3/12)

22
UNIT-2: Gwoup 'lbeora
one Simple-
have nmay impoitant alhekxaic systeos
We 1E
.One applecation o
Class of
Class ot Systems s called gaps
to the oF ttansitipo ohich Can be applicd
study
1S

to theoreticel phy sics It's

is
the graep theory in phy Sics
he advantages of structune od Specta
atomic
tools in boe Calcuulations of
is 6 appicable
physics. So goup theorg
ond patide as physic chomist
wel
to the
brandbes of
of
phy Sics as

# o u p dehinition witb a bina

elements

is a non-epty
set ot
G ordeed pai
pair in
A gioup
tunction iom
which is a
operation
tnl tollow the toloing rdes
ard it
GG to G

Rules
Gar CloSwe poperty Gar
tben
and b e G,
IF a
a b ¬G

then
Gr 2 1P a,b, c ¬G Assodative pope
aoe - (a@ b)ec

_existence2
Such-
Such-

Gr 8.
dentity
e ¬ G caled eBe identity
Called
element,
heie exist an

that an a ee e ®a
a
a EG

Gur 4. 1overse existence then here

exists
an dement
an element

a e G,
element, Such
Such that
For encb
a oitton a s "a
Caled invese of
of G
 ut it may be a gop ndos addu lion
Gu5 Commutative ls abe,. (tommalative)
Tcheck hebie giap set is a abelion graup undo addbion
G, then
d ud
ab e he
(D) a (*) ¢ G
ab= b properbg, it is
abelia S'oup hether it
Check it
ollows tinite set of vdes 2.
Commwative
If group is a
G cation.
Sa rap under ol rutiph
binany operation
group
Finite and Intrite tinte
fint no oelonerts,then
AGarD 1 (-)
G obeys closune Pqet
a
I F the giaup latanS
as a tnite group pof elements, then i Gr 18) 1) -(1 6))aI obeys assouative
Propet
Caled it
ipfinite no of
contains a ae e@a a
.If a gioup
Yp
infinite Gop
Car 3)
as an
is calleod dartibq_exists
-I =1-
The oder ot 9ouP gouP
i5 Called the ordey
firite
in a
elemends Gr 4 a =e
h e no of r venges
exi sts
of he gup
finite giop
ls
infínite
is tha
-1 - = ,J vese
oF
Order of in oY zero
operation
elenent
the binay
Set
conteans
the identity
Set G 1s agrayp unde
he
Smalkigotup (or) shodd be identB
be mltipication
set
a given
t
smalest royp
whcb
whe Set G is an abelio q/cup
The
The
be the
Smallest
gap/set
s a g/ouP IE)
= E)*aI
ill
G-ej
even intgers
ahich o e
fomed by bnlq wnder mull" GuoupMadtiplication.
sek
Jea
eg: Consider
a
oup Ojperation able
G -3,0,2,4, G, order 3 which with bhe
dffeent-
group of
,
Consider a
:Closure defirned a s
say G - A ,B,e
EG
A: G -2 Associative elenents
e ldontity
GaY 2 (4)*5)- I (4 *(-5) B-A AB eBA
A B
e = BA
ldent AB
Car3
invese des0't belongs b: a e
=
f a: hactional number ab
*Ratioral huober or
but 4o
+* 4
Gar4
multipicata ormulate ap opeaiLion table where b i6
und e addttay Cant invess
mudtip uCati
ve
hot a cup
#Set Gis
of
u
(Bul 1s eyp
Hee A is dhe inese
JA-8 of B
 Hue
B abbab ab
Opeation eA
e A
/B'-A
A BB A e e e a bb ab ob
A A AB-e e ab ab
AB
A bb ab e aab
B e
abrt all ha
prope,
eties
iofomaLion
bb ab e bah
glves the
This table Glves
delieed
ab] b b
vefg, a, b,
ab ab e

Considar a set idun

ab b e
E a - b e,
ab» ba
ana
abeho ppels) ab' o b
not
goup o
it is bab eab =ab
babb =bbab
uhethe
Chock
bab
b ab
aab eb =b
b
ab
C /a(ab)= a'b- ba -ah da
eb-6
e (abt) a'b
-

a
=
a
b
ab
e ab'= abb bab
a

b ab e
bab b ba -
b'a ea a
b hab
e
b'bb'bb=b'b -eb -
abb
bba eba =
ba a
bab b ' b a b'bba -
ab -
-

atsal

a'b - eb -b h'ab (bab)b abb - ab3 =ae =

a lab)
b(ba) b a ea -a b
=

bab- aba aab ab° -

b (ab)
ba' - be -b abb ab
(ba)a
(ab)a
ahb ab'-a
abb ab -ae Q a'-e ab'a = aea =aa a-e

ab's =
aeo aa abab ab ba
ob/ba) =

b -eb-
ab)(ab) b a ' b - b'.
to set v baob.
belrys abab
elkments ol openobiontable
#Al (ommalive ) ahe ab
4nd abelon b
a'b =cb
-

5 agp
Set V ah' a ab
ab- ae =a
Consida a se Gea, b, b,ab, ab'j 'abb

ab't ab'b ab ba'. b

- ban
-

dewed a'b°- e aha

abba
-

ab°ba
ab b a dh ab
aahb -a' -ee-.
ab ab
 Shal reddeo4) PopestieS o nvese fro p (o)
5/23
Pepeiat on ot a grouP a the inverse ot a is ahen he n ve se of a
(Po

idenbu element is a hoe ae G Cgroup

.) Unigueness of
ard identity
in
wnde the Pioe a") a' -e -O
| a)a
elemerts Ieqn
the two tro the right
e and e'
ae
Multilg by a aa =e

opeation a ) a.a =e a
Consider E -O (a") a a =a

=e =a
then ae
)'e a
a e e a
@")-a te, ) is a
Let a=e'. ede' =e
eae
F a, b G , then (ab) =ba
e'oe =e - beG
bEG
ee-
Noc
ae egual ab)b'a)
LH:G
Prof (b'a)(ab) bla'a) b
rom ep of
Uniguenss ot idortig eloment abb a
- beb
R:HS ee -aea
b e
ot
inveyse
two inveyse
s of
Unicueness the
2) and
b c
ae
(b'a)Cab)
Can sider, aeG
operation b a
the
G undey ab
a In ab ba e
-

Then Cancellation Ja
= Ca
e 5 JaH aw
aC Canalatlop
i) Right
ec C

(ae in group G)
E G
(ab)e -(ba) IF a,b, c
-b
-be thon ab a L c Left canalatiop
b(ac) b(ca) b= C
a3soci
ative proporty
b Cac) (be)Ja
by =
>
followsassociatie pptb| Can@llatio.
guaup
LHS
agapP
ba -C Right
b C
RH9
c& b ae egual)
invego : ab = Oac
(Mutipy a' on
85)
Uni gyeress ot
aab oac
eb eC

b c JeH nalaiu
 bo Ca hupiy
baaCaa 2 4,,,
be C e
luid caralitn o -2 2
n verse

elerns o H vd youpPG
te idenliy
e ard e
oe

Sudyrap H a gru
7ss
be
Subset
m t i b e n d i c a l
ration 0 in G
opeati
aGH ea ae a
o-empty

inin H,n e al
the
Stbyraup ol penatioo
H, hon
matheat ical
a
s alsc Subjey
aas
H of
this subsel
&0
I 5 20 1 4 2 4 5
Horoego
0
ea a e
0,2, 4,6,8,Dj ubed HS
e ae
2--0-8,*
De Ge
Saud
eee
ea e a
HS Gartelcto
e-eigt
oralst
be a sgapP
Inpoger S elene
Sebsap doty
wal etainsoy Cyclic qroup hr
he fom sf
subrap xo
trival
that of of s in
H=e Gime a9 dovents
npapo
SubarouP
(oigin se GToe seb ofol
trividl/
+

o gup
ppebes
e e e doso eloue alte
E
5ugioup
Subget
in8 G
a 9oyp
goeor
Ee
Conside
sa cycic
eeeele enchudig
chye2)
e
uppose
Check it ikGa
ugays G-i,-i (wde madkipkeatio
ve
stgays
Al oher ind he igereaber
5ubaaup
prope es ct idenbity etH
g.

G, en he loveysee hava t+ hek

be a aukrap ot Assozsbive, ohather isgoup)
Lel H dl)
) Closwa property
a (re
as thatof
eaualSsare Consider i J e n e r a t o r
he same as lan be urities
of a Sohy oup 15 Al demonts

he invese ctny elerment tte)(-)* Hue

as a) ekmet of iotorm of
te noe of bab elrorb tegadad
yle gop
i Hoe
of C XiCG
al e elnents
genuades
yclk grop
 t . emdation Youp
genwator = - i
Coosider A, B, C
(i) be
a
gereIato

adso
Can

-i
2l e al dhe
whth
orn genn

ebroerl

G)-i = A BC idntibs
BcA eleroert
abelion groP A CB
a
1s
cyuc qroup
ey A b

+Pa( 8 J [ a E ]
e G
Consider 2, p r o v e / - 4
pe/mutafion

to ioup urdor
mustipucation 3oap
xe
have
f l o w S all
dhe prope tes of
rbsue
a m

graup 1dan
y a"a"=a""* T is abelion o chack akeioo prgerty voup In vse
wpder a d d i t i o n
a m t h

tnteaer u p omdathe

a " a " =y*

C o m m u l i v e a b c h o o

hen a) Pa- a
cycuc
gUOp a ,
of a BRP Commuatia
ais
a
qeneator
G. 9kotcr non
-

akelloniE naedrot to be
the is
geneakor
of So peimutstion qroup
also a Cab
a"e G
than Associatie popertg L
Let G aj ycte grouP,
Poof 4 EG (-
( h ()
of a =
a ldent.ly (t)/ identity.
Inerse (-ni5 an integer (A
of identiby
element Hoe Bc element
-neI
exis tere

Inverse of fermatabioo Inve6e

is a
cHcic gioup
is t sel a n b ba ba
bn

Eve Subqctup ot a
a, a bea,a, a3 an
b , ba .

Cycic gocp
a, a2,@3
eimutation oup an
a, a ,a3
 H O H=. - 12 4 O, , S,13,
Lechrge
C ) hicb mlc ern
Transpster s
-11,-7, 3 , 5,1, 3
Sucb io Galed
2 6 , 14,
A pomuutation - Io, -6
of s ,2, J t2
, 15,.
iteletnts ,-5,-', 3 7,

H+
- 2 4 , O,4, Z, 12, 16,
23 2 JH 4
han
eep oo Consti cucting,
1f e

H+O = H t4
H+I H+5

(s 6,+
H+(-)
2
3and H
C H+3
H+7
Cosets
Can .get 4 tor distinct rignt
this ay e Combiration ot
2
that Gis
3 4 5
C a) H, H+', H+2, H+S, sudh 4 4.
5 6 234 2 3
23'G
123
G HU (H+)
ulH+)u (H 5)
5
281+

e Properties hes
G Gnd heH,
collectiobD
His a subgrayP o
tbe
then
Coset a e G hH Hh H
subgroup ot G hEH is aled ha ight Cosett oF H
H is a
obere Pioo asbitrary
elomert

h be an
O
by Ha et
ha ba a, baa
hb e hH
tis denoted o eH
G1 and
H in ah Lefe coset
of .ot G
a
subqroup
toset H 1s
aH ( a h , aha Right
pd heH
hna H ClosureUsing popety O
h,a, ha be
*Ha =
inteqers
ho
additive grap ot bb' e H to hH
eg:et G be 2 s a y$ that E belonge
- O ' ,2 3 , hh.E hH
32,
n pucdy1 hne H
.12,-8,-4, D,4, 12,- *: hha, he of H
H 4G
s u b s e t

is
hHcH- bH
Here undei aoldtion
Ha (h,a, baa, ha
H+O H - 12,-S, -4, O, f, S, 12,. oY H S bH
(hb)' -

( ) ac b a H - bH

clooue P C t
beaH aH
he hH e H

>heH IC aard b ore an oo dustinct ements of G and

hH Hh -H Hbe the sbgroup o G , then
HChr
Hh
oF Gol
aH bH b H
d:stinct elemert s
G, ancl H
b ae any
too and Ha =Hb ab e
a and
sabqiap ot G
then
Poo
any O Let aH bH
| Ha Hb
-

ae Hb bH
aH bH
aH =

to ight toser H S a H ab
a belgs
Oe
baH bbH
aH - bH aH H
IP a e bH baH =H
belongs to
lett coset
chs
àbtH H He aH
Let a Hbl r i y 6 . 8 S

ab e Hbb
ab e H
HH-H HHC HH = H
ab e He 5aH

Hab e HH
baH H4 orn 8
byb
Hab e H
HH =H) bba H
bH mesl Eip
H a b b e Hb aH G bH
Ha e Hb
ab e HH
hen Ha £ Hb agrarge theorern of a Suhgrep
tinrte group
must b e a
subgroup oF a
. Jet e Hal 'Jbe rder of a

the
he oder ot gioup
ba' e Haa
a o n -S
integral divisor of
od where
b a e HH m is aD integer
o d o
Hba e HH (H=H
H SubgiouP
Hba GH4 Hba'a ¬ Ha
H = H , =e Ha H of oder oF k
Hb e Ha

Hb eHa G group of ader ot g 0rdes o Ga

horde of M
do
p
 H

Consider oaral rrdtile Curd y P

XH Orde o ors o p l s S
e mul iply
2 H : Iish
Speaal obqonp
XH H Normal Subgrcup d 2rt bset
e
hat leht cocct
(ondilio in_which the
(t c n t r a i c r y

he speua sbgoup
om not nece s50l to he equol
pe i i s h

H;E H s i H urds mutipicoto

hoof obelion group
H e
Lot G
.t mens that, any
Clr

d
HEH
HSuayoup. H Subg1oup than C

H
H e G
Hx = H
*Clus popriy(XHi)H; *uo
ests
a Subgrp
has
-IeH abelion,
XH H Howeve Gis not

e C
suh Bhat
Hoab, oF H zH e G |
conSidered

cohich
as
rama Subgrcup
C o n t a i n e d
in H
subgroup Qs a
H call be
* iC
X H ; i s i s i

and we
then Subgap
XEG elementS
a remal
he b a is
called
shald ce
XH; e HS H of
a_group thae
and crlg G Subgroup h eH,
of the r a p >A
and tor every

townd
hat 2h
elemerts
r every o EG
ue
heefere, arelatio Suah that
H+XH; e G xh eH
be present

eH. H X,XH, x e G
C H
In LHS
1 H'
H|
2h we are taking normal i f f 3 x Hx'-
is
H of a
HiH idantiay A sbgroup
YHi H
YH; e Ga, HjH -e of G, ten
XH; be a rormal 6ub qioup
and YH f Isish ange i ot H
RH9 H CH
Hi hoe
focf YH HiH H dhere tore,
we

= Hi H
YH Y xHk,
Using doSure

H (')CH
-

Ye,XH;H EG
popety

. H
H H CH
(uwtipying oP S
HEH H
Y XHe Hk e
x'Hz) £ xH
HH
-
 nh
H
ah9
of 6ord zrap
and
Consider x ¬ a irkogalmptie
XH Ordos o n yop
X H
e mult iply H , XH
eG1

Spcsol euhgoup
thaL
Norrmal Subgroup lekt coce ond ght toset
oe

the
tubgoup io which
Condition

and contraductoy

The speuad
ho
te
equal be
*e
an prove
i ih not nace 350rilyto
H; ¬ H
is i H orde mutipi cotion
XH be a obelion group
Ga
mean5
that, any
eloment
H Su>aoup. Lot
thon le Coset

.li HE H H Subgroup
and
E H
H ocE G
E e G
p r o p o t s ( x H i )H;
H
a subgrup
exsts
*Clasue H: EH has
hwe
XH, H; abeliop,
eH, Howeve, Gu is not -orcion
H rn

e
C
suwh Hat
of
as
C o n S i d e s e d that H z ¬G rofP
r o r a l 5ug
Chich
H
X C o n t a i n e d
in as
a

and H XH; (1s i e k) e we call the subgroup

9ubgoup'C
elements hon
rernal
So
he b is
Called a
be
H;C H H _ o F a_
group thue
shaudd
and onlg the graup G Subgroup tor every
h eH,
denerts
ot
A G and
tound
that 2h or every ¬
heefpre,
we i that
h

H+XHi
e G1 relation
Such
h eH
be present a

X, XH, K, HA
H
eH,
Hx¬H
x eG
2h 3 In LH:S is noimal iff
we ose taking
H of
HH idlarntity Subgroup
YHiH A
#YH; e C, of G, thorn
1sish ange i
Pho be rormal Bub group
ard YH; f XH; H a

RH H CH
hoe
foo H H:H Hr dheetore,
we

= Hi Hj 1
YH, Y xHk,
Using doure
H (x') CH
H E Ga
Ye, XH; H
popeg

Hk E H
HE H cH
Y XHk
H; - Hk ¬
 Ti
Bu dotnt ion

c
xHx"
c'ac -O
('Hx)a
t d bd
H aHa'
a , 1s
a
oimal
qtcyp oG b dyd"
goyp
lelt Coset of H in -chc oO)
dc'acd' hwe
a
H of
A subg coset of
H o
s
b
qht (xHH XEG de'
ittits b -b-f"af
Hx cd

L-13

Conugate and Classes

b (ed)oCcd) (cd") dc
//23
ony the elementa
ofgroup,then -Faf
c be ahu
a,b and Suth that, to erh
ot relatio cagate
ae
theve
exsts a
So, a & b a gap
thich ae

elemorts ot
c'acb transtormat
Pthvog
ion ol
i s impies
hat these
a class
o_the ga
to be he and b are ore
arother tor
1s
said
tuoo
elements
Conjugate to
hen d the
otther ae
to
each
torteins hu elements,
f the oup
ate
be onyu Operties
6aid to the tolewa Aa . toming thee
eleents
have A e , A2, Ag eosed b e
(ougate w i b tselP be
Conugate of A 4 +ourd
is
the dass
element

O Evey C e
Eeauences.

A
e' Ae
=

e ae
=
e'a
-

conjugake to a. AsA A , . AAAg to A

then
bis
ae cmiugate
Corugate lo b, elemerds et
Bus sequere

Fa 1sa A andhese to
toone arotber conjugate
eveyone
to A (and
C'ac-b OCCurs actually more
conjugale
= Cbc elenent
hele Evey the saquernce

cCacS other
elomet
in

Cbc any
e ae
d in bbe
6eqepe.
be disBipu

la- d'bd|
inot
once)
hon senuence
cbe ot he
a ie al the
elements

eahother be di vided into

conjugake to
thoweloe
Con
ekments of a gicup
andb ue
a dass
1fLd elements ale conugate So the one ard oly one

a and b in
, theD elkment eppaars
element eveg
to anotbe
Classes and m ditleed clastes)
shadd e
to each oter eoents
(ie Simil
 1,,,
+For a abclicn g de pcdet th
ConGde :-',
(n(YHL)
a
oue rpe
S g t e to co -H
ax-a elenoent Ahor
ThuSin an ahelco
giaP EY
Game der
orde XYYH YHI
the
dass
have
x YHHL XY HH= H;
ol
#All the Ceerts ((onh uh H,HL H
of he Coscts ipacdue - aet
he
class

of their class
of th eprduct xyuprrdu f 2 rosets

ot_a sirgle coset _Gke

eloment
cemntel
ah
t A be an also the roents
elerne

A >i the
xAX
A, he coscts whae demerts
the
elent
of2 2 Cosets is that, rulpicatino b smrts
ode of product
IP Sbe
he
ebtained in
the poduct of ard #e
costs toro a Qrcup
the
cosels So
ae
tao
the
a (x'Ax)(x'*3) of ueup
- (xAx)(x'A)..
(xAx) type oF
9up is
alledFactor
pod 2r d
tine9

Ax) = xA"x

(xA Dheck product of gioups

a new
constuc
used to
G and H_Can be
(xA x'a"z| Tuwo qIoups
ad he Hj
elamont
element
Cx'Ax) is onjugale
gtoup as GAH) =} [9b): qea
oider of
the Lauger
shaue that,the GU.
Honce
Honce all the
al the GxH
tor XE Guoup
*his on

o order n e order
hon the pioduct
to A le
hove same C9htg) [9s hh) 9.9e
elkments
belogs to he clasS hbe H

Called
the caset ofa
pioduct opeiation GH is a group
So, toith his
aub aeup. of & .ad H
actor ucuP. we
have to lean noimab
direct pioduct
Gx H is
discus,
the tacto grop gto
ae
he dvect aoduct
noimal sub
o of and H
Go
a
(asets
dhe ighb Guoups
he lefi oncd heed to
koao he
Coses
dehned s
So we
identical , GGoup. gE and heH
¬ GKH
(3,9,b
g.,b) (3»,h.)
-

XEG

noal Sturop of G
Cloeua propeeg
and H 1S
(»,h.)} (9»,b)
XH, Y H l e f l -coæbs

e Aesoiabvepegg Cbh)
te cocets:
he toe dekbe, Cosels
HX,HY right
(ah){ h).(9,h)}
 Consids bbe g a p ,
ity_clemert
ch that
ldatiy eler has an ident Gr ea3H 2e, b bj -> dared wds cordion
GaxH
dued
pdet
defio uwdo a
Cord tiona-e Lb-e
ebb e
ai6
inverse ot ibsaf Ioese
ot6
i s the
is e in verse _OF
ese_of Cax and b a-a b-e b
o
9is bhe
in vese o l GaxH b is te in ece
be he
ill
(g-) Nod, Dreu p.oduc
H
be oth two eements
cycie
g'ops
eb) (e t) (ae) (ab) (a.b)f
Let G and H be the
G 2 (ee)
Ch&k cohaikorGAH a a gaup
Cah G-eaj3 e hove to
Oeation able undder ha oe use operation sble
Fox

b Muwtiplation C e b ) e b ) | Cae) CabCab

b Sine a - e G Cea) (ab
ab)ab )
a
e'| e
(eb)eb) (ae)
e e aa e
ee) ce)
'. a is invese
(e)(ab)a) (ae
aa e oFitselfF
(eb) ( e
(e b |

we kno GxH (g.b) 3 (eb(eb)(e)Ce)Cab)Cae) (Cab)

)
(e)(ae)(a4) ? eb) beb)
eb)
Hee G-eoG H - 2 ( e e ) Cae)Cae).Cab)Cab)
(e
H-feb be
Cab)(ae)|(eb)
(eb)Cae)
OecIo bl eb)a (ab) Ca b)
Ceb
Ce)
GxCe e) (aó)
(ec)Cee) ( a e ) ( e b) (ab
bsinasc

P iself
(ab)ae)Cab)
(eb) (ee)
a =C
Cab
(ee) Cab)
(ae:) (ae) Ce,b)(e,b)= (e,b)
Ce.e) (a,e
(eb) eb (e bXeb)= (e bi) - ce
Cab)ab) (e) (a,e) (ee (e bb) (e, eb) -(eb)
*(eb) (e b)-(eb)-
-

( c b)(ee) - (eb) aae) -(ab)-(a,8) (a.eb) - a -

(ae) Ceb)(ab)
Cee) Cae)
-
x
Ceb)Cae)- (ab) eb Ca 1)
Cae) (ae
=
(ee) (ab) -

(ae)leb) = (a,) (eb)(eb)

=
(e,e) (ab)eb) (ab (eb) -

Ceb) (op) = (a,e (ag)

a e ) (a, 5) = ( e , b)
a bXab) (e)
Honoopism o a gia
G
onlo o u p Gs
Baid . ) Cea) a) FCo.a) f)
for a goyp
A maypig

ab G
(ab) +(c4)-FSa) b
be a
flat) -fayfC»)
hopemorphic
mage of aFe4) sbfCa,b) =a
a
to ke a
said
ond G is
howomophsm
fG G onts G FSCab), (t d)f
-
Fla») fca)D
and
oe -oDe) whe e
i s
fle-b) fa) a fla,b)
)b )- fa) f»)
somoph6m

Then, it
is
called

Onto
rla
fCa
C fCeA
eement in a.
Ore-One
.Fo eveiy ehure
( Coil be

image in G
2 Cornespondng
LJf ts a
roporpisrs

anothe 9roup
be - One Ga onto
-

ed25 ot a group
homomophism
t a mak fis a
all order pair (a0) ouP *

Consder
G bycpeator addition detined G then
&e' e Ga
e(e)

whoe e ¬ G f)-Pe
e) e l ,
umber with a

)
Ca,b)(c) (a+c, brd) additian
fa)-ta] aea

then the
ode oF fa)
ith. bnag
opeIatioD, ¬G is inba,
the ode of
e
oup oa
ad G - apother I oder
oF tbe oCid

a l r a n no. Ther, is a diviSof

hae col be a
mapping
Peos f o a e G, Fa)'eG
for G to G'
Ca)e -(a)
is a hoDo morphiSm
(a) fl) fl)
¬ s
deioal N (a,b)
elemert E G have fra) e'
- f ) fle) BLe cancellatioo rule
or an4
beomorphiS, H
P f
ap mage G

tor (a,a)
e G e:fco) fa)
clrerdu Fea)-fle)fla)
FCa,ba
B dhe dekinition, e' Fco)Fe)fa) Canellation
viqht
fa.b)-fa Pb) e-F
Py
Ca+c, bid)
CabCcd)
(ab) whae Ga-ouP
 i6 reph
imase G
de nga
f)-
a
-9
e'-e-a)
Ca) fa). y-F6)Fa)
Inee oay)- ( s ) - f ) f y -y*
inese o a
iso abeyo

hewem orpe imy of

fa)ie e G

fa)-[r G1s abebon

iLet oder(a) - a 8en)

yhee a'=e )FO)
fis ret keremephe

f(afe)e
Fe)-Fa).
p ires
a)e
ota
homomorphi
sn
(
kwnel
e t + b e e bomomophism

keunel of
Soinese
p imes 1s abel
belicy
f'aan abeli on ou har te apped ai
image o onto
he group writien
momophic Ga is I Cars te
ho
vey
is not bue
1f a> abeion by k e r o h i c h
docted
but e
Converse

fis e dertieerert

G abelion
G-abebop kerf-aeG: fa).e
ab 0ommudalve /abelibn. a gcp
orto
C
a,b e Sm ot a geup
is aso abelioD is a
horoomerphi
subqrcup et G
ho
keme, then k 1 s a normal
witb
to be
bue (rot oekoo
i need not omomophic

But to f: 6' f1umplt Dihedral uoup includes otntla

resadas
podygon hich
Summeles
of a
dhen we
Caroup c
map
e X =a+
C and
refiection
ohon we
rotate oand 2
Botsti0 C centroid.
lerdoid
a5. ax
c dlned taling
oma (o domader
wder
multiplcation i) abt
e

Kot = tet of real ho e 271

of vdatio
ldntit

c: suls i o - Same )
b

Sybuebies charged ands

erat
dhe
ee tart durditg
 RA P
e ed
R
R P2P
R odher 2 P
Bye Retien intechn3n
dhe

iny a Conc
(vee
C a>b Totad Ra
ynet R4 3 2

u 2 Rs R5 R4 R
b

B CD F
eA e
Ro ldrti
c D
R,R2 [3e*)-[]-
/ R,R3

20 * RR, = )Le - []
e ] : ] [a2S] -
D
120
R, Rs
=
F
F a

RR ] -LatJ-
A
electioo
/R R 1e-t]

* RR
S Cnder R-abe
Rotabon -*:)- abc
R2 R
RS
Lca
R2R5
20
-

bca
Rs R

S - c

: b
R, R2
*Reiectiors
R R ])- ]
Rafiection a fxed bfixed c Fixel
' R, Rs a
a
 O360 2 Ro R
Square b e d
b
ab c d Ra 27/1/23
Ro
Re Pesentation

ider
a gr
or 36o Cons
-

Ro o order and e
90
n R e
80 T is
R Lat
Rofations -270
R3 T(9) J
(2n) Raeg ixed Roac fied lhe propeby
Ra Ased
Re lections fh Akod R7:b fxed
R ad
2D24
Such set ct
An(Cont 91P an

of he Ge

Now, e
R4R2= Tepies en

R
./s Ra Rg
Sun
ldr
RR4 ltt] - . Tris
xRRs Thus
ce
a be [a,be -
RoR, =
bac
Simils
be T(
b J-
RsR2 LbacLca
T
a b
, Rs Ra abe
ac

R s Ra
a be Ko do1
Rs Rs5 iacJlbar 1-E
o