5- Data Converters and PLDS mark: 14

Author :M.A.Ansari

DAC types,Weighted resistor circuit,R-2R ladder circuit,DAC IC 0808 specification,ADC block

diagram,Types and working of dual slope ADC ,SAR ADC,ADC IC0808/0809 specification,RAM and ROM
basic building blocks,Read and write operations,Types of semiconductor memeries,PLDS, basic building
blocks,Types of PLDs,PLA,PAL,GAL,CPLD building blocks,CPLD funcitonality

State two specification of DAC.

Specifications of ADC:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Conversion time
4. Linearity
5. Analog input voltage
6. Format of digital output

Define any two specification of ADC. (Any two specification of ADC 2M)
1. Analog input voltage: This is the maximum allowable input voltage range.
2. Input impedance: Its value ranges from 1 kΩ to 1 MΩ depending upon the type of A/D
converter. Input capacitance is in the range of tens of pF.
3. Linearity: is conventionally equal to the deviation of the performance of the converter from
a best straight line.
4. Accuracy: the accuracy of the A/D converter depends upon the accuracy of maximum
deviation of the digital output from the ideal linear line.
5. Monotoxicity: In response to a continuously increasing input signal the output of an A/D
converter should not at any point decrease or skip one or more codes. This is called the
monotoxicity of A/D converter.
6. Resolution is define as the maximum number of digital output codes. This is same as that of
a DAC
Resolution= 2n
List types of digital to analog converters and state specifications ofADC (any four).
Types of Digital to Analog converters and specifications
1. Weighted resistor D to A converter
2. R – 2R D to A converter

What is the need of data converters? List specifications of DAC.

Need of data converters: (2 M) It is often necessary that before processing the analog data, by a
digital system, it should be changed to an equivalent digital form. Similarly, after processing the
data, it may be desirable that the final result obtained in the digital form be converted back to the
analog form. Therefore, data converters are necessary in digital systems. A combinational digital
circuit which converts the one form of data into the other or vice versa is called as data converter.

Describe classification of memories.

Classification of Memories:
Random Access Memories (RWM or RAM):In this type of memory the memory locations are
organized in such a way that any memory location requires equal time for writing or reading.
RAMs can be static or dynamic and can be fabricated using bipolar or Unipolar technologies.
Read Only Memories (ROM) : These memories are meant only for reading the information
from it. The process of entering information is done outside the system where it is used. This
type of memory is used to store fixed tables of functions etc. These memories are further
classified on the basis of technique employed in storing information into the memory or their
erasable properties.
These are
1. ROM (Read Only Memory)
2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)
Programmable ROM (PROM)
It can be programmed by the user. It can be programmed only once after which its contents are
permanently fixed as ROM. To write data into a PROM a PROM programmer or PROM burner
is used. At the time of manufacturing a blank PROM, the data is entirely made up of 1’s. The
PROM programmer writes data into the PROM by applying high voltage pulses which are not
encountered during normal operation. Once the PROM has been programmed in this way, its
contents can never be changed. Hence PROMs are also known as One-time programmable
ROMs.
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
It can be programmed again and again. Once programmed the EPROM is a non-volatile memory
that holds stored data indefinitely. EPROM can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light
for about 20 minutes or longer. The programming is done with EPROM programmer which is a
separate unit. EPROMs are identified by the presence of a transparent quartz window, which
permits ultraviolet light during erasing.
Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)
It is non-volatile memory which allows its entire contents or selected locations to be erased and
rewritten. EEPROM need not be removed from the circuit to erased and reprogrammed.
Give four features of a dynamic RAM.

1. Data is stored in the form of charge on the capacitor. Hence each DRAM unit
consists of one MOSFET and a capacitor.
2. Since Capacitors are used on input side, refreshing circuit is required.
3. Access time is more, hence it is slow in speed.
4. Memory cell per unit area are more than Static

Explain the working of EPROM. (Note: Any other answer shall be considered)
An EPROM, or erasable programmable read-only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its
data when its power supply is switched off. Computer memory that can retrieve stored data after a
power supply has been turned off and back on is called non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate
transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those
normally used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
strong ultraviolet light source .
Each storage location of an EPROM consists of a single field-effect transistor. Each field-effect
transistor consists of a channel in the semiconductor body of the device. Source and drain contacts
are made to regions at the end of the channel. An insulating layer of oxide is grown over the channel,
then a conductive (silicon or aluminum) gate electrode is deposited, and a further thick layer of oxide
is deposited over the gate electrode. The floating-gate electrode has no connections to other parts of
the integrated circuit and is completely insulated by the surrounding layers of oxide. A control gate
electrode is deposited and further oxide covers it.[2] To retrieve data from the EPROM, the address
represented by the values at the address pins of the EPROM is decoded and used to connect one word
(usually an 8-bit ) of storage to the output buffer amplifiers. Each bit of the word is a 1 or 0,
depending on the storage transistor being switched on or off, conducting or non-conducting. The
switching state of the field-effect transistor is controlled by the voltage on the control gate of the
transistor. Presence of a voltage on this gate creates a conductive channel in the transistor, switching
it on. In effect, the stored charge on the floating gate allows the threshold voltage of the transistor to
be programmed.
The programming process is not electrically reversible. To erase the data stored in the array of
transistors, ultraviolet light is directed onto the die. Photons of the UV light cause ionization within
the silicon oxide, which allow the stored charge on the floating gate to dissipate. Since the whole
memory array is exposed, all the memory is erased at the same time. The process takes several
minutes for UV lamps.
Explain successive approximation type ADC with neat diagram.
(Diagram2M; explanation 2M) Block diagram

Working: The comparator serves the function of the scale, the output of which is used for setting/
resetting the bits at the output of the programmer. This output is converted into equivalent analog
voltage from which offset is subtracted and then applied to the inverting input terminal of the
comparator. The outputs of the programmer will change only when the clock pulse is present. To
start the conversion, the programmer sets the MSB to 1 and all other bits to 0. This is converted
into analog voltage by the DAC and the comparator compares it with the analog input voltage. If the
analog input voltage Va >= Vi, the output voltage of the comparator is HIGH, which sets the next bit
also. On the other hand if Va <= Vi, Then the output of the comparator is LOW which resets the
MSB and sets the next bit. Thus a 1 is tried in each bit of DAC until the binary equivalent of analog
input voltage is obtained.

Draw circuit diagram of successive approximation type ADC and explain its working.
The comparator serves the function of the scale, the output of which is used for setting resetting
the bits at the output of the programmer/ This output is converted into equivalent analog voltage
from which the offset voltage is subtracted and then applied to the inverting input terminal of the
comparator. It should be noted that the offset weight was added on the side of the unknown
weight, and therefore, it is to be subtracted from the known weight side for getting the equivalent
effect. The outputs of the programmer will change only when the clock pulse is present. To start
conversion, the programmer sets the MSB to 1 and all other bits to 0. This is converted into
analog signal by the D/A converter and the comparator compares it with the analog input
voltage. If the analog input voltage Va ≥Vi , the output voltage VO of the comparator is HIGH
which sets the next bit also. On the other hand, if Va<Vi , then VOis LOW which resets the MSB
and sets the next bit. Thus, a 1 is tried in each bit of the D/A converter until the binary equivalent
of the analog input voltage is obtained.

Describe working of R-2R Ladder type DAC. (4M)

The binary ladder network largely overcomes the problem of the weighted resistor network.
This type of circuit also has a resistive network to produce binary weighted currents but uses only
two values of resistor, namely R and 2R.
It uses a ladder network containing series-parallel combination of two resistors of value R and 2R.

Figure shows the circuit diagram of a binary ladder type D/A converter with sets of identical resistors
R and 2R.
It consists of a R-2R ladder network and op-amp inverting amplifier. The value of resistor R can be
between 2.5 K Ω. The resistor 2R can either be connected to the reference voltage (-VR) line or
grounded through controlled switched S1,S2,S3,….Sn .
The simplified circuit of a 3-bit (d1,d2,d3 =100) binary ladder type DAC is shoen in fig this simplified
circuit is further reduced to the equivalent circuit shown in fig. the equivalent resistance to the left
of node (A) in fig is only 2R and the node G is at virtual ground potential.

Applications of A/D converter:

1. Computers use analog-to-digital converters in order to convert signals from analog to digital
before they can be interpreted. For example, a modem will convert signals from digital to analog
before transmitting them over telephone lines that carry only analog signals. These signals are then
converted back into digital form at the receiving end so that the computer can interpret the data in
digital format.
2. In a digital signal processing system, an ADC is required if the input signal is analog. For
example, a fast video ADC is used in TV tuner cards. 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit analog to digital controllers
are common in microcontrollers.
3. They are also needed in digital storage oscilloscopes.
4. Analog to digital converters are used in music reproduction technology when done using
computers. In such an application, an ADC is needed when an analog recording is used in order to
create the PCM data stream that goes onto a CD or a digital music file.
5. ADC is used in Cell phones
6. ADC is used in digital voltmeters
7. ADC is used in digital oscilloscope
Draw the block diagram of Programmable Logic Array.

State advantages and disadvantages of (i) Ramp type ADC (ii) Dual slope type ADC.
(i) Ramp type ADC:
Advantages of Ramp type ADC:
1. It is very simple in construction.
2. It is easy to design.
3. It is last expensive.
4. Its speed can be adjusted by adjusting the clock frequency
5. It is faster than a dual slope ADC.
Disadvantages of Ramp type ADC:
1. It is comparatively very slow.
2. The conversion time does not remain constant.
3. The conversion time can be as long as clock cycle period for
high input voltages.
4. It needs longer conversion time.
(ii) Dual slope type ADC:
Advantages of Dual slope type ADC::
1. It is simple and relatively inexpensive.
2. It has high conversion accuracy.
3. It is more stable and of low cost.
4. It is not affected by time, temperature and input voltage.
5. It does not require crystal oscillator for stability.
6. It is less sensitive to noise.
Disadvantages of Dual slope type ADC:
1. It has large conversion time as compared to any other ADC.
2. It has very low speed of conversion.

Compare weighted register DAC and R-2R DAC.

Weighted resistor DAC R-2 R ladder DAC
It requires more than two resistor values. It requires resistors of only two values.
It is not easy to build. It is easy to build.
It requires one resistor per bit It requires two resistor per bit
It is not possible to expand It can be easily expanded to handle more number
of bits by adding resistors