small.
- the applied shear stress Orowan loops against the particle
surface.
- Each loop exerts a back stress on the dislocation behind it.
A second dislocation to pass a particle needs a higher stress
than the first. Therefore, the flow stress increases strongly
during deformation, fig. 6.68
- Particles increase flow stress
- strong strain hardening

25

6.7.3 Precipitation hardening

Precipitates formed during cooling of a homogeneous solid
solution contribute to the strength of a metal
Particles - coherent phase boundary
- partial coherent phase boundary
- incoherent phase boundary
- dislocations can only circumvent particle with incoherent
phase boundary by Orowan mechanism. Incoherent phase
boundaries act on dislocation like grain boundaries.
Incoherent precipitates have the same effect on the
strength as particles. But precipitate formed at high
temperatures are usually very large therefore contribute very
little to strength.
A solid solution quenched tempered at lower temp
metastable phase formed coherent or partial coherent
phase boundaries all crystallographic planes and directions
in matrix continue into precipitate with only slightly distortion
dislocations can move through these particles.
Precipitates exert forces on the dislocation which have to be
overcome
parelastice and dielastic interaction as in solid
solution hardening
parelastic interaction increase with increasing size of
the particles
If a dislocation cuts through a coherent precipitate, the
precipitate will be sheared. The top part above the slip plane
will be displaced by a burger vector, fig. 6.69.
- increase in phase boundary area,
- the energy of which has to be expended by the applied
strain during cutting process, Fc = p . r

- If the particle is long range ordered, the long range order will
be destroyed along the slip plane and antiphase boundary is
generated
FAPB
= APB . r
6.121
APB - the energy of this antiphase boundary
- The precipitate has a stacking fault energy PSF different from
the matrix MSF. Therefore, the width of the dislocation core in
precipitate is different from that in the matrix.

26

- If PSF < MSF , the dissociation width in the particle is large

than in the matrix
- If PSF > MSF , the force has to be exerted to move
dislocation into a particle.
-In superalloys: lattice parameter and shear modulus of Ni and
Ni3Al are very similar but the energy of the antiphase
boundary is very high.
6.8 Time dependent deformation
6.8.1 Strain rate sensitivity of flow stress : superplasticity
At low temperature

= (d ln )/(d ln )

At low temp: fcc

m ~ 1/100
Flow stress is independent of the strain rate

= Km
If T* = homogeneous temp = T/Tm

Tm melting point

When the deformation temperature is increased to T* > 0.5

m increases and typically attains values of 0.2.
In very fine grain material m > 0.3 is observed, fig 6.73, in
the range of the strain rate 10-3 /sec.
Such a high strain rate sensitivity is accompanied by an
increase of ductility in tensile test and strain to fracture of the
order of 1000% or higher can be obtained. Superplasticity.
(World record ~ 8000%) fig. 6.74

27

The reason for high strain to fracture is the high strain rate
sensitivity.
At low temp:
Physical hardening and geometrical soften occur during
tensile test if a local reduction of cross section area
deformation concentrates at this location drastically
increases the strain rate in this location.
If m is large,
= K m is also large further
deformation in this region will be suppressed.
Superplasticity behavior:
a large strain to fracture in a continuous tensile test
At high temp: deformation occurs by processes in the grain
boundary grain boundary sliding or grain boundary diffusion
while dislocation motion is crystals is unimportant. Therefore
negligible strain hardening during plastic deformation, fig.
6.74a.
Superplasticity
- occurs in a fine grain microstructure
- grain size < 10 micron
- usually not occurs in pure metal, at high temp in pure
metal grain growth is very fast are even faster with decreasing
grain size.
- occur in 2 phase alloys, frequently at eutectic
composition
- observed in single phase materials with low grain
boundary mobility e.g. in ordered phase alloys likes Ni3Al or in
fine-grained ceramics.

28

6.8.2 Creep
Materials are subjected to a continuous deformation at constant load
or constant stress at elevated temperature Creep
Static tensile test - constant load
Dynamic tensile test - constant strain rate
A typical creep curve (t) , for constant , comprises 3 stages
Stage I - primary creep - the creep rate continuous decreases
Stage II - secondary creep the strain increase linearly with time
Stage III - tertiary creep the creep rate increases
Steady state creep rate

s = A(/G)n e-( Q / kT )

6.130

The mechanism of creep

- is associated with self diffusion, activation energy for creep is the
same as the activation energy for self diffusion.
- vacancy diffusion assist the edge dislocations to overcome
obstacles on their slip planes ( dislocation creep) dislocation climb
One vacancy only can make dislocation climb only segment of
dislocation ~ b
Therefore, many vacancies need to make all free length of dislocation
to climb.
At high temperature :
the vacancy concentration is sufficiently large diffusion controlled
climb can proceed continuously
At very high temperature and very low stresses:
- creep cause by diffusion only, not due to dislocation motion
- material in volumes subjected to compressive stress will move by
diffusion to volumes under tensile stress cause the specimen to
elongate, fig 6.79.

29

- flux of atoms compensates to a flow of vacancies in opposite

direction
- deformation is carried by diffusion
- the strain rate is determined by the diffusion motion of atoms
which proportional to driving force ( applied stresses ), fig. 6.80.
- the creep rate proportion to the applied stress
- proportion to the bulk diffusion coefficient called
Nabarro-Herring creep, NH
At not high temperature - in fine-grained materials
- atoms transport through grain boundaries (grain boundary
diffusion) exceed volume diffusion and dominate diffusion creep, fig
6.81.
- diffusion creep Coble creep, c
Total creep rate of polycrystals

NH + c

At low temp fine grained material - strengthening mechanism

- high strength
At high temp fine grained material creep strength is low
Fig 6.82: Deformation mechanism maps
- specific mechanisms dominate at a range of stresses
and temperature
- used to select materials in specified service condition.

30

6.8.3 Anelastic and viscoelasticity

At temperatures far below half of the melting temperature
time- dependent deformation in elastic regime can be observed.
i.e. at stress far below the yield stress.
Total strain = a time independent strain + time dependent strain
(very small)
If time dependent deformation is removed on unloading so that the
shape of the specimen before and after unloading is the same called
anelastic behavior or anelasticity.
If an anelastic body is loaded for a long time with a stress 0 ,fig. 6.83.
- where 0 is smaller than the yield stress
- a spontaneous purely elastic strain, 1 is instantaneously
established which is followed by a time dependent (anelastic) strain,
2(t) which approaches a maximum of 20
(t) = 1 + 2 { 1 e (t /) }

6.137

- the relaxation time

- time to pass until the anelastic already state (stain no
longer changes with time) is attained.
- determined graphically fig 6.83
If t is small

(t) - 1

= + 20 (t/)

On unloading the strain is recovered

- elastic strain. 1 (gone first)
- followed by time dependent strain until = 0
In anelasticity there is no permanent shape change.

6.138

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