Beginning Algebra

Beginning Algebra
v. 1.0
This is the book Beginning Algebra (v. 1.0).
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ii
Table of Contents
About the Author .................................................................................................................. 1
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................. 2
Preface..................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 1: Real Numbers and Their Operations ............................................................ 5
Real Numbers and the Number Line ............................................................................................................ 6
Adding and Subtracting Integers ............................................................................................................... 31
Multiplying and Dividing Integers ............................................................................................................. 47
Fractions ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
Review of Decimals and Percents ............................................................................................................... 99
Exponents and Square Roots .................................................................................................................... 127
Order of Operations ................................................................................................................................... 149
Review Exercises and Sample Exam......................................................................................................... 167
Chapter 2: Linear Equations and Inequalities ............................................................ 184
Introduction to Algebra............................................................................................................................. 185
Simplifying Algebraic Expressions........................................................................................................... 206
Solving Linear Equations: Part I ............................................................................................................... 227
Solving Linear Equations: Part II .............................................................................................................. 249
Applications of Linear Equations ............................................................................................................. 270
Ratio and Proportion Applications .......................................................................................................... 305
Introduction to Inequalities and Interval Notation ............................................................................... 327
Linear Inequalities (One Variable) ........................................................................................................... 346
Chapter 3: Graphing Lines .............................................................................................. 390
Rectangular Coordinate System ............................................................................................................... 391
Graph by Plotting Points ........................................................................................................................... 420
Graph Using Intercepts ............................................................................................................................. 447
Graph Using the y-Intercept and Slope ................................................................................................... 470
Finding Linear Equations .......................................................................................................................... 502
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines ............................................................................................................. 529
Introduction to Functions ......................................................................................................................... 548
Linear Inequalities (Two Variables) ......................................................................................................... 578
iii
Chapter 4: Solving Linear Systems................................................................................ 619
Solving Linear Systems by Graphing ....................................................................................................... 620
Solving Linear Systems by Substitution .................................................................................................. 644
Solving Linear Systems by Elimination ................................................................................................... 664
Applications of Linear Systems ................................................................................................................ 689
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)........................................................................ 715
Chapter 5: Polynomials and Their Operations ........................................................... 746
Rules of Exponents..................................................................................................................................... 747
Introduction to Polynomials..................................................................................................................... 775
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials ...................................................................................................... 797
Multiplying Polynomials ........................................................................................................................... 816
Dividing Polynomials................................................................................................................................. 841
Negative Exponents ................................................................................................................................... 864
Chapter 6: Factoring and Solving by Factoring .......................................................... 903
Introduction to Factoring ......................................................................................................................... 904
Factoring Trinomials of the Form x^2 + bx + c........................................................................................ 935
Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax^2 + bx + c...................................................................................... 955
Factoring Special Binomials...................................................................................................................... 978
General Guidelines for Factoring Polynomials ....................................................................................... 999
Solving Equations by Factoring .............................................................................................................. 1013
Applications Involving Quadratic Equations ........................................................................................ 1038
Review Exercises and Sample Exam....................................................................................................... 1063
Chapter 7: Rational Expressions and Equations....................................................... 1077
Simplifying Rational Expressions........................................................................................................... 1078
Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions ................................................................................... 1107
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions...................................................................................... 1127
Complex Rational Expressions................................................................................................................ 1152
Solving Rational Equations ..................................................................................................................... 1172
Applications of Rational Equations ........................................................................................................ 1192
Variation ................................................................................................................................................... 1219
iv
Chapter 8: Radical Expressions and Equations......................................................... 1256
Radicals ..................................................................................................................................................... 1257
Simplifying Radical Expressions............................................................................................................. 1285
Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions ....................................................................................... 1313
Multiplying and Dividing Radical Expressions ..................................................................................... 1330
Rational Exponents .................................................................................................................................. 1360
Solving Radical Equations ....................................................................................................................... 1385
Chapter 9: Solving Quadratic Equations and Graphing Parabolas ....................... 1425
Extracting Square Roots .......................................................................................................................... 1426
Completing the Square ............................................................................................................................ 1449
Quadratic Formula ................................................................................................................................... 1469
Guidelines for Solving Quadratic Equations and Applications............................................................ 1488
Graphing Parabolas.................................................................................................................................. 1514
Introduction to Complex Numbers and Complex Solutions................................................................ 1553
Appendix: Geometric Figures ....................................................................................... 1592
Plane .......................................................................................................................................................... 1593
Solid ........................................................................................................................................................... 1595
v
About the Author
John Redden earned his degrees at California State
University–Northridge and Glendale Community
College. He is now a professor of mathematics at the
College of the Sequoias, located in Visalia, California.
With over a decade of experience working with students
to develop their algebra skills, he knows just where they
struggle and how to present complex techniques in
more understandable ways. His student-friendly and
commonsense approach carries over to his writing of Elementary Algebra and various
other open-source learning resources.
Author site: http://edunettech.blogspot.com/
1
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following reviewers whose feedback helped improve the
final product:
• Katherine Adams, Eastern Michigan University

• Sheri Berger, Los Angeles Valley College
• Seung Choi, Northern Virginia Community College
• Stephen DeLong, Colorado Mountain College
• Keith Eddy, College of the Sequoias
• Solomon Emeghara, William Patterson University
• Audrey Gillant, SUNY–Maritime
• Barbara Goldner, North Seattle Community College
• Joseph Grich, William Patterson University
• Caroll Hobbs, Pensacola State College
• Clark Ingham, Mott Community College
• Valerie LaVoice, NHTI, Concord’s Community College
• Sandra Martin, Brevard Schools
• Bethany Mueller, Pensacola State College
• Tracy Redden, College of the Sequoias
• James Riley, Northern Arizona University
• Bamdad Samii, California State University–Northridge
• Michael Scott, California State University–Monterey Bay
• Nora Wheeler, Santa Rosa Junior College
I would also like to acknowledge Michael Boezi and Vanessa Gennarelli of Unnamed
Publisher. The success of this project is in large part due to their vision and
expertise. Finally, a special heartfelt thank-you is due to my wife, Tracy, who spent
countless hours proofreading and editing these pages—all this while maintaining a
tight schedule for our family. Without her, this textbook would not have been
possible.
2
Preface
It is essential to lay a solid foundation in mathematics if a student is to be
competitive in today’s global market. The importance of algebra, in particular,
cannot be overstated, as it is the basis of all mathematical modeling used in
applications found in all disciplines. Traditionally, the study of algebra is separated
into a two parts, elementary algebra and intermediate algebra. This textbook,
Elementary Algebra, is the first part, written in a clear and concise manner, making
no assumption of prior algebra experience. It carefully guides students from the
basics to the more advanced techniques required to be successful in the next
course.
This text is, by far, the best elementary algebra textbook offered under a Creative
Commons license. It is written in such a way as to maintain maximum flexibility
and usability. A modular format was carefully integrated into the design. For
example, certain topics, like functions, can be covered or omitted without
compromising the overall flow of the text. An introduction of square roots in
Chapter 1 is another example that allows for instructors wishing to include the
quadratic formula early to do so. Topics such as these are carefully included to
enhance the flexibility throughout. This textbook will effectively enable traditional
or nontraditional approaches to elementary algebra. This, in addition to robust and
diverse exercise sets, provides the base for an excellent individualized textbook
instructors can use free of needless edition changes and excessive costs! A few other
differences are highlighted below:
• Equivalent mathematical notation using standard text found on a

keyboard
• A variety of applications and word problems included in most exercise
sets
• Clearly enumerated steps found in context within carefully chosen
examples
• Alternative methods and notation, modularly integrated, where
appropriate
• Video examples available, in context, within the online version of the
textbook
• Robust and diverse exercise sets with discussion board questions
• Key words and key takeaways summarizing each section
This text employs an early-and-often approach to real-world applications, laying

the foundation for students to translate problems described in words into
3
Preface
mathematical equations. It also clearly lays out the steps required to build the skills
needed to solve these equations and interpret the results. With robust and diverse
exercise sets, students have the opportunity to solve plenty of practice problems. In
addition to embedded video examples and other online learning resources, the
importance of practice with pencil and paper is stressed. This text respects the
traditional approaches to algebra pedagogy while enhancing it with the technology
available today. In addition, textual notation is introduced as a means to
communicate solutions electronically throughout the text. While it is important to
obtain the skills to solve problems correctly, it is just as important to communicate
those solutions with others effectively in the modern era of instant
communications.
Unnamed Publisher is the only publisher today willing to put in the resources that
it takes to produce a quality, peer-reviewed textbook and allow it to be published
under a Creative Commons license. They have the system that implements the
customizable, affordable, and open textbook of the twenty-first century. In fact, this
textbook was specifically designed and written to fully maximize the potential of
the Unnamed Publisher system. I feel that my partnership with Unnamed Publisher
has produced a truly fine example in Elementary Algebra, which demonstrates what
is possible in the future of publishing.
4
Chapter 1
Real Numbers and Their Operations
5
Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Operations
1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Construct a number line and graph points on it.

2. Use a number line to determine the order of real numbers.
3. Determine the opposite of a real number.
4. Determine the absolute value of a real number.
Definitions
A set1 is a collection of objects, typically grouped within braces { }, where each

object is called an element2. For example, {red, green, blue} is a set of colors. A
subset3 is a set consisting of elements that belong to a given set. For example,
{green, blue} is a subset of the color set above. A set with no elements is called the
empty set4 and has its own special notation, { } or ∅.
When studying mathematics, we focus on special sets of numbers. The set of

natural (or counting) numbers5, denoted N, is
1. Any collection of objects.

The three periods (…) is called an ellipsis and indicates that the numbers continue
2. An object within a set. without bound. The set of whole numbers6, denoted W , is the set of natural
3. A set consisting of elements
numbers combined with zero.
that belong to a given set.
4. A subset with no elements,

denoted ∅ or { }.
5. The set of counting numbers

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}.
6. The set of natural numbers The set of integers7, denoted Z, consists of both positive and negative whole
combined with zero {0, 1, 2, 3, numbers, as well as zero.
4, 5, …}.
7. The set of positive and

negative whole numbers
combined with zero {…, −3, −2,
−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
6
Notice that the sets of natural and whole numbers are both subsets of the set of
integers.
Rational numbers8, denoted Q, are defined as any number of the form ab, where a
and b are integers and b is nonzero. Decimals that repeat or terminate are rational.
For example,
The set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers because every integer
can be expressed as a ratio of the integer and 1. In other words, any integer can be
written over 1 and can be considered a rational number. For example,
Irrational numbers9 are defined as any number that cannot be written as a ratio of
two integers. Nonterminating decimals that do not repeat are irrational. For
example,
The set of real numbers10, denoted R, is defined as the set of all rational numbers
combined with the set of all irrational numbers. Therefore, all the numbers defined
so far are subsets of the set of real numbers. In summary,
8. Numbers of the form ba , where

a and b are integers and b is
nonzero.
9. Numbers that cannot be

written as a ratio of two
integers.
10. The set of all rational and

irrational numbers.
1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 7

Number Line
A real number line11, or simply number line, allows us to visually display real
numbers by associating them with unique points on a line. The real number
associated with a point is called a coordinate12. A point on the real number line
that is associated with a coordinate is called its graph13.
To construct a number line, draw a horizontal line with arrows on both ends to
indicate that it continues without bound. Next, choose any point to represent the
number zero; this point is called the origin14.
Mark off consistent lengths on both sides of the origin and label each tick mark to
define the scale. Positive real numbers lie to the right of the origin and negative
real numbers lie to the left. The number zero (0) is neither positive nor negative.
Typically, each tick represents one unit.
11. A line that allows us to visually

represent real numbers by
associating them with points
on the line. As illustrated below, the scale need not always be one unit. In the first number line,
each tick mark represents two units. In the second, each tick mark represents 17.
12. The real number associated
with a point on a number line.
13. A point on the number line

associated with a coordinate.
14. The point on the number line

that represtents zero.

The graph of each real number is shown as a dot at the appropriate point on the
number line. A partial graph of the set of integers Z follows:
Example 1: Graph the following set of real numbers: {−1, − 1

3
, 0, 5
3 }.
Solution: Graph the numbers on a number line with a scale where each tick mark
represents 13 unit.
Ordering Real Numbers
When comparing real numbers on a number line, the larger number will always lie
to the right of the smaller one. It is clear that 15 is greater than 5, but it may not be
so clear to see that −1 is greater than −5 until we graph each number on a number
line.
We use symbols to help us efficiently communicate relationships between numbers

15. Express equality with the on the number line. The symbols used to describe an equality relationship15
symbol =. If two quantities are between numbers follow:
not equal, use the symbol ≠.

These symbols are used and interpreted in the following manner:
We next define symbols that denote an order relationship between real numbers.
These symbols allow us to compare two numbers. For example,
Since the graph of −120 is to the left of the graph of –10 on the number line, that
number is less than −10. We could write an equivalent statement as follows:
Similarly, since the graph of zero is to the right of the graph of any negative
number on the number line, zero is greater than any negative number.

The symbols < and > are used to denote strict inequalities16, and the symbols ≤ and
≥ are used to denote inclusive inequalities17. In some situations, more than one
symbol can be correctly applied. For example, the following two statements are
both true:
In addition, the “or equal to” component of an inclusive inequality allows us to

correctly write the following:
The logical use of the word “or” requires that only one of the conditions need be
true: the “less than” or the “equal to.”
Example 2: Fill in the blank with <, =, or >: −2 ____ −12.
Solution: Use > because the graph of −2 is to the right of the graph of −12 on a
number line. Therefore, −2 > −12, which reads “negative two is greater than negative
twelve.”
16. Express ordering relationships

using the symbol < for “less Answer: −2 > −12
than” and > for “greater than.”
17. Use the symbol ≤ to express

quantities that are “less than
or equal to” and ≥ for
quantities that are “greater
than or equal to” each other.

In this text, we will often point out the equivalent notation used to express
mathematical quantities electronically using the standard symbols available on a
keyboard. We begin with the equivalent textual notation for inequalities:
Many calculators, computer algebra systems, and programming languages use this
notation.
Opposites
The opposite18 of any real number a is −a. Opposite real numbers are the same
distance from the origin on a number line, but their graphs lie on opposite sides of
the origin and the numbers have opposite signs.
For example, we say that the opposite of 10 is −10.
Next, consider the opposite of a negative number. Given the integer −7, the integer
the same distance from the origin and with the opposite sign is +7, or just 7.
Therefore, we say that the opposite of −7 is −(−7) = 7. This idea leads to what is often
referred to as the double-negative property19. For any real number a,
18. Real numbers whose graphs

are on opposite sides of the
origin with the same distance
to the origin.
19. The opposite of a negative

number is positive: −(−a) = a.

Example 3: What is the opposite of − 34?
Solution: Here we apply the double-negative property.
3
Answer: 4
Example 4: Simplify: − (− (4)).
Solution: Start with the innermost parentheses by finding the opposite of +4.
Answer: 4
Example 5: Simplify: −(−(−2)).
Solution: Apply the double-negative property starting with the innermost

parentheses.

Answer: −2
Tip
If there is an even number of consecutive negative signs, then the result is

positive. If there is an odd number of consecutive negative signs, then the
result is negative.
Try this! Simplify: − (− (− (5))).
Answer: −5
Video Solution
(click to see video)

Absolute Value
The absolute value20 of a real number a, denoted |a|, is defined as the distance
between zero (the origin) and the graph of that real number on the number line.
Since it is a distance, it is always positive. For example,
Both 4 and −4 are four units from the origin, as illustrated below:
20. The absolute value of a number

is the distance from the graph
of the number to zero on a
number line.

Example 6: Simplify:
a. |−12|
b. |12|
Solution: Both −12 and 12 are twelve units from the origin on a number line.
Therefore,
Answers: a. 12; b. 12
Also, it is worth noting that
The absolute value can be expressed textually using the notation abs(a). We often
encounter negative absolute values, such as − |3| or −abs(3). Notice that the
negative sign is in front of the absolute value symbol. In this case, work the absolute
value first and then find the opposite of the result.
Try not to confuse this with the double-negative property, which states that
−(−7) = +7.
Example 7: Simplify: −|| − (−7)||.

Solution: First, find the opposite of −7 inside the absolute value. Then find the
opposite of the result.
Answer: −7
At this point, we can determine what real numbers have a particular absolute value.
For example,
Think of a real number whose distance to the origin is 5 units. There are two
origin, namely, {±5}. The symbol (±) is read “plus or minus” and indicates that
solutions: the distance to the right of the origin and the distance to the left of the
there are two answers, one positive and one negative.
Now consider the following:
Here we wish to find a value for which the distance to the origin is negative. Since
negative distance is not defined, this equation has no solution. If an equation has no
solution, we say the solution is the empty set: Ø.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Any real number can be associated with a point on a line.

• Create a number line by first identifying the origin and marking off a
scale appropriate for the given problem.
• Negative numbers lie to the left of the origin and positive numbers lie to
the right.
• Smaller numbers always lie to the left of larger numbers on the number
line.
• The opposite of a positive number is negative and the opposite of a
negative number is positive.
• The absolute value of any real number is always positive because it is
defined to be the distance from zero (the origin) on a number line.
• The absolute value of zero is zero.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Real Numbers
Use set notation to list the described elements.
1. The hours on a clock.
2. The days of the week.
3. The first ten whole numbers.
4. The first ten natural numbers.
5. The first five positive even integers.
6. The first five positive odd integers.
Determine whether the following real numbers are integers, rational, or irrational.
1
7. 2
8. −3
9. 4.5
10. −5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
11. 0.36
⎯⎯
12. 0.3
13. 1.001000100001 …
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
14. 1.001
15. e = 2.71828 …
⎯⎯
16. √ 7 = 2.645751 …

17. −7
18. 3.14
22
19. 7
20. 1.33
21. 0
22. 8,675,309
True or false.
23. All integers are rational numbers.
24. All integers are whole numbers.
25. All rational numbers are whole numbers.
26. Some irrational numbers are rational.
27. All terminating decimal numbers are rational.
28. All irrational numbers are real.
Part B: Real Number Line
Choose an appropriate scale and graph the following sets of real numbers on a
number line.
29. {−3, 0 3}
30. {−2, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
31. {−2,
3}
1 2 5
− 3
, 3
,
32. {− , 2}
5 1 1
2
, − 2
, 0, 2

33. {− 7 , 1}
5 2
, 0, 7
34. { – 5, – 2, – 1, 0}
35. { − 3, − 2, 0, 2, 5}
36. {−2.5, −1.5, 0, 1, 2.5}
37. {0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2}
38. {−10, 30, 50}
39. {−6, 0, 3, 9, 12}
40. {−15, −9, 0, 9, 15}
Part C: Ordering Real Numbers
Fill in the blank with <, =, or >.
41. −7 ___ 0
42. 30 ___ 2
43. 10 ___ −10
44. −150 ___ −75
45. −0.5 ___ −1.5
46. 0 ___ 0
47. −500 ___ 200
48. −1 ___ −200
49. −10 ___ −10
50. −40 ___ −41

True or false.
51. 5 ≠7
52. 4 =5
53. 1 ≠1
54. −5 > −10
55. 4 ≤4
56. −12 ≥0
57. −10 = −10
58. 3 >3
59. −1000 < −20
60. 0 =0
61. List three integers less than −5.
62. List three integers greater than −10.
63. List three rational numbers less than zero.
64. List three rational numbers greater than zero.
65. List three integers between −20 and −5.
66. List three rational numbers between 0 and 1.
Translate each statement into an English sentence.
67. 10 < 20
68. −50 ≤ −10

69. −4 ≠0
70. 30 ≥ −1
71. 0 =0
72. e ≈ 2.718
Translate the following into a mathematical statement.
73. Negative seven is less than zero.
74. Twenty-four is not equal to ten.
75. Zero is greater than or equal to negative one.
76. Four is greater than or equal to negative twenty-one.
77. Negative two is equal to negative two.
78. Negative two thousand is less than negative one thousand.
Part D: Opposites
Simplify.
79. −(−9)
80. − (−
5)
3
81. −(10)
82. −(3)
83. −(5)
84. − (
4)
3
85. − (−1)

86. − (− (−1))
87. − (− (1))
88. − (− (−3))
89. − (− (− (−11)))
1
90. What is the opposite of −
2
91. What is the opposite of π ?
92. What is the opposite −0.01?
93. Is the opposite of −12 smaller or larger than −11?
94. Is the opposite of 7 smaller or larger than −6?
Fill in the blank with <, =, or >.
95. −7 ___ −(−8)
96. 6 ___ −(6)
97. 13 ___ − (−12)
98. −(−5) ___ −(−2)
99. −100 ___ −(−(−50))
100. 44 ___ −(−44)
Part E: Absolute Value
Simplify.
101. |20|
102. |−20|

103. |−33|
104. |−0.75||
105. |−
2|
| 5|
106. |
3|
|8|
107. |0|
108. |1|
109. − |12|
110. − |−20|
111. − |20|
112. − |−8|
113. − |7|
114. − |− |
3
| 16 |
115. − (− |
| 9 |)
8|
116. |−(−2)||
117. − |−(−3)||
118. −(− |5||)
119. − (− |−45||)
120. − |− (−21)||
121. abs(6)

122. abs(−7)
123. −abs(5)
124. −abs(−19)
125. − (−abs(9))
126. −abs(−(−12))
Determine the unknown.
127. || ? || =9
128. || ? || = 15
129. || ? || =0
130. || ? || =1
131. || ? || = −8
132. || ? || = −20
133. |?| − 10 = −2
134. |?|| + 5 = 14
Fill in the blank with <, = , or >.
135. |−2| ____ 0
136. |−7| ____ |−10|
137. −10 ____ − |−2|
138. |−6|| ____ |−(−6)||
139. − |3| ____ |−(−5)||

140. 0 ____ − |−(−4)||
Part F: Discussion Board Topics
141. Research and discuss the history of the number zero.
142. Research and discuss the various numbering systems throughout

history.
143. Research and discuss the definition and history of π .
144. Research the history of irrational numbers. Who is credited with

proving that the square root of 2 is irrational and what happened to him?
145. Research and discuss the history of absolute value.
146. Discuss the “just make it positive” definition of absolute value.

ANSWERS
1: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
3: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
5: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
7: Rational
9: Rational
11: Rational
13: Irrational
15: Irrational
17: Integer, Rational
19: Rational
21: Integer, Rational
23: True
25: False
27: True
29:
31:

33:
35:
37:
39:
41: <
43: >
45: >
47: <
49: =
51: True
53: False
55: True
57: True
59: True
61: −10, −7, −6 (answers may vary)

63: −1, −2/3, −1/3 (answers may vary)
65: −15, −10, −7 (answers may vary)
67: Ten is less than twenty.
69: Negative four is not equal to zero.
71: Zero is equal to zero.
73: −7 <0
75: 0 ≥ −1
77: −2 = −2
79: 9
81: −10
83: −5
85: 1
87: 1
89: 11
91: −π
93: Larger
95: <
97: >
99: <
101: 20

103: 33
105: 2/5
107: 0
109: −12
111: −20
113: −7
115: 8/9
117: −3
119: 45
121: 6
123: −5
125: 9
127: ±9
129: 0
131: Ø, No solution
133: ±8
135: >
137: <
139: <

1.2 Adding and Subtracting Integers
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Add and subtract signed integers.

2. Translate English sentences involving addition and subtraction into
mathematical statements.
3. Calculate the distance between two numbers on a number line.
Addition and Subtraction (+, −)
Visualize adding 3 + 2 on the number line by moving from zero three units to the
right then another two units to the right, as illustrated below:
The illustration shows that 3 + 2 = 5. Similarly, visualize adding two negative

numbers (−3) + (−2) by first moving from the origin three units to the left and then
moving another two units to the left.
In this example, the illustration shows (−3) + (−2) = −5, which leads to the following
two properties of real numbers.
Next, we will explore addition of numbers with unlike signs. To add 3 + (−7), first
move from the origin three units to the right, then move seven units to the left as
shown:
31
In this case, we can see that adding a negative number is equivalent to subtraction:
It is tempting to say that a positive number plus a negative number is negative, but
that is not always true: 7 + (−3) = 7 − 3 = 4. The result of adding numbers with
unlike signs may be positive or negative. The sign of the result is the same as the
sign of the number with the greatest distance from the origin. For example, the
following results depend on the sign of the number 12 because it is farther from
zero than 5:
Example 1: Simplify: 14 + (−25).
Solution: Here −25 is the greater distance from the origin. Therefore, the result is
negative.
Answer: −11
1.2 Adding and Subtracting Integers 32

Given any real numbers a, b, and c, we have the following properties of addition:
Additive identity property21: a + 0 = 0 + a = a
Additive inverse property22: a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
Associative property23: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Commutative property24: a+b=b+a
a. 5 + 0
b. 10 + (−10)
Solution:
a. Adding zero to any real number results in the same real number.
21. Given any real number a,

a+0=0+a=a.
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0. b. Adding opposites results in zero.
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
23. Given real numbers a, b and c,
24. Given real numbers a and b,

a + b = b + a.

Answers: a. 5; b. 0
a. (3 + 7) + 4
b. 3 + (7 + 4)
Solution: Parentheses group the operations that are to be performed first.
a.
b.
These two examples both result in 14: changing the grouping of the numbers does
not change the result.

At this point, we highlight the fact that addition is commutative: the order in which
we add does not matter and yields the same result.
On the other hand, subtraction is not commutative.
We will use these properties, along with the double-negative property for real
numbers, to perform more involved sequential operations. To simplify things, we
will make it a general rule to first replace all sequential operations with either
addition or subtraction and then perform each operation in order from left to right.
Example 4: Simplify: 4 − (−10) + (−5).
Solution: Replace the sequential operations and then perform them from left to
right.
Answer: 9

Example 5: Simplify: −3 + (−8) − (−7).
Solution:
Answer: −4
Try this! Simplify: 12 − (−9) + (−6).
Answer: 15
Video Solution
Often we find the need to translate English sentences involving addition and
subtraction to mathematical statements. Listed below are some key words that
translate to the given operation.
Key Words Operation
Sum, increased by, more than, plus, added to, total +
Difference, decreased by, subtracted from, less, minus −
Example 6: What is the difference of 7 and −3?
Solution: The key word “difference” implies that we should subtract the numbers.

Answer: The difference of 7 and −3 is 10.
Example 7: What is the sum of the first five positive integers?
Solution: The initial key word to focus on is “sum”; this means that we will be
adding the five numbers. The first five positive integers are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Recall that
0 is neither positive nor negative.
Answer: The sum of the first five positive integers is 15.
Example 8: What is 10 subtracted from the sum of 8 and 6?
Solution: We know that subtraction is not commutative; therefore, we must take

care to subtract in the correct order. First, add 8 and 6 and then subtract 10 as
follows:
a mathematical statement in the order it appears. In other words, 10 − (8 + 6)

It is important to notice that the phrase “10 subtracted from” does not translate to
would be an incorrect translation and leads to an incorrect answer. After

translating the sentence, perform the operations.

Answer: Ten subtracted from the sum of 8 and 6 is 4.
Distance on a Number Line
One application of the absolute value is to find the distance between any two points
on a number line. For real numbers a and b, the distance formula for a number
line25 is given as,
Example 9: Determine the distance between 2 and 7 on a number line.
Solution: On the graph we see that the distance between the two given integers is 5
units.
Using the distance formula we obtain the same result.
25. The distance between any two

real numbers a and b on a
number line can be calculated
using the formula
d = |b − a||.

Answer: 5 units
Example 10: Determine the distance between −4 and 7 on a number line.
Solution: Use the distance formula for a number line d = |b − a||, where a = −4
and b = 7.
Answer: 11 units
It turns out that it does not matter which points are used for a and b; the absolute
value always ensures a positive result.
Using a = −4 and b = 7 Using a = 7 and b = −4
d = |7 − (−4)||
d = |−4 − 7|
= |7 + 4||
= |−11|
= |11|
= 11
= 11

Try this! Determine the distance between −12 and −9 on the number line.
Answer: 3
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• A positive number added to a positive number is positive. A negative

number added to a negative number is negative.
• The sign of a positive number added to a negative number is the same as
the sign of the number with the greatest distance from the origin.
• Addition is commutative and subtraction is not.
• When simplifying, it is a best practice to first replace sequential
operations and then work the operations of addition and subtraction
from left to right.
• The distance between any two numbers on a number line is the absolute
value of their difference. In other words, given any real numbers a and
b, use the formula d = |b − a||to calculate the distance d between
them.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Addition and Subtraction
Add and subtract.
1. 24 + (−18)
2. 9 + (−11)
3. −31 +5
4. −12 + 15
5. −30 + (−8)
6. −50 + (−25)
7. −7 + (−7)
8. −13 − (−13)
9. 8 − 12 + 5
10. −3 −7+4
11. −1 −2−3−4
12. 6 − (−5) + (−10) − 14
13. −5 + (−3) − (−7)
14. 2 − 7 + (−9)
15. −30 + 20 − 8 − (−18)
16. 10 − (−12) + (−8) − 20
17. 5 − (−2) + (−6)

18. −3 + (−17) − (−13)
19. −10 + (−12) − (−20)
20. −13 + (−5) − (−25)
21. 20 − (−4) − (−5)
22. 17 + (−12) − (−2)
Translate each sentence to a mathematical statement and then simplify.
23. Find the sum of 3, 7, and −8.
24. Find the sum of −12, −5, and 7.
25. Determine the sum of the first ten positive integers.
26. Determine the sum of the integers in the set {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}.
27. Find the difference of 10 and 6.
28. Find the difference of 10 and −6.
29. Find the difference of −16 and −5.
30. Find the difference of −19 and 7.
31. Subtract 12 from 10.
32. Subtract −10 from −20.
33. Subtract 5 from −31.
34. Subtract −3 from 27.
35. Two less than 8.
36. Five less than −10.

37. Subtract 8 from the sum of 4 and 7.
38. Subtract −5 from the sum of 10 and −3.
39. Subtract 2 from the difference of 8 and 5.
40. Subtract 6 from the difference of −1 and 7.
41. Mandy made a $200 deposit into her checking account on Tuesday. She
then wrote 4 checks for $50.00, $125.00, $60.00, and $45.00. How much more
than her deposit did she spend?
42. The quarterback ran the ball three times in last Sunday’s football game.
He gained 7 yards on one run but lost 3 yards and 8 yards on the other two.
What was his total yardage running for the game?
43. The revenue for a local photographer for the month is $1,200. His costs
include a studio rental of $600, props costing $105, materials fees of $135,
and a make-up artist who charges $120. What is his total profit for the
month?
44. An airplane flying at 30,000 feet lost 2,500 feet in altitude and then rose
1,200 feet. What is the new altitude of the plane?
45. The temperature was 22° at 6:00 p.m. and dropped 26° by midnight. What
was the temperature at midnight?
46. A nurse has 30 milliliters of saline solution but needs 75 milliliters of the
solution. How much more does she need?
47. The width of a rectangle is 2 inches less than its length. If the length
measures 16 inches, determine the width.
48. The base of a triangle is 3 feet shorter than its height. If the height
measures 5 feet, find the length of the base.
Part B: Distance on a Number Line
Find the distance between the given numbers on a number line.
49. −3 and 12

50. 8 and −13
51. −25 and −10
52. −100 and −130
53. −7 and −20
54. 0 and −33
55. −10 and 10
56. −36 and 36
57. The coldest temperature on earth, −129°F, was recorded in 1983 at

Vostok Station, Antarctica. The hottest temperature on earth, 136°F, was
recorded in 1922 at Al ’Aziziyah, Libya. Calculate earth’s temperature range.
58. The daily high temperature was recorded as 91°F and the low was
recorded as 63°F. What was the temperature range for the day?
59. A student earned 67 points on his lowest test and 87 points on his best.
Calculate his test score range.
60. On a busy day, a certain website may have 12,500 hits. On a slow day, it
may have as few as 750 hits. Calculate the range of the number of hits.
Part C: Discussion Board Topics
61. Share an example of adding signed numbers in a real-world application.
62. Demonstrate the associative property of addition with any three real
numbers.
63. Show that subtraction is not commutative.

ANSWERS
1: 6
3: −26
5: −38
7: −14
9: 1
11: −10
13: −1
15: 0
17: 1
19: −2
21: 29
23: 2
25: 55
27: 4
29: −11
31: −2
33: −36
35: 6
37: 3

39: 1
41: $80
43: $240
45: −4°
47: 14 inches
49: 15 units
51: 15 units
53: 13 units
55: 20 units
57: 265°F
59: 20 points

1.3 Multiplying and Dividing Integers
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Multiply and divide signed integers.

2. Translate English sentences involving multiplication and division into
mathematical statements.
3. Determine the prime factorization of composite numbers.
4. Interpret the results of quotients involving zero.
Multiplication and Division
We begin with a review of what it means to multiply and divide signed numbers.
The result of multiplying real numbers is called the product26 and the result of
dividing is called the quotient27. Recall that multiplication is equivalent to adding:
Clearly, the product of two positive numbers is positive. Similarly, the product of a
positive number and negative number can be written as shown:
We see that the product of a positive number and a negative number is negative.
Next, explore the results of multiplying two negative numbers. Consider the
products in the following illustration and try to identify the pattern:
26. The result of multiplying.
27. The result after dividing.
47
This shows that the product of two negative numbers is positive. To summarize,
The rules for division are the same because division can always be rewritten as
multiplication:
The rules for multiplication and division should not be confused with the fact that
the sum of two negative numbers is negative.
a. (−3) + (−5)
b. (−3) (−5)
1.3 Multiplying and Dividing Integers 48

Solution: Here we add and multiply the same two negative numbers.
a. The result of adding two negative numbers is negative.
b. The result of multiplying two negative numbers is positive.
Answers: a. −8; b. 15
Given any real numbers a, b, and c, we have the following properties of

multiplication:
Zero factor property28: a⋅0=0⋅a=0
Multiplicative identity property29: a⋅1=1⋅a=a
28. Given any real number a, Associative property30: (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c)

a ⋅ 0 = 0 ⋅ a = 0.
a ⋅ 1 = 1 ⋅ a = a.
Commutative property31: a⋅b=b⋅a
30. Given any real numbers a, b,
(a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c) .
and c,
31. Given any real numbers a and

b, a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a.

a. 5 ⋅ 0
b. 10 ⋅ 1
Solution:
a. Multiplying by zero results in zero.
b. Multiplying any real number by one results in the same real number.
a. (3 ⋅ 7) ⋅ 2
b. 3 ⋅ (7 ⋅ 2)
Solution:
a.

b.
The value of each expression is 42. Changing the grouping of the numbers does not
change the result.
At this point, we highlight that multiplication is commutative: the order in which

we multiply does not matter and yields the same result.
On the other hand, division is not commutative.
Use these properties to perform sequential operations involving multiplication and

division. When doing so, it is important to perform these operations in order from
left to right.

Example 4: Simplify: 3 (−2) (−5) (−1).
Solution: Multiply two numbers at a time as follows:
Answer: −30
Because multiplication is commutative, the order in which we multiply does not

affect the final answer. When sequential operations involve multiplication and
division, order does matter; hence we must work the operations from left to right to
obtain a correct result.
Example 5: Simplify: 10 ÷ (−2) (−5).
Solution: Perform the division first; otherwise, the result will be incorrect.
Answer: 25

Notice that the order in which we multiply and divide does affect the final result.
Therefore, it is important to perform the operations of multiplication and division
as they appear from left to right.
Example 6: Simplify: −6 (3) ÷ (−2) (−3).
Solution: Work the operations one at a time from left to right.
Try this! Simplify: −5 ÷ 5 ⋅ 2 (−3).
Answer: 6
Video Solution
Within text-based applications, the symbol used for multiplication is the asterisk32
(*) and the symbol used for division is the forward slash (/).
32. The symbol (*) that indicates

multiplication within text-
based applications.
33. Integers that are divisible by

The set of even integers33 is the set of all integers that are evenly divisible by 2. We
two or are multiples of two. can also obtain the set of even integers by multiplying each integer by 2.

The set of odd integers34 is the set of all integers that are not evenly divisible by 2.
A prime number35 is an integer greater than 1 that is divisible only by 1 and itself.
The smallest prime number is 2 and the rest are necessarily odd.
Any integer greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number36 and
can be written as a product of primes. When a composite number, such as 30, is
written as a product, 30 = 2 ⋅ 15, we say that 2 ⋅ 15 is a factorization37 of 30 and
that 2 and 15 are factors38. Note that factors divide the number evenly. We can
continue to write composite factors as products until only a product of primes
remains.
34. Integers that are not divisible

by 2.
35. Integers greater than 1 that are

divisible only by 1 and itself. The prime factorization39 of 30 is 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5.
36. Integers greater than 1 that are

not prime.
37. Any combination of factors,

multiplied together, resulting
Example 7: Determine the prime factorization of 70.
in the product.
38. Any of the numbers or

expressions that form a Solution: Begin by writing 70 as a product with 2 as a factor. Then express any
product. composite factor as a product of prime numbers.
39. The unique factorization of a
natural number written as a
product of primes.

Since the prime factorization is unique, it does not matter how we choose to
initially factor the number because the end result is the same.
Answer: The prime factorization of 70 is 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7.
Some tests (called divisibility tests) useful for finding prime factors of composite
numbers follow:
1. If the integer is even, then 2 is a factor.

2. If the sum of the digits is evenly divisible by 3, then 3 is a factor.
3. If the last digit is a 5 or 0, then 5 is a factor.
Often we find the need to translate English sentences that include multiplication
and division terms to mathematical statements. Listed below are some key words
that translate to the given operation.
Key Words Operation
Product, multiplied by, of, times * or ⋅
Quotient, divided by, ratio, per / or ÷

Example 8: Calculate the quotient of 20 and −10.
Solution: The key word “quotient” implies that we should divide.
Answer: The quotient of 20 and −10 is −2.
Example 9: What is the product of the first three positive even integers?
Solution: The first three positive even integers are {2, 4, 6} and the key word
“product” implies that we should multiply.
Answer: The product of the first three positive even integers is 48.
Example 10: Joe is able to drive 342 miles on 18 gallons of gasoline. How many miles
per gallon of gas is this?
Solution: The key word “per” indicates that we must divide the number of miles
driven by the number of gallons used:
Answer: Joe gets 19 miles per gallon from his vehicle.

In everyday life, we often wish to use a single value that typifies a set of values. One
way to do this is to use what is called the arithmetic mean40 or average41. To
calculate an average, divide the sum of the values in the set by the number of values
in that set.
Example 11: A student earns 75, 86, and 94 on his first three exams. What is the
student’s test average?
Solution: Add the scores and divide the sum by 3.
Answer: The student’s test average is 85.
Zero and Division
Recall the relationship between multiplication and division:
In this case, the dividend42 12 is evenly divided by the divisor43 6 to obtain the
40. A numerical value that typifies quotient, 2. It is true in general that if we multiply the divisor by the quotient we
a set of numbers. It is obtain the dividend. Now consider the case where the dividend is zero and the
calculated by adding up the divisor is nonzero:
numbers in the set and
dividing by the number of
elements in the set.
41. Used in reference to the

arithmetic mean.
42. The numerator of a quotient.
43. The denominator of a quotient.

This demonstrates that zero divided by any nonzero real number must be zero. Now
consider a nonzero number divided by zero:
The zero-factor property of multiplication states that any real number times 0 is 0.
We conclude that there is no real number such that 0⋅? = 12 and thus, the
quotient is left undefined44. Try 12 ÷ 0 on a calculator. What does it say? For our
purposes, we will simply write “undefined.”
To summarize, given any real number a ≠ 0, then
We are left to consider the case where the dividend and divisor are both zero.
Here any real number seems to work. For example, 0 ⋅ 5 = 0 and 0 ⋅ 3 = 0.

Therefore, the quotient is uncertain or indeterminate45.
In this course, we state that 0 ÷ 0 is undefined.
44. A quotient such as 50 , which is

left without meaning and is not
assigned an interpretation.
45. A quotient such as 00 , which is a

quantity that is uncertain or
ambiguous.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• A positive number multiplied by a negative number is negative. A

negative number multiplied by a negative number is positive.
• Multiplication is commutative and division is not.
• When simplifying, work the operations of multiplication and division in
order from left to right.
• Even integers are numbers that are evenly divisible by 2 or multiples of
2, and all other integers are odd.
• A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that is divisible only by 1
and itself.
• Composite numbers are integers greater than 1 that are not prime.
Composite numbers can be written uniquely as a product of primes.
• The prime factorization of a composite number is found by continuing
to divide it into factors until only a product of primes remains.
• To calculate an average of a set of numbers, divide the sum of the values
in the set by the number of values in the set.
• Zero divided by any nonzero number is zero. Any number divided by
zero is undefined.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Multiplication and Division
Multiply and divide.
1. 5(−7)
2. −3(−8)
3. 2 (−4) (−9)
4. −3 ⋅2⋅5
5. −12 (3) (0)
6. 0 (−12) (−5)
7. (−1) (−1) (−1) (−1)
8. (−1) (−1) (−1)
9. −100 ÷ 25
10. 25 ÷ 5(−5)
11. −15(−2) ÷ 10(−3)
12. −5 ⋅ 10 ÷ 2(−5)
13. (−3) (25) ÷ (−5)
14. 6*(−3)/(−9)
15. 20/(−5)*2
16. −50/2*5
17. Determine the product of 11 and −3.

18. Determine the product of −7 and −22.
19. Find the product of 5 and −12.
20. Find the quotient of negative twenty-five and five.
21. Determine the quotient of −36 and 3.
22. Determine the quotient of 26 and −13.
23. Calculate the product of 3 and −8 divided by −2.
24. Calculate the product of −1 and −3 divided by 3.
25. Determine the product of the first three positive even integers.
26. Determine the product of the first three positive odd integers.
Determine the prime factorization of the following integers.
27. 105
28. 78
29. 138
30. 154
31. 165
32. 330
Calculate the average of the numbers in each of the following sets.
33. {50, 60, 70}
34. {9, 12, 30}
35. {3, 9, 12, 30, 36}

36. {72, 84, 69, 71}
37. The first four positive even integers.
38. The first four positive odd integers.
The distance traveled D is equal to the average rate r times the time traveled t at
that rate: D = rt. Determine the distance traveled given the rate and the time.
39. 60 miles per hour for 3 hours
42. 75 feet per second for 5 seconds
43. 60 kilometers per hour for 10 hours
44. 60 meters per second for 30 seconds
45. A student club ran a fund-raiser in the quad selling hot dogs. The
students sold 122 hot dog meals for $3.00 each. Their costs included $50.00
for the hot dogs and buns, $25.00 for individually wrapped packages of
chips, and $35.00 for the sodas. What was their profit?
46. A 230-pound man loses 4 pounds each week for 8 weeks. How much does
he weigh at the end of 8 weeks?
47. Mary found that she was able to drive 264 miles on 12 gallons of gas. How
many miles per gallon does her car get?
48. After filling his car with gasoline, Bill noted that his odometer reading
was 45,346 miles. After using his car for a week, he filled up his tank with 14
gallons of gas and noted that his odometer read 45,724 miles. In that week,
how many miles per gallon did Bill’s car get?
Part B: Zero and Division with Mixed Practice
Perform the operations.

49. 0 ÷9
50. 15 ÷0
51. 4(−7) ÷0
52. 7 (0) ÷ (−15)
53. −5(0) ÷ 9(0)
54. 5 ⋅ 2 (−3) (−5)
55. −8 − 5 + (−13)
56. −4(−8) ÷ 16(−2)
57. 50 ÷ (−5) ÷ (−10)
58. 49 ÷ 7 ÷ (−1)
59. 3 ⋅ 4 ÷ 12
60. 0 − (−8) − 12
61. −8 ⋅ 4(−3) ÷ 2
62. 0/(−3*8*5)
63. (−4*3)/(2*(−3))
64. −16/(−2*2)*3
65. −44/11*2
66. −5*3/(−15)
67. 4*3*2/6
68. −6*7/( −2)

69. During 5 consecutive winter days, the daily lows were −7°, −3°, 0°, −5°, and
−10°. Calculate the average low temperature.
70. On a very cold day the temperature was recorded every 4 hours with the
following results: −16°, −10°, 2°, 6°, −5°, and −13°. Determine the average
temperature.
71. A student earns 9, 8, 10, 7, and 6 points on the first 5 chemistry quizzes.
What is her quiz average?
72. A website tracked hits on its homepage over the Thanksgiving holiday.
The number of hits for each day from Thursday to Sunday was 12,250; 4,400;
7,750; and 10,200, respectively. What was the average number of hits per day
over the holiday period?
73. Demonstrate the associative property of multiplication with any three

real numbers.
74. Show that division is not commutative.
75. Discuss the importance of working multiplication and division

operations from left to right. Make up an example where order does matter
and share the solution.
76. Discuss division involving 0. With examples, explain why the result is
sometimes 0 and why it is sometimes undefined.
77. Research and discuss the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.
78. Research and discuss other divisibility tests. Provide an example for each
test.
79. The arithmetic mean is one way to typify a set of values. Research other
methods used to typify a set of values.

ANSWERS
1: −35
3: 72
5: 0
7: 1
9: −4
11: −9
13: 15
15: −8
17: −33
19: −60
21: −12
23: 12
25: 48
27: 3 ⋅5⋅7
29: 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 23
31: 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 11
33: 60
35: 18
37: 5

39: 180 miles
41: 75 miles
43: 600 kilometers
45: $256.00
47: 22 miles per gallon
49: 0
51: Undefined
53: 0
55: −26
57: 1
59: 1
61: 48
63: 2
65: −8
67: 4
69: −5°
71: 8 points

1.4 Fractions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Reduce a fraction to lowest terms.

2. Multiply and divide fractions.
3. Add and subtract fractions.
Reducing
A fraction46 is a real number written as a quotient, or ratio47, of two integers a and

b, where b ≠ 0.
The integer above the fraction bar is called the numerator48 and the integer below
is called the denominator49. The numerator is often called the “part” and the
denominator is often called the “whole.” Equivalent fractions50 are two equal
ratios expressed using different numerators and denominators. For example,
46. A rational number written as a

quotient of two integers: ba ,
where b is nonzero.
47. Relationship between two

Fifty parts out of 100 is the same ratio as 1 part out of 2 and represents the same
numbers or quantities usually
expressed as a quotient. real number. Consider the following factorizations of 50 and 100:
48. The number above the fraction

bar.
49. The number below the fraction

bar.
50. Two equal fractions expressed

using different numerators and
denominators.
The numbers 50 and 100 share the factor 25. A shared factor is called a common
50
51. A factor that is shared by more factor51. We can rewrite the ratio 100 as follows:
than one real number.
67
Making use of the multiplicative identity property and the fact that 25
25
= 1, we have
Dividing 25
25
and replacing this factor with a 1 is called canceling52. Together, these
basic steps for finding equivalent fractions define the process of reducing53. Since
factors divide their product evenly, we achieve the same result by dividing both the
numerator and denominator by 25 as follows:
Finding equivalent fractions where the numerator and denominator have no

common factor other than 1 is called reducing to lowest terms54. When learning
how to reduce to lowest terms, it is helpful to first rewrite the numerator and
denominator as a product of primes and then cancel. For example,
52. The process of dividing out

common factors in the
numerator and the
denominator.
53. The process of finding

equivalent fractions by
dividing the numerator and the
denominator by common
factors.
54. Finding equivalent fractions We achieve the same result by dividing the numerator and denominator by the
where the numerator and the greatest common factor (GCF)55. The GCF is the largest number that divides both
denominator share no common the numerator and denominator evenly. One way to find the GCF of 50 and 100 is to
integer factor other than 1.
list all the factors of each and identify the largest number that appears in both lists.
55. The largest shared factor of Remember, each number is also a factor of itself.
any number of integers.
1.4 Fractions 68
Common factors are listed in bold, and we see that the greatest common factor is
50. We use the following notation to indicate the GCF of two numbers: GCF(50, 100) =
50. After determining the GCF, reduce by dividing both the numerator and the
denominator as follows:
Example 1: Reduce to lowest terms: 105

300
.
Solution: Rewrite the numerator and denominator as a product of primes and then
cancel.
Alternatively, we achieve the same result if we divide both the numerator and
denominator by the GCF(105, 300). A quick way to find the GCF of the two numbers
requires us to first write each as a product of primes. The GCF is the product of all
the common prime factors.
1.4 Fractions 69
In this case, the common prime factors are 3 and 5 and the greatest common factor
of 105 and 300 is 15.
7
Answer: 20
Try this! Reduce to lowest terms: 32

96
.
1
Answer: 3
Video Solution
An improper fraction56 is one where the numerator is larger than the

denominator. A mixed number57 is a number that represents the sum of a whole
number and a fraction. For example, 5 12 is a mixed number that represents the sum
5 + 12. Use long division to convert an improper fraction to a mixed number; the
remainder is the numerator of the fractional part.
56. A fraction where the Example 2: Write 23

5
as a mixed number.
numerator is larger than the
denominator.
Solution: Notice that 5 divides into 23 four times with a remainder of 3.
57. A number that represents the
sum of a whole number and a
fraction.
1.4 Fractions 70
We then can write
Note that the denominator of the fractional part of the mixed number remains the
same as the denominator of the original fraction.
Answer: 4 3
5
To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions, multiply the whole number by

the denominator and then add the numerator; write this result over the original
denominator.
Example 3: Write 3 57 as an improper fraction.
Solution: Obtain the numerator by multiplying 7 times 3 and then add 5.
1.4 Fractions 71
26
Answer: 7
It is important to note that converting to a mixed number is not part of the

reducing process. We consider improper fractions, such as 267, to be reduced to
lowest terms. In algebra it is often preferable to work with improper fractions,
although in some applications, mixed numbers are more appropriate.
Try this! Convert 10 12 to an improper fraction.
21
Answer: 2
Video Solution

Multiplying and Dividing Fractions
In this section, assume that a, b, c, and d are all nonzero integers. The product of
two fractions is the fraction formed by the product of the numerators and the
product of the denominators. In other words, to multiply fractions, multiply the
numerators and multiply the denominators:
1.4 Fractions 72
Example 4: Multiply: 23 ⋅ 57.
Solution: Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.
Answer: 10
21
Example 5: Multiply: 59 (− 4 ).
1
Solution: Recall that the product of a positive number and a negative number is
negative.
5
Answer: − 36
Example 6: Multiply: 23 ⋅ 5 34.
Solution: Begin by converting 5 34 to an improper fraction.
1.4 Fractions 73
In this example, we noticed that we could reduce before we multiplied the

numerators and the denominators. Reducing in this way is called cross canceling58,
and can save time when multiplying fractions.
Answer: 3 56
Two real numbers whose product is 1 are called reciprocals59. Therefore, ab and b
a
are reciprocals because ab ⋅ ba = ab
ab
= .1For example,
Because their product is 1, 23 and 32 are reciprocals. Some other reciprocals are listed
below:
58. Cancelling common factors in This definition is important because dividing fractions requires that you multiply
the numerator and the the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.
denominator of fractions
before multiplying.
59. The reciprocal of a nonzero

number n is 1/n.
1.4 Fractions 74
Example 7: Divide: 23 ÷ 57.
Solution: Multiply 23 by the reciprocal of 57 .
14
Answer: 15
You also need to be aware of other forms of notation that indicate division: / and —.
For example,
Or
The latter is an example of a complex fraction60, which is a fraction whose

numerator, denominator, or both are fractions.
60. A fraction where the
numerator or denominator
consists of one or more
fractions.
1.4 Fractions 75
Note
Students often ask why dividing is equivalent to multiplying by the reciprocal

of the divisor. A mathematical explanation comes from the fact that the
product of reciprocals is 1. If we apply the multiplicative identity property and
multiply numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of the denominator,
then we obtain the following:
Before multiplying, look for common factors to cancel; this eliminates the need to
reduce the end result.
5
2
Example 8: Divide: 7
.
4
Solution:
1.4 Fractions 76
10
Answer: 7
When dividing by an integer, it is helpful to rewrite it as a fraction over 1.
Example 9: Divide: 23 ÷ 6.
Solution: Rewrite 6 as 61 and multiply by its reciprocal.
1.4 Fractions 77
1
Answer: 9
Also, note that we only cancel when working with multiplication. Rewrite any
division problem as a product before canceling.
Try this! Divide: 5 ÷ 2 35.
Answer: 1 12
13
Video Solution

Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Negative fractions are indicated with the negative sign in front of the fraction bar,
in the numerator, or in the denominator. All such forms are equivalent and
interchangeable.
1.4 Fractions 78
Adding or subtracting fractions requires a common denominator61. In this section,

assume the common denominator c is a nonzero integer.
It is good practice to use positive common denominators by expressing negative

fractions with negative numerators. In short, avoid negative denominators.
3
Example 10: Subtract: 12
15
− 15 .
Solution: The two fractions have a common denominator 15. Therefore, subtract
the numerators and write the result over the common denominator:
3
Answer: 5
Most problems that you are likely to encounter will have unlike denominators62.
In this case, first find equivalent fractions with a common denominator before
adding or subtracting the numerators. One way to obtain equivalent fractions is to
61. A denominator that is shared divide the numerator and the denominator by the same number. We now review a
by more than one fraction. technique for finding equivalent fractions by multiplying the numerator and the
denominator by the same number. It should be clear that 5/5 is equal to 1 and that 1
62. Denominators of fractions that
are not the same. multiplied times any number is that number:
1.4 Fractions 79
We have equivalent fractions 12 = 105. Use this idea to find equivalent fractions with
a common denominator to add or subtract fractions. The steps are outlined in the
following example.
7 3
Example 11: Subtract: 15 − 10 .
Solution:
Step 1: Determine a common denominator. To do this, use the least common

multiple (LCM)63 of the given denominators. The LCM of 15 and 10 is indicated by
LCM(15, 10). Try to think of the smallest number that both denominators divide
into evenly. List the multiples of each number:
Common multiples are listed in bold, and the least common multiple is 30.
Step 2: Multiply the numerator and the denominator of each fraction by values that
result in equivalent fractions with the determined common denominator.
63. The smallest number that is

evenly divisible by a set of
numbers.
1.4 Fractions 80
Step 3: Add or subtract the numerators, write the result over the common
denominator and then reduce if possible.
1
Answer: 6
The least common multiple of the denominators is called the least common
denominator (LCD)64. Finding the LCD is often the difficult step. It is worth finding
because if any common multiple other than the least is used, then there will be
more steps involved when reducing.
5 1
Example 12: Add: 10 + 18 .
Solution: First, determine that the LCM(10, 18) is 90 and then find equivalent
fractions with 90 as the denominator.
64. The least common multiple of a

set of denominators.
1.4 Fractions 81
5
Answer: 9
2 5
Try this! Add: 30 + 21 .
32
Answer: 105
Video Solution
Example 13: Simplify: 2 13 + 35 − 12.
Solution: Begin by converting 2 13 to an improper fraction.
1.4 Fractions 82
Answer: 2 13
30
In general, it is preferable to work with improper fractions. However, when the

original problem involves mixed numbers, if appropriate, present your answers as
mixed numbers. Also, mixed numbers are often preferred when working with
numbers on a number line and with real-world applications.
Try this! Subtract: 57 − 2 17.
Answer: −1 37
Video Solution
1.4 Fractions 83
Example 14: How many 12 inch thick paperback books can be stacked to fit on a
shelf that is 1 12 feet in height?
Solution: First, determine the height of the shelf in inches. To do this, use the fact
that there are 12 inches in 1 foot and multiply as follows:
Next, determine how many notebooks will fit by dividing the height of the shelf by
the thickness of each book.
Answer: 36 books can be stacked on the shelf.
1.4 Fractions 84
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Fractions are not unique; there are many ways to express the same ratio.
Find equivalent fractions by multiplying or dividing the numerator and
the denominator by the same real number.
• Equivalent fractions in lowest terms are generally preferred. It is a good
practice to always reduce.
• In algebra, improper fractions are generally preferred. However, in real-
life applications, mixed number equivalents are often preferred. We may
present answers as improper fractions unless the original question
contains mixed numbers, or it is an answer to a real-world or geometric
application.
• Multiplying fractions does not require a common denominator; multiply
the numerators and multiply the denominators to obtain the product. It
is a best practice to cancel any common factors in the numerator and
the denominator before multiplying.
• Reciprocals are rational numbers whose product is equal to 1. Given a
fraction ba , its reciprocal is ba .
• Divide fractions by multiplying the dividend by the reciprocal of the
divisor. In other words, multiply the numerator by the reciprocal of the
denominator.
• Rewrite any division problem as a product before canceling.
• Adding or subtracting fractions requires a common denominator. When
the denominators of any number of fractions are the same, simply add
or subtract the numerators and write the result over the common
denominator.
• Before adding or subtracting fractions, ensure that the denominators
are the same by finding equivalent fractions with a common
denominator. Multiply the numerator and the denominator of each
fraction by the appropriate value to find the equivalent fractions.
• Typically, it is best to convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions
before beginning the process of adding, subtracting, multiplying, or
dividing.
1.4 Fractions 85
TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Working with Fractions
Reduce each fraction to lowest terms.
5
1.
30
6
2.
24
30
3.
70
18
4.
27
44
5.
84
54
6.
90
135
7.
30
105
8.
300
18
9.
6
256
10.
16
126
11.
45
52
12.
234
54
13.
162
2000
14.
3000
1.4 Fractions 86
270
15.
360
Rewrite as an improper fraction.
3
16. 4
4
1
17. 2
2
7
18. 5
15
1
19. 1
2
5
20. 3
8
3
21. 1
4
1
22. −2
2
3
23. −1
4
Rewrite as a mixed number.
15
24.
2
9
25.
2
40
26.
13
103
27.
25
73
28.
10
52
29. − 7
1.4 Fractions 87
59
30. −
6
Part B: Multiplying and Dividing
Multiply and reduce to lowest terms.
31. 2
3
⋅ 5
7
32. 1
5
⋅ 4
8
33. 1
2
⋅ 1
3
34. 3
4
⋅ 20
9
35. 5
7
⋅ 49
10
36. 2
3
⋅ 9
12
37. 6
14
⋅ 21
12
38. 44
15
⋅ 15
11
39. 3 3
4
⋅2 1
3
40. 2 7
10
⋅5 5
6
(− 2 )
3 5
41.
11
(5)
4 9
42. −
5
43. (−
5) (− )
9 3
10
(− )
6 14
44. 7
3
45. (− ) (− 8 )
9 4
12
1.4 Fractions 88
(− )
3 4
46. −
8 15
1 1 1
47. 7 ⋅ 2
⋅ 3
3 15 7
48.
5
⋅ 21
⋅ 27
2 1 4
49.
5
⋅3 8
⋅ 5
4 2 5
50. 2 ⋅ ⋅2
9 5 11
Determine the reciprocal of the following numbers.
1
51.
2
8
52.
5
2
53. −
3
4
54. −
3
55. 10
56. −4
1
57. 2
3
5
58. 1
8
Divide and reduce to lowest terms.
1 2
59.
2
÷ 3
5 1
60.
9
÷ 3
61.
5
8
÷ (− 45 )
1.4 Fractions 89
62. (−
5)
2 15
÷ 3
− 67
63.
− 67
− 12
64. 1
4
− 10
3
65. 5
− 20
2
3
66. 9
2
30
50
67. 5
3
1
2
68.
2
5
69. 2
5
−6
70. 5
4
71. 2 1
2
÷ 5
3
72. 4 2
3
÷3 1
2
73. 5 ÷2 3
5
74. 4 3
5
÷ 23
Part C: Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Add or subtract and reduce to lowest terms.
1.4 Fractions 90
75. 17
20
− 5
20
76. 4
9
− 13
9
77. 3
5
+ 1
5
78. 11
15
+ 9
15
79. 5
7
−2 1
7
80. 5 1
8
−1 1
8
81. 1
2
+ 1
3
82. 1
5
− 1
4
83. 3
4
− 5
2
84. 3
8
+ 7
16
85. 7
15
− 3
10
86. 3
10
+ 2
14
87. 2
30
+ 5
21
88. 3
18
− 1
24
89. 5 1
2
+2 1
3
90. 1 3
4
+2 1
10
1 1 1
91.
2
+ 3
+ 6
2 3 2
92.
3
+ 5
− 9
7 3 2
93.
3
− 2
+ 15
1.4 Fractions 91
9 3 3
94.
4
− 2
+ 8
1 2 1
95. 1 +2 −1
3 5 15
2 1 1
96.
3
−4 2
+3 6
6 3
97. 1 − +
16 18
1 1
98. 3 − −
21 15
Part D: Mixed Exercises
Perform the operations. Reduce answers to lowest terms.
3 7 1
99.
14
⋅ 3
÷ 8
100.
1
2
⋅ (− 45 ) ÷ 14
15
1 3 1
101.
2
÷ 4
⋅ 5
5 5 5
102. − ÷ ⋅
9 3 2
5 9 3
103.
12
− 21
+ 9
3 5 1
104. − − +
10 12 20
4 1
105.
5
÷4⋅ 2
5 2
106.
3
÷ 15 ⋅ 3
3 4
107. What is the product of 16
and 9
?
108. What is the product of − 24

5
and 25
8
?
5 25
109. What is the quotient of 9
and 3
?
1.4 Fractions 92
110. What is the quotient of − 16

5
and 32?
1 9 2
111. Subtract 6
from the sum of 2
and 3
.
1 3 6
112. Subtract 4
from the sum of 4
and 5
.
113. What is the total width when 3 boards, each with a width of 2 5
8
inches,
are glued together?
114. The precipitation in inches for a particular 3-day weekend was

published as 103 inches on Friday, 1 12 inches on Saturday, and 34 inches on
Sunday. Calculate the total precipitation over this period.
115. A board that is 5 14 feet long is to be cut into 7 pieces of equal length.
What is length of each piece?
3
116. How many 4
inch thick notebooks can be stacked into a box that is 2
feet high?
117. In a mathematics class of 44 students, one-quarter of the students

signed up for a special Saturday study session. How many students signed
up?
118. Determine the length of fencing needed to enclose a rectangular pen

with dimensions 35 12 feet by 20 23 feet.
1
119. Each lap around the track measures 4
mile. How many laps are
required to complete a 2 12 mile run?
120. A retiree earned a pension that consists of three-fourths of his regular

monthly salary. If his regular monthly salary was $5,200, then what monthly
payment can the retiree expect from the pension plan?
Part E: Discussion Board Topics
121. Does 0 have a reciprocal? Explain.
122. Explain the difference between the LCM and the GCF. Give an example.
123. Explain the difference between the LCM and LCD.
1.4 Fractions 93
124. Why is it necessary to find an LCD in order to add or subtract fractions?
7 1
125. Explain how to determine which fraction is larger, 16
or 2
.
1.4 Fractions 94
ANSWERS
1: 1/6
3: 3/7
5: 11/21
7: 9/2
9: 3
11: 14/5
13: 1/3
15: 3/4
17: 5/2
19: 3/2
21: 7/4
23: −7/4
1
25: 4
2
3
27: 4
25
3
29: −7 7
31: 10/21
33: 1/6
35: 7/2
37: 3/4
1.4 Fractions 95
39: 8 3
4
41: −15/22
43: 27/50
45: 3/8
47: 1/42
49: 1
51: 2
53: −3/2
55: 1/10
57: 3/7
59: 3/4
61: −25/32
63: 1
65: 40/3
67: 9/25
69: 25/2
71: 1 1
2
73: 1 12
13
75: 3/5
77: 4/5
1.4 Fractions 96
79: −1 3
7
81: 5/6
83: −7/4
85: 1/6
87: 32/105
5
89: 7
6
91: 1
93: 29/30
95: 2 2
3
97: 19/24
99: 4
101: 2/15
103: 9/28
105: 1/10
107: 1/12
109: 1/15
111: 5
113: 7 7
8
inches
3
115: 4
feet
117: 11 students
1.4 Fractions 97
119: 10 laps
1.4 Fractions 98
1.5 Review of Decimals and Percents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Convert fractions to decimals and back.

2. Perform operations with decimals.
3. Round off decimals to a given place.
4. Define a percent.
5. Convert percents to decimals and back.
6. Convert fractions to percents and back.
Decimals
In this section, we provide a brief review of the decimal system. A real number in
decimal form, a decimal65 consists of a decimal point, digits (0 through 9) to the left
of the decimal point representing the whole number part, and digits to the right of
the decimal point representing the fractional part. The digits represent powers of
10 as shown in the set {…, 1,000, 100, 10, 1, 1/10, 1/100, 1/1,000, …} according to the
following diagram:
For example, the decimal 538.3 can be written in the following expanded form:
65. A real number expressed using After simplifying, we obtain the mixed number 538 103 . Use this process to convert
the decimal system. decimals to mixed numbers.
99
Example 1: Write as a mixed number: 32.15.
Solution: In this example, 32 is the whole part and the decimal ends in the
hundredths place. Therefore, the fractional part will be 15/100, and we can write
Answer: 32.15 = 32 3
20
To convert fractions to decimal equivalents, divide.
Example 2: Write as a decimal: 34.
Solution: Use long division to convert to a decimal.
Answer: 3
4
= 0.75
1.5 Review of Decimals and Percents 100

If the division never ends, then use a bar over the repeating digit (or block of digits)
to indicate a repeating decimal.
Example 3: Write as a decimal: 2 56.
Solution: Use long division to convert the fractional part to a decimal and then add
the whole part.
At this point, we can see that the long division will continue to repeat. When this is
the case, use a bar over the repeating digit to indicate that it continues forever:
Then write
⎯⎯
Answer: 2 5
6
= 2.83

To add or subtract decimals, align them vertically with the decimal point and add
corresponding place values. Recall that sometimes you need to borrow from or
carry over to the adjoining column (regrouping).
Example 4: Subtract: 54.328 − 23.25.
Solution: Note that trailing zeros to the right of the decimal point do not change
the value of the decimal, 23.25 = 23.250. In this case, you need to borrow from the
tenths place (regroup) to subtract the digits in the hundredths place.
Answer: 31.078
Multiply decimals the same way you multiply whole numbers. The number of
decimal places in the product will be the sum of the decimal places found in each of
the factors.
Example 5: Multiply: 5.36 × 7.4.
Solution: The total number of decimal places of the two factors is 2 + 1 = 3.

Therefore, the result has 3 decimal places.

Answer: 39.664
When dividing decimals, move the decimal points of both the dividend and the
divisor so that the divisor is a whole number. Remember to move the decimal the
same number of places for both the dividend and divisor.
Example 6: Divide: 33.3216 ÷ 6.24.
Solution: Move the decimal point to turn the divisor into a whole number: 624.
Move the decimal points of both the divisor and dividend two places to the right.
Next, divide.
Answer: 5.34
It is often necessary to round off66 decimals to a specified number of decimal

66. A means of approximating places. Rounding off allows us to approximate decimals with fewer significant
decimals with a specified
number of significant digits.
digits. To do this, look at the digit to the right of the specified place value.

1. If the digit to the right of the specified place is 4 or less, then leave the
specified digit unchanged and drop all subsequent digits.
2. If the digit to the right of the specified place is 5 or greater, then
increase the value of the digit in the specified place by 1 and drop all
subsequent digits.
Recall that decimals with trailing zeros to the right of the decimal point can be
dropped. For example, round 5.635457 to the nearest thousandth:
Round the same number 5.635457 to the nearest hundredth:
After rounding off, be sure to use the appropriate notation ( ≈ ) to indicate that the
number is now an approximation. When working with US currency, we typically
round off to two decimal places, or the nearest hundredth.
Example 7: Calculate and round off to the nearest hundredth.
a. 1/3 of $10.25.
b. 1/4 of $10.25.
Solution: In this context, the key word “of” indicates that we should multiply.
a. Multiplying by 13 is equivalent to dividing by 3.

b. Multiplying by 14 is equivalent to dividing by 4.
Answers: a. $3.42; b. $2.56
Definition of Percent
A percent67 is a representation of a number as a part of one hundred. The word

“percent” can be written “per cent” which means “per 100” or “/100.” We use the
symbol ( % ) to denote a percentage:
For example,
67. A representation of a number

N
as part of 100: N% = 100
.
Percents are an important part of our everyday life and show up often in our study
68. A circular graph divided into of algebra. Percents can be visualized using a pie chart68 (or circle graph), where
sectors whose area is each sector gives a visual representation of a percentage of the whole. For example,
proportional to the relative
the following pie chart shows the percentage of students in certain age categories
size of the ratio of the part to
the total. of all US community colleges.

Source: American Association of Community Colleges.
Each sector is proportional to the size of the part out of the whole. The sum of the
percentages presented in a pie chart must be 100%. To work with percentages
effectively, you have to know how to convert percents to decimals or fractions and
back again.
Percents to Decimals
Applying the definition of percent, you see that 58% = 100 58

= 0.58. The same result
can be obtained by moving the decimal two places to the left. To convert percents to
decimals, either apply the definition or move the decimal two places to the left.
Example 8: Convert to a decimal: 152%.
Solution: Treat 152% as 152.0% and move the decimal two places to the left.
Answer: 1.52

Example 9: Convert to a decimal: 2 3

4
%.
Solution: First, write the decimal percent equivalent,
Next, move the decimal two places to the left,
At this point, fill in the tenths place with a zero.
Answer: 0.0275
Try this! Convert to a decimal: 215%.
Answer: 2.15
Video Solution

Decimals and Fractions to Percents
To convert a decimal to a percent, convert the decimal to a fraction of 100 and

apply the definition of percent, or equivalently, move the decimal to the right two
places and add a percent sign.

Example 10: Convert 0.23 to a percent.
Solution: First, convert the decimal to a fraction of 100 and apply the definition.
You can achieve the same result by moving the decimal two places to the right and
adding a percent sign.
Answer: 23%.
Alternatively, you can multiply by 1 in the form of 100%.
Example 11: Convert 2.35 to a percent.
Solution: Recall that 1 = 100%.
You can achieve the same result by moving the decimal two places to the right and
adding a percent sign.

Answer: 235%
Example 12: Convert 5 15 to a percent.
Solution:
Answer: 520%
Sometimes we can use the definition of percent and find an equivalent fraction with
a denominator of 100.
13
Example 13: Convert 25
to a percent.
Solution: Notice that the denominator 25 is a factor of 100. Use the definition of
percent by finding an equivalent fraction with 100 in the denominator.
Answer: 52%

This is a very specialized technique because 100 may not be a multiple of the
denominator.
Example 14: Convert 13 to a percent.
Solution: Notice that the denominator 3 is not a factor of 100. In this case, it is best
to multiply by 1 in the form of 100%.
Answer: 33 1
3
%
Try this! Convert to a percent: 23 .
Answer: 66 2
3
%
Video Solution

Percents to Fractions
When converting percents to fractions, apply the definition of percent and then
reduce.

Example 15: Convert to a fraction: 28%.
Solution:
7
Answer: 25
Applying the definition of percent is equivalent to removing the percent sign and
1
multiplying by 100 .
Example 16: Convert to a fraction: 66 2

3
%.
Solution: First, convert to an improper fraction and then apply the definition of
percent.

2
Answer: 3
Try this! Convert to a fraction: 3 7

31
%.
1
Answer: 31
Video Solution
Example 17: Using the given pie chart, calculate the total number of students that
were 21 years old or younger if the total US community college enrollment in 2009
was 11.7 million.
Solution: From the pie chart we can determine that 47% of the total 11.7 million
students were 21 years old or younger.
Source: American Association of Community Colleges.
Convert 47% to a decimal and multiply as indicated by the key word “of.”

Answer: In 2009, approximately 5.5 million students enrolled in US community

colleges were 21 years old or younger.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• To convert a decimal to a mixed number, add the appropriate fractional

part indicated by the digits to the right of the decimal point to the whole
part indicated by the digits to the left of the decimal point and reduce if
necessary.
• To convert a mixed number to a decimal, convert the fractional part of
the mixed number to a decimal using long division and then add it to the
whole number part.
• To add or subtract decimals, align them vertically with the decimal
point and add corresponding place values.
• To multiply decimals, multiply as usual for whole numbers and count
the number of decimal places of each factor. The number of decimal
places in the product will be the sum of the decimal places found in each
of the factors.
• To divide decimals, move the decimal in both the divisor and dividend
until the divisor is a whole number and then divide as usual.
• When rounding off decimals, look to the digit to the right of the
specified place value. If the digit to the right is 4 or less, round down by
leaving the specified digit unchanged and dropping all subsequent
digits. If the digit to the right is 5 or more, round up by increasing the
specified digit by one and dropping all subsequent digits.
N
• A percent represents a number as part of 100: N% = .
100
• To convert a percent to a decimal, apply the definition of percent and
write that number divided by 100. This is equivalent to moving the
decimal two places to the left.
• To convert a percent to a fraction, apply the definition of percent and
then reduce.
• To convert a decimal or fraction to a percent, multiply by 1 in the form
of 100%. This is equivalent to moving the decimal two places to the right
and adding a percent sign.
• Pie charts are circular graphs where each sector is proportional to the
size of the part out of the whole. The sum of the percentages must total
100%.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Decimals
Write as a mixed number.
1. 45.8
2. 15.4
3. 1.82
4. 2.55
5. 4.72
6. 3.14
Write as a decimal.
7. 2 4
5
8. 5 1
5
9. 3 1
8
10. 1 3
20
3
11. 8
5
12. 8
13. 1 1
3
14. 2 1
6
Perform the operations. Round dollar amounts to the nearest hundredth.
15. 13.54 − 4.6

16. 16.8 − 4.845
17. 45.631 + 7.82
18. 256.34 + 51.771
19. 12.82 × 5.9
20. 123.5 × 0.17
21. 0.451 × 1.5
22. 0.836 × 9.3
23. 38.319 ÷ 5.3
24. 52.6551 ÷ 5.01
25. 0.9338 ÷ 0.023
26. 4.6035 ÷ 0.045

1
27. Find 6
of $20.00.
1
28. Find 5
of $33.26.
2
29. Find 3
of $15.25.
3
30. Find 4
of $15.50.
31. A gymnast scores 8.8 on the vault, 9.3 on the uneven bars, 9.1 on the
balance beam, and 9.8 on the floor exercise. What is her overall average?
32. To calculate a batting average, divide the player’s number of hits by the
total number of at-bats and round off the result to three decimal places. If a
player has 62 hits in 195 at-bats, then what is his batting average?
Part B: Percents to Decimals
Convert each percent to its decimal equivalent.

33. 43%
34. 25%
35. 33%
36. 100%
37. 150%
38. 215%
1
39.
2
%
3
40. 2 %
4
1
41. 1 %
2
2
42. 3 %
3
43. 0.025%
44. 0.0001%
45. 1.75%
46. 20.34%
47. 0%
48. 1%
49. 3.05%
50. 5.003%
51. Convert one-half of one percent to a decimal.

52. Convert three-quarter percent to a decimal.
53. What is 20% of zero?
54. What is 50% of one hundred?
55. What is 150% of 100?
56. What is 20% of $20.00?
57. What is 112% of $210?
58. What is 9 1
2
% of $1,200?
59. If the bill at a restaurant comes to $32.50, what is the amount of a 15%
tip?
60. Calculate the total cost, including a 20% tip, of a meal totaling $37.50.
61. If an item costs $45.25, then what is the total after adding 8.25% for tax?
62. If an item costs $36.95, then what is the total after adding 9¼% tax?
63. A retail outlet is offering 15% off the original $29.99 price of branded
sweaters. What is the price after the discount?
64. A solar technology distribution company expects a 12% increase in first

quarter sales as a result of a recently implemented rebate program. If the
first quarter sales last year totaled $350,000, then what are the sales
projections for the first quarter of this year?
65. If a local mayor of a town with a population of 40,000 people enjoys a 72%
favorable rating in the polls, then how many people view the mayor
unfavorably?
66. If a person earning $3,200 per month spends 32% of his monthly income
on housing, then how much does he spend on housing each month?
Part C: Decimals and Fractions to Percents
Convert the following decimals and fractions to percents.

67. 0.67
68. 0.98
69. 1.30
70. 2.25
57
71.
100
99
72.
100
1
73.
5
2
74.
3
25
75.
8
1
76. 3
4
17
77.
50
1
78. 7
79. 0.0023
80. 0.000005
81. 20
82. 100
Part D: Percents to Fractions
Use the definition of percent to convert to fractions.
83. 20%

84. 80%
85. 57%
86. 97%
1
87. 5 %
2
2
88. 1 %
3
89. 75%
90. 32%
91. 400%
92. 230%
93. 100%
1
94.
8
%
5
95.
12
%
5
96. 5 7 %
1
97. 33 %
3
7
98. 3 %
31
99. 0.7%
100. 0.05%
101. 1.2%
102. 12.5%

The course grade weighting for a traditional mathematics course with 1,200 total
points is shown in the pie chart below. Use the chart to answer the following
questions.
103. How many points will the final exam be worth?
104. How many points will the homework be worth?
105. How many points will each of the four regular exams be worth?
106. How many 10-point homework assignments can be assigned?
A website had 12,000 unique users in the fall of 2009. Answer the questions based on
the pie chart below depicting total Web browser usage.
107. How many users used the Firefox Web browser?
108. How many users used a browser other than Internet Explorer?
109. How many users used either Firefox or Internet Explorer?
110. How many users used Google Chrome or Safari?
The 2009 employment status of 11.7 million full-time community college students is
given in the following pie chart. Use the chart to answer the following questions.
Round off each answer to the nearest hundredth.

Source: American
Association of
Community Colleges.
111. How many full-time students were employed full time?
112. How many full-time students were employed part time?
113. How many full-time students were unemployed or employed part time?
114. How many full-time students also worked part time or full time?
The pie chart below depicts all US households categorized by income. The total
number of households in 2007 was about 111,600,000. Use the chart to answer the
following questions.
Source: US Census
Bureau.
115. How many households reported an income from $50,000 to $74,999?
116. How many households reported an income from $75,000 to $99,999?
117. How many households reported an income of $100,000 or more?
118. How many households reported an income of less than $25,000?

119. The decimal system is considered a base-10 numeral system. Explain

why. What other numeral systems are in use today?
120. Research and discuss the history of the symbol %.
121. Research and discuss simple interest and how it is calculated. Make up
an example and share the solution.
122. Discuss methods for calculating tax and total bills.
123. Research and discuss the history of the pie chart.
124. Research and discuss the idea of a weighted average.

ANSWERS
1: 45 4
5
3: 1 41
50
5: 4 18
25
7: 2.8
9: 3.125
11: 0.375
⎯⎯
13: 1.3
15: 8.94
17: 53.451
19: 75.638
21: 0.6765
23: 7.23
25: 40.6
27: $3.33
29: $10.17
31: 9.25
33: 0.43
35: 0.33
37: 1.5

39: 0.005
41: 0.015
43: 0.00025
45: 0.0175
47: 0
49: 0.0305
51: 0.005
53: 0
55: 150
57: $235.20
59: $4.88
61: $48.98
63: $25.49
65: 11,200 people
67: 67%
69: 130%
71: 57%
73: 20%
75: 312.5%
77: 34%

79: 0.23%
81: 2,000%
1
83:
5
57
85:
100
11
87:
200
3
89:
4
91: 4
93: 1
1
95:
240
1
97:
3
7
99:
1000
3
101:
250
103: 360 points
105: 180 points
107: 3,000 users
109: 10,560 users
111: 3.16 million
113: 8.54 million
115: 20,980,800 households

117: 21,204,000 households

1.6 Exponents and Square Roots
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Interpret exponential notation with positive integer exponents.

2. Calculate the nth power of a real number.
3. Calculate the exact and approximate value of the square root of a real
number.
Exponential Notation and Positive Integer Exponents
If a number is repeated as a factor numerous times, then we can write the product
in a more compact form using exponential notation69. For example,
The base70 is the factor, and the positive integer exponent71 indicates the number
of times the base is repeated as a factor. In the above example, the base is 5 and the
exponent is 4. In general, if a is the base that is repeated as a factor n times, then
69. The compact notation When the exponent is 2, we call the result a square72. For example,
ax 2 + bx + c = 0. used
when a factor is repeated
multiple times.
70. The factor a in the exponential

notation an .
71. The positive integer n in the

exponential notation an that The number 3 is the base and the integer 2 is the exponent. The notation 32 can be
indicates the number of times read two ways: “three squared” or “3 raised to the second power.” The base can be
the base is used as a factor. any real number.
72. The result when the exponent
of any real number is 2.
127
It is important to study the difference between the ways the last two examples are
calculated. In the example (−7)2 , the base is −7 as indicated by the parentheses. In
the example −52 , the base is 5, not −5, so only the 5 is squared and the result
remains negative. To illustrate this, write
This subtle distinction is very important because it determines the sign of the
result.
The textual notation for exponents is usually denoted using the caret73 (^) symbol
as follows:
The square of an integer is called a perfect square74. The ability to recognize

perfect squares is useful in our study of algebra. The squares of the integers from 1
to 15 should be memorized. A partial list of perfect squares follows:
73. The symbol ^ that indicates

exponents on many
calculators, an = a ^ n.
74. The result of squaring an Try this! Simplify (−12)2 .

integer.
1.6 Exponents and Square Roots 128

Answer: 144
Video Solution
When the exponent is 3 we call the result a cube75. For example,
The notation 33 can be read two ways: “three cubed” or “3 raised to the third
power.” As before, the base can be any real number.
Note that the result of cubing a negative number is negative. The cube of an integer
is called a perfect cube76. The ability to recognize perfect cubes is useful in our
study of algebra. The cubes of the integers from 1 to 10 should be memorized. A
partial list of perfect cubes follows:
Try this! Simplify (−2)3 .
Answer: −8
75. The result when the exponent Video Solution

of any real number is 3.
76. The result of cubing an integer. (click to see video)

If the exponent is greater than 3, then the notation an is read “a raised to the nth
power.”
Notice that the result of a negative base with an even exponent is positive. The
result of a negative base with an odd exponent is negative. These facts are often
confused when negative numbers are involved. Study the following four examples
carefully:
The base is (−2) The base is 2
(−2) 4 = (−2) ⋅ (−2) ⋅ (−2) ⋅ (−2) = +16 −2 4 = −2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = −16

(−2) 3 = (−2) ⋅ (−2) ⋅ (−2) = −8 −2 3 = −2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = −8
The parentheses indicate that the negative number is to be used as the base.
Example 1: Calculate:
a. (− 13 )
3
b. (− 13 )
4
Solution: The base is − 13 for both problems.
a. Use the base as a factor three times.

b. Use the base as a factor four times.
Answers: a. − 271 ; b. 1
81
Try this! Simplify: −104 and (−10)4 .
Answers: −10,000 and 10,000
Video Solution

Square Root of a Real Number
Think of finding the square root77 of a number as the inverse of squaring a number.
In other words, to determine the square root of 25 the question is, “What number
squared equals 25?” Actually, there are two answers to this question, 5 and −5.
77. The number that, when

multiplied by itself, yields the
original number.

When asked for the square root of a number, we implicitly mean the principal
(nonnegative) square root78. Therefore we have,
⎯⎯⎯⎯
As an example, √25 = 5, which is read “square root of 25 equals 5.” The symbol √
is called the radical sign79 and 25 is called the radicand80. The alternative textual
notation for square roots follows:
It is also worthwhile to note that
This is the case because 12 = 1 and 02 = 0.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 2: Simplify: √10,000.
Solution: 10,000 is a perfect square because 100 ⋅ 100 = 10,000.
78. The non-negative square root.

Answer: 100
79. The symbol √ used to denote a
square root.
80. The expression a within a

n ⎯⎯
radical sign, √ a.

Example 3: Simplify: √ 19 .
⎯⎯⎯
Solution: Here we notice that 19 is a square because 1

3
⋅ 1
3
= .19
1
Answer: 3
Given a and b as positive real numbers, use the following property to simplify
square roots whose radicands are not squares:
The idea is to identify the largest square factor of the radicand and then apply the
⎯⎯
property shown above. As an example, to simplify √8 notice that 8 is not a perfect
square. However, 8 = 4 ⋅ 2 and thus has a perfect square factor other than 1. Apply
the property as follows:
⎯⎯
Here 2√2 is a simplified irrational number. You are often asked to find an
approximate answer rounded off to a certain decimal place. In that case, use a

calculator to find the decimal approximation using either the original problem or
the simplified equivalent.
On a calculator, try 2.83^2. What do you expect? Why is the answer not what you
would expect?
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
It is important to mention that the radicand must be positive. For example, √−9 is
undefined since there is no real number that when squared is negative. Try taking
the square root of a negative number on your calculator. What does it say? Note:
taking the square root of a negative number is defined later in the course.
Example 4: Simplify and give an approximate answer rounded to the nearest

⎯⎯⎯⎯
hundredth: √75.
Solution: The radicand 75 can be factored as 25 ⋅ 3 where the factor 25 is a perfect

square.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: √75 ≈ 8.66
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
As a check, calculate √75 and 5√3 on a calculator and verify that the both results
are approximately 8.66.

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 5: Simplify: √180.
Solution:
Since the question did not ask for an approximate answer, we present the exact
answer.
⎯⎯
Answer: 6√5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 5: Simplify: −5√162.
Solution:
⎯⎯
Answer: −45√2

Try this! Simplify and give an approximate answer rounded to the nearest
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
hundredth: √128.
⎯⎯
Answer: 8√2 ≈ 11.31
Video Solution
A right triangle81 is a triangle where one of the angles

Figure 1.1 Pythagoras
measures 90°. The side opposite the right angle is the
longest side, called the hypotenuse82, and the other two
sides are called legs83. Numerous real-world
applications involve this geometric figure. The
Pythagorean theorem84 states that given any right
triangle with legs measuring a and b units, the square of
the measure of the hypotenuse c is equal to the sum of
the squares of the measures of the legs: a2 + b2 = c2 .
In other words, the hypotenuse of any right triangle is
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of its
legs.
Source: Detail of The School of
Athens by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509,
from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/
File:Sanzio_01_Pythagoras.jpg.
81. A triangle with an angle that

measures 90°.
82. The longest side of a right

triangle, it will always be the
side opposite the right angle.
83. The sides of a right triangle

that are not the hypotenuse.
84. Given any right triangle with Example 6: If the two legs of a right triangle measure 3 units and 4 units, then find
legs measuring a and b units the length of the hypotenuse.
and hypotenuse measuring c
units, then a2 + b2 = c2.

Solution: Given the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, use the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
c = √a2 + b2 to find the length of the hypotenuse.
Answer: c = 5 units
When finding the hypotenuse of a right triangle using the Pythagorean theorem,
the radicand is not always a perfect square.
Example 7: If the two legs of a right triangle measure 2 units and 6 units, find the
length of the hypotenuse.
Solution:

⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: c = 2√10 units
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When using exponential notation an , the base a is used as a factor n

times.
• When the exponent is 2, the result is called a square. When the exponent
is 3, the result is called a cube.
• Memorize the squares of the integers up to 15 and the cubes of the
integers up to 10. They will be used often as you progress in your study
of algebra.
• When negative numbers are involved, take care to associate the
exponent with the correct base. Parentheses group a negative number
raised to some power.
• A negative base raised to an even power is positive.
• A negative base raised to an odd power is negative.
• The square root of a number is a number that when squared results in
the original number. The principal square root is the positive square
root.
• Simplify a square root by looking for the largest perfect square factor of
the radicand. Once a perfect square is found, apply the property
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
√ a ⋅ b = √ a ⋅ √ b, where a and b are nonnegative, and simplify.
• Check simplified square roots by calculating approximations of the
answer using both the original problem and the simplified answer on a
calculator to verify that the results are the same.
• Find the length of the hypotenuse of any right triangle given the lengths
of the legs using the Pythagorean theorem.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Square of a Number
Simplify.
2
1. 10
2
2. 12
2
3. (−9)
2
4. −12
5. 11 ^2
6. (−20) ^2
2
7. 0
2
8. 1
2
9. −(−8)
2
10. −(13)
11. (
2)
1 2
12. (−
3)
2 2
13. 0.5^2
14. 1.25^2
15. (−2.6)^2
16. −(−5.1)^2

17. (2
3)
1 2
18. (5
4)
3 2
If s is the length of the side of a square, then the area is given by A = s2 .
19. Determine the area of a square given that a side measures 5 inches.
20. Determine the area of a square given that a side measures 2.3 feet.
21. List all the squares of the integers 0 through 15.
22. List all the squares of the integers from −15 to 0.
{0, , 2}.
23. List the squares of all the rational numbers in the set
1 2 4 5
3
, 3
, 1, 3
, 3
{0, 2}
24. List the squares of all the rational numbers in the set
1 3 5
2
, 1, 2
, 2, .
Part B: Integer Exponents
Simplify.
3
25. 5
6
26. 2
4
27. (−1)
3
28. (−3)
4
29. −1
4
30. (−2)
3
31. −7

3
32. (−7)
3
33. −(−3)
4
34. −(−10)
20
35. (−1)
21
36. (−1)
37. (−6) ^3
38. −3 ^4
39. 1 ^ 100
40. 0 ^ 100
41. −(
2)
1 3
42. (
2)
1 6
43. (
2)
5 3
44. (−
4)
3 4
45. List all the cubes of the integers −5 through 5.
46. List all the cubes of the integers from −10 to 0.
{− 3}
47. List all the cubes of the rational numbers in the set
2 1 1 2
3
, − 3
, 0, 3
, .
{− 7}
48. List all the cubes of the rational numbers in the set
3 1 1 3
7
, − 7
, 0, 7
, .

Part C: Square Root of a Number
Determine the exact answer in simplified form.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. √ 121
⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. √ 81
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
51. √ 100
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
52. √ 169
⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. −√ 25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. −√ 144
⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. √ 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. √ 27
⎯⎯⎯⎯
57. √ 45
⎯⎯⎯⎯
58. √ 50
⎯⎯⎯⎯
59. √ 98
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
60. √ 2000
61. √
⎯1⎯⎯
4
62. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
9
⎯
16
63. √
⎯5⎯⎯
9

64. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
8
⎯
36
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. √ 0.64
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. √ 0.81
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
67. √ 30
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
68. √ 15
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
69. √ (−2)
70. √ (−5)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
71. √ −9
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. √ −16
⎯⎯⎯⎯
73. 3√ 16
⎯⎯⎯⎯
74. 5√ 18
⎯⎯⎯⎯
75. −2√ 36
⎯⎯⎯⎯
76. −3√ 32
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
77. 6√ 200
⎯⎯⎯⎯
78. 10√ 27
Approximate the following to the nearest hundredth.
⎯⎯
79. √ 2

⎯⎯
80. √ 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
81. √ 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯
82. √ 15
⎯⎯
83. 2√ 3
⎯⎯
84. 5√ 2
⎯⎯
85. −6√ 5
⎯⎯
86. −4√ 6
87. sqrt(79)
88. sqrt(54)
89. −sqrt(162)
90. −sqrt(86)
91. If the two legs of a right triangle measure 6 units and 8 units, then find
the length of the hypotenuse.
3
94. If the two legs of a right triangle measure 2
units and 2 units, then find
95. If the two legs of a right triangle both measure 1 unit, then find the

96. If the two legs of a right triangle measure 1 unit and 5 units, then find
Part D: Discussion Board Topics
99. Why is the result of an exponent of 2 called a square? Why is the result of
an exponent of 3 called a cube?
100. Research and discuss the history of the Pythagorean theorem.
101. Research and discuss the history of the square root.
102. Discuss the importance of the principal square root.

ANSWERS
1: 100
3: 81
5: 121
7: 0
9: −64
11: 1/4
13: .25
15: 6.76
4
17: 5
9
19: 25 square inches
21: {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225}
23: {0, 1/9, 4/9, 1, 16/9, 25/9, 4}
25: 125
27: 1
29: −1
31: −343
33: 27
35: 1
37: −216

39: 1
1
41: −
8
125
43:
8
45: {−125, −64, −27, −8, −1, 0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125}
47: {− }
8 1 1 8
27
, − 27
, 0, 27
, 27
49: 11
51: 10
53: −5
⎯⎯
55: 2√ 3
⎯⎯
57: 3√ 5
⎯⎯
59: 7√ 2
1
61:
2
√5
63:
3
65: 0.8
67: 30
69: 2
71: Not real
73: 12
75: −12

⎯⎯
77: 60√ 2
79: 1.41
81: 3.16
83: 3.46
85: −13.42
87: 8.89
89: −12.73
91: 10 units
93: 15 units
⎯⎯
95: √ 2 units
⎯⎯
97: 2√ 5 units

1.7 Order of Operations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and work with grouping symbols.

2. Understand the order of operations.
3. Simplify using the order of operations.
Grouping Symbols
In a computation where more than one operation is involved, grouping symbols

help tell us which operations to perform first. The grouping symbols85 commonly
used in algebra are
All of the above grouping symbols, as well as absolute value, have the same order of
precedence. Perform operations inside the innermost grouping symbol or absolute
value first.
Example 1: Simplify: 5 − (4 − 12).
Solution: Perform the operations within the parentheses first. In this case, first
subtract 12 from 4.
85. Parentheses, brackets, braces,

and the fraction bar are the
common symbols used to
group expressions and
mathematical operations
within a computation.
149
Answer: 13
Example 2: Simplify: 3 {−2 [− (−3 − 1)]}.
Solution:
Answer: −24
5−||4−(−3)||
|−3|−(5−7)
Example 3: Simplify: .
Solution: The fraction bar groups the numerator and denominator. They should be
simplified separately.
1.7 Order of Operations 150

Answer: − 25
Try this! Simplify: − [−3 (2 + 3)].
Answer: 15
Video Solution

Order of Operations
When several operations are to be applied within a calculation, we must follow a

specific order86 to ensure a single correct result.
1. Perform all calculations within the innermost parentheses or

grouping symbols.
2. Evaluate all exponents.
3. Perform multiplication and division operations from left to right.
4. Finally, perform all remaining addition and subtraction operations
from left to right.
Caution: Note that multiplication and division operations must be worked from left to
right.
Example 4: Simplify: 52 − 4 ⋅ 3 ÷ 12.
Solution: First, evaluate 52 and then perform multiplication and division as they
appear from left to right.
86. To ensure a single correct

result, perform mathematical
operations in a specific order.

Answer: 24
Because multiplication and division operations should be worked from left to right,
it is sometimes correct to perform division before multiplication.
Example 5: Simplify: 24 − 12 ÷ 3 ⋅ 2 + 11.
Solution: Begin by evaluating the exponent, 24 = 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 16.
Multiplying first leads to an incorrect result.

Answer: 19
Example 6: Simplify: −3 − 52 + (−7)2 .
Solution: Take care to correctly identify the base when squaring.
Answer: 21
Example 7: Simplify: 5 − 3 [23 − 5 + 7(−3)].
Solution: It is tempting to first subtract 5 − 3, but this will lead to an incorrect

result. The order of operations requires us to simplify within the brackets first.

Subtracting 5 − 3 first leads to an incorrect result.
Answer: 59
Example 8: Simplify: −32 − [5 − (4 − 10)].

2
Solution: Perform the operations within the innermost parentheses first.
Answer: −8

Example 9: Simplify: (− 23 ) ÷ [ 53 − (− 12 ) ].
2 3
Solution:
32
Answer: 129
We are less likely to make a mistake if we work one operation at a time. Some
problems may involve an absolute value, in which case we assign it the same order
of precedence as parentheses.
Example 10: Simplify: 2 − 4 |−4 − 3| + (−2)4.
Solution: We begin by evaluating the absolute value and then the exponent
(−2)4 = (−2) (−2) (−2) (−2) = +16.

Answer: −10
Try this! Simplify: 10 ÷ 5 ⋅ 2 |(−4) + |−3||| + (−3)2.
Answer: 13
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Grouping symbols indicate which operations to perform first. We usually

group mathematical operations with parentheses, brackets, braces, and
the fraction bar. We also group operations within absolute values. All
groupings have the same order of precedence: the operations within the
innermost grouping are performed first.
• When applying operations within a calculation, follow the order

of operations to ensure a single correct result.
1. Address innermost parentheses or groupings first.

2. Simplify all exponents.
3. Perform multiplication and division operations from left to
right.
4. Finally, perform addition and subtraction operations from
left to right.
• It is important to highlight the fact that multiplication and division
operations should be applied as they appear from left to right. It is a
common mistake to always perform multiplication before division,
which, as we have seen, in some cases produces incorrect results.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Order of Operations
Simplify.
1. −7 −3⋅5
2. 3 +2⋅3
3. −3(2) − 62
2
4. 2(−3) + 5(−4)
5. 6/3 *2
6. 6/(3 * 2)
1 3 2
7. − − ⋅
2 5 3
5 1 5
8.
8
÷ 2
− 6
2
9. 3.2 − 6.9 ÷ 2.3
10. 8.2 − 3 ÷ 1.2 ⋅ 2.1
11. 2 + 3(−2) − 7
12. 8 ÷2−3⋅2
13. 3 + 6 2 ÷ 12
14. 5 − 4 2 ÷ (−8)
15. −9 − 3 ⋅ 2 ÷ 3(−2)
16. −2 − 3 2 + (−2) 2

17. 12 ÷ 6 ⋅ 2 − 22
18. 4 ⋅ 3 ÷ 12 ⋅ 2 − (−2) 2
2
19. (−5) − 2(5)2 ÷ 10
20. −3(4 − 7) + 2
21. (−2 + 7) 2 − 10 2
22. 10 − 7(3 + 2) + 7 2
23. −7 − 3 (4 − 2 ⋅ 8)
24. 5 − 3 [6 − (2 + 7)]
25. 1 + 2 [(−2) 3 − (−3) 2 ]
[2 (7 − 5) ÷ 4 ⋅ (−2) + (−3) ]
3
26. −3
27. −7
2
− [−20 − (−3) 2 ] − (−10)
28. 4.7 − 3.2 (4 − 1.2 3 )
29. −5.4 (6.1 − 3.1 ÷ 0.1) − 8.2 2
2
30. −7.3 + (−9.3) 2 − 37.8 ÷ 1.8
31. 2 − 7 ( 3 2 − 3 + 4 ⋅ 3)
32. (
2)
1 2
− (− 23 )
2
33. (
2)
1 3
+ (−2) 3

34. (−
3)
1 2
− (− 23 )
3
1 1 1
35.
3
− 2
⋅ 5
5 3 14
36.
8
÷ 2
⋅ 15
− ( 12 )
2 3
37. 5 ⋅ 15
(5 − )
5 3 4
38.
17 35
39.
3
16
÷ ( 12
5
− 1
2
+ 23 ) ⋅ 4
40. (
3)
2 2
− ( 12 )
2
[ 4 ⋅ (−4) − 2]
1 3 2 2
41. 2
⋅ [( 23 ) − ( 12 ) ] ÷ (−2) 2
2 2
42. 6
(−5) +3
22
43.
−4 2 +2⋅7
(−3.2−3.3)(8.7−4.7)
44.
(−4.7+3.9+2.1)
2−[3−(5−7) ]
2
3(6−3 2 )
45.
2+3⋅6−4⋅3
46.
2 2 −3 2
(2+7)⋅2−2 3
47.
10+9 2 +3 3
(−1−3)2 −15
−3⋅(−7+2 2 )−5
48.

49. (7 + 4 * (−2)) / (−3 + (−2) ^ 2)
50. 4 + 3 * ((−3) ^ 3 + 5 ^ 2) / 6 − 2 ^ 2
51. Mary purchased 14 bottles of water at $0.75 per bottle, 4 pounds of

assorted candy at $3.50 per pound, and 16 packages of microwave popcorn
costing $0.50 each for her party. What was her total bill?
52. Joe bought four 8-foot 2-by-4 boards for $24.00. How much did he spend
per linear foot?
53. Margaret bought two cases of soda at the local discount store for $23.52.
If each case contained 24 bottles, how much did she spend per bottle?
54. Billy earns $12.00 per hour and “time and a half” for every hour he works
over 40 hours a week. What is his pay for 47 hours of work this week?
55. Audry bought 4 bags of marbles each containing 15 assorted marbles. If

she wishes to divide them up evenly between her 3 children, how many will
each child receive?
56. Mark and Janet carpooled home from college for the Thanksgiving
holiday. They shared the driving, but Mark drove twice as far as Janet. If
Janet drove 135 miles, then how many miles was the entire trip?
Part B: Order of Operations with Absolute Values
Simplify.
57. 3 + 2 |−5||
58. 9 − 4 |−3|
59. − (− |2| + |−10|)
60. − (|−6|| − |−8|)
61. |− (40 − |−22|)||
62. ||−5|| − |10|||

63. −(|−8| − 5)
2
64. (|−1| − |−2|) 2
65. −4 + 2 ||2 2 − 3 2 ||
66. −10 − ||4 − 5 2 ||
67. − |(−5)
| 2
+ 4 2 ÷ 8||
| |
68. − (−3 − [ 6 − |−7|])
69. −2 [7 − (4 + |−7|)]
70. 3 − 7 |−2 − 3| + 4 3
71. 7 − 5 ||6 2 − 5 2 || + (−7) 2
72. (−4)
2
− ||−5 + (−2) 3 || − 3 2
− || 12 − (− 43 ) ||
2 2
73.
3 | |
74. −30 | ÷ 15 ||
10 1
| 3
− 2
75. (−4)
3
− (2 − |−4|) ÷ ||−3 2 + 7||
76. [10 − 3 (6 − |−8|)] ÷ 4 − 5 2
1 1
77. and −
2 4
3 2
78. − and −
4 3

5 3
79. − and −
8 4
7 3
80. − and 7
5
81. −0.5 and 8.3
82. 10.7 and −2.8
1 1
83. 3 and −2
5 3
3
84. 5 and 0
4
85. Convert various examples in this section to equivalent expressions using

text-based symbols.
86. What is PEMDAS and what is it missing?
87. Discuss the importance of proper grouping and give some examples.
88. Experiment with the order of operations on a calculator and share your
results.

ANSWERS
1: −22
3: −42
5: 4
9
7: −
10
9: 7.24
11: −11
13: 6
15: −5
17: 0
19: 20
21: −75
23: 29
25: −33
27: −10
29: 67.22
31: −124
63
33: −
8
7
35:
30

13
37:
24
9
39: 7
41: 50
43: −17
1
45: −
3
5
47:
59
49: −1
51: $32.50
53: $0.49
55: 20 marbles
57: 13
59: −8
61: 18
63: −9
65: 6
67: −27
69: 8
71: 1
11
73: −
18

75: −63
3
77: unit
4
1
79: unit
8
81: 8.8 units
8
83: 5 units
15

1.8 Review Exercises and Sample Exam
167
REVIEW EXERCISES
Real Numbers and the Number Line
Choose an appropriate scale and graph the following sets of real numbers on a
number line.
1. {−4, 0, 4}
2. {−30, 10, 40}
3. {−12, −3, 9}
4. {−10, 8, 10}
Fill in the blank with <, = , or >.
5. 0 ___ −9
6. −75 ___ −5
7. −12 ___ − (−3)
8. − (−23) ___ 23
9. |−20| ____ − |−30|
10. − |6|| ____ − |− (−8)||
Determine the unknown.
11. || ? || =2
12. || ? || =1
13. || ? || = −7
14. || ? || =0
1.8 Review Exercises and Sample Exam 168

Translate the following into a mathematical statement.
15. Negative eight is less than or equal to zero.
16. Seventy-eight is not equal to twelve.
17. Negative nine is greater than negative ten.
18. Zero is equal to zero.
Adding and Subtracting Integers
Simplify.
19. 12 + (−7)
20. 20 + (−32)
21. −23 − (−7)
22. −8 − (−8)
23. −3 − (−13) + (−1)
24. 9 + (−15) − (−8)
25. (7 − 10) − 3
26. (−19 + 6) − 2
27. −8 and 14
28. −35 and −6
29. What is 2 less than 17?
30. What is 3 less than −20?

31. Subtract 30 from the sum of 8 and 12.
32. Subtract 7 from the difference of −5 and 7.
33. An airplane flying at 22,000 feet descended 8,500 feet and then ascended
5,000 feet. What is the new altitude of the airplane?
34. The width of a rectangle is 5 inches less than its length. If the length
measures 22 inches, then determine the width.
Multiplying and Dividing Integers
Simplify.
35. 10 ÷5⋅2
36. 36 ÷6⋅2
37. −6 (4) ÷ 2 (−3)
38. 120 ÷ (−5) (−3) (−2)
39. −8 (−5) ÷0
40. −24 (0) ÷8
41. Find the product of −6 and 9.
42. Find the quotient of −54 and −3.
43. James was able to drive 234 miles on 9 gallons of gasoline. How many
miles per gallon did he get?
44. If a bus travels at an average speed of 54 miles per hour for 3 hours, then
how far does the bus travel?
Fractions
Reduce each fraction to lowest terms.

180
45.
300
252
46.
324
23
47. Convert to a mixed number: .
8
48. Convert to an improper fraction: 3 5

9
.
Simplify.
(− 7 )
3 2
49.
5
(− 3 )
5 1
50. −
8
3 6
51. − ÷ 7
4
4 28
52.
15
÷ 3
53. 4 4
5
÷6
54. 5 ÷8 1
3
5 15
55.
4
÷ 2
⋅6
5 3 5
56.
24
÷ 2
÷ 12
1 1
57.
12
− 4
5 3
58.
6
− 14
3 2 1
59.
4
+ 3
− 12
3 5 1
60.
10
+ 12
− 6
61. Subtract 2
3
from the sum of − 1
2
and 2
9
.

5 1 7
62. Subtract 6
from the difference of 3
and 2
.
63. If a bus travels at an average speed of 54 miles per hour for 2 1

3
hours,
then how far does the bus travel?
64. Determine the length of fencing needed to enclose a rectangular pen

with dimensions 12 12 feet by 8 34 feet.
Decimals and Percents
65. Write as a mixed number: 5.32.
66. Write as a decimal: 7 3

25
.
67. 6.032 + 2.19
68. 12.106 − 9.21
69. 4.23 × 5.13
70. 9.246 ÷ 4.02
Convert to a decimal.
71. 7.2%
72. 5 3
8
%
73. 147%
74. 27 1
2
%
Convert to a percent.
75. 0.055
76. 1.75

9
77. 10
5
78. 6
79. Mary purchased 3 boxes of t-shirts for a total of $126. If each box
contains 24 t-shirts, then what is the cost of each t-shirt?
80. A retail outlet is offering 12% off the original $39.99 price of tennis shoes.
What is the price after the discount?
81. If an item costs $129.99, then what is the total after adding 7 1
4
% sales
tax?
82. It is estimated that 8.3% of the total student population carpools to

campus each day. If there are 13,000 students, then estimate the number of
students that carpool to campus.
Exponents and Square Roots
Simplify.
2
83. 8
84. (−5)
2
2
85. −4
2
86. −(−3)
87. (
9)
2 2
88. (1 )
2
2
3
3
89. 3
3
90. (−4)

91. (
5)
2 3
92. (−
6)
1 3
4
93. −(−2)
5
94. −(−1)
⎯⎯⎯⎯
95. √ 49
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
96. √ 225
⎯⎯⎯⎯
97. 2√ 25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
98. −√ 121
⎯⎯⎯⎯
99. 3√ 50
⎯⎯⎯⎯
100. −4√ 12
101. √
⎯4⎯⎯
9
102. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
8
⎯
25
103. Calculate the area of a square with sides measuring 3 centimeters.

(A = s2 )
104. Calculate the volume of a cube with sides measuring 3 centimeters.

(V = s3 )
105. Determine the length of the diagonal of a square with sides measuring 3
centimeters.
106. Determine the length of the diagonal of a rectangle with dimensions 2

inches by 4 inches.

Order of Operations
Simplify.
107. −5 (2) − 72
108. 1 − 4 2 + 2(−3) 2
+ 3(6 − 2 ⋅ 4)
3
109. 2
110. 5 − 3(8 − 3 ⋅ 4)2
111. −2
3
+ 6 (3 2 − 4) + (−3) 2
2
112. 5 − 40 ÷ 5(−2) 2 − (−4)
[ 9 (−3) − 4]
3 2 2 2
113.
4
114. (
2)
1 2 3 9 1
− 4
÷ 16
− 3
2−3(6−3 2 )
2
115.
4⋅5−5 2
(2⋅8−6 ) −10
2 2 2
7 3 −(2(−5) −7)
116. 3
117. 8 − 5 ||3 ⋅ 4 − (−2) 4 ||
118. ||14 − ||−3 − 5 2 ||||
119. −14 and 22
120. −42 and −2

121. 7
8
and − 1
5
122. −5 1
2
and −1 1
4

SAMPLE EXAM
1. List three integers greater than −10.
2. Determine the unknown(s): || ? || = 13.
3. Fill in the blank with <, =, or >: − |−100| ___ 9 2 .
4. Convert to a fraction: 33 1
3
%.
5. Convert to a percent: 2 3
4
.
75
6. Reduce: .
225
Calculate the following.
2 2 2
7. a. (−7) ; b. −(−7) ; c. −7
3 3 3
8. a. (−3) ; b. −(−3) ; c. −3
9. a. |10| ; b. − |−10| ; c. − |10|
Simplify.
10. − (− (−1))
11. 2
3
+ 1
5
− 3
10
12. 10 − (−12) + (−8) − 20
13. −8 (4) (−3) ÷ 2
14.
1
2
⋅ (− 45 ) ÷ 14
15
3 1 2
15.
5
⋅ 2
− 3
16. 4 ⋅ 5 − 20 ÷ 5 ⋅ 2

17. 10 − 7 (3 − 8) − 5 2
18. 3 + 2 ||−2 2 − (−1)|| + (−2) 2
[5 − (7 − |−2|) + 15 ⋅ 2 ÷ 3]
1 2
19. 3
20. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
16
⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. 3√ 72
22. Subtract 2 from the sum of 8 and −10.
23. Subtract 10 from the product of 8 and −10.
24. A student earns 9, 8, 10, 7, and 8 points on the first 5 chemistry quizzes.
What is her quiz average?
25. An 8 34 foot plank is cut into 5 pieces of equal length. What is the length
of each piece?

REVIEW EXERCISES ANSWERS
1:
3:
5: >
7: <
9: >
11: ±2
13: Ø, No Solution
15: −8 ≤0
17: −9 > −10
19: 5
21: −16
23: 9
25: −6
27: 22 units
29: 15
31: −10

33: 18,500 feet
35: 4
37: 36
39: Undefined
41: −54
43: 26 miles per gallon
3
45:
5
47: 2 7
8
6
49: −
35
7
51: −
8
4
53:
5
55: 1
1
57: −
6
4
59:
3
17
61: −
18
63: 126 miles
65: 5 8
25
67: 8.222
69: 21.6999

71: 0.072
73: 1.47
75: 5.5%
77: 90%
79: $1.75
81: $139.41
83: 64
85: −16
87: 4/81
89: 27
8
91:
125
93: −16
95: 7
97: 10
⎯⎯
99: 15√ 2
2
101:
3
103: 9 square centimeters
⎯⎯
105: 3√ 2 centimeters
107: −59
109: −22

111: 31
113: 3
115: 5
117: −12
119: 36 units
43
121: units
40

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: {−5, 0, 5} (answers may vary)
3: <
5: 275%
7:a. 49; b. −49; c. −49
9:a. 10; b. −10; c. −10
17
11:
30
13: 48
11
15: −
30
17: 20
19: 10
⎯⎯
21: 18√ 2
23: −90
25: 1 3
4
feet

Chapter 2
Linear Equations and Inequalities
184
Chapter 2 Linear Equations and Inequalities
2.1 Introduction to Algebra
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify an algebraic expression and its parts.

2. Evaluate algebraic expressions.
3. Use formulas to solve problems in common applications.
Preliminary Definitions
In algebra, letters are used to represent numbers. The letters used to represent
these numbers are called variables1. Combinations of variables and numbers along
with mathematical operations form algebraic expressions2, or just expressions.
The following are some examples of expressions with one variable, x:
Terms3 in an algebraic expression are separated by addition operators, and factors4

are separated by multiplication operators. The numerical factor of a term is called
the coefficient5. For example, the algebraic expression 3x 2 + 2x − 1 can be
1. Letters or symbols used in
algebra to represent numbers. thought of as 3x 2 + 2x + (−1) and has three terms. The first term, 3x 2 ,
represents the quantity 3 ⋅ x ⋅ x , where 3 is the coefficient and x is the variable. All
2. Combinations of variables and of the variable factors, with their exponents, form the variable part of a term6. If a
numbers along with
mathematical operations used term is written without a variable factor, then it is called a constant term7.
to generalize specific Consider the components of 3x 2 + 2x − 1,
arithmetic operations.
3. Components of an algebraic Terms Coefficient Variable Part

expression separated by
addition operators.
3x 2 3 x2
expressions that form a
product.
2x 2 x
5. The numerical factor of a term.
6. All the variable factors with −1 −1

their exponents.
7. A term written without a

variable factor.
185
The third term in this expression, −1, is a constant term because it is written
without a variable factor. While a variable represents an unknown quantity and
may change, the constant term does not change.
Example 1: List all coefficients and variable parts of each term: 5x 2 − 4xy − y 2 .
Solution: Think of the third term in this example, −y 2 , as −1y 2 .
Terms Coefficient Variable Part
5x 2 5 x2
−4xy −4 xy
−y 2 −1 y2
Answer: Coefficients: {−4, − 1, 5}; variable parts: {x 2 , xy, y 2 }
Some terms, such as y 2 and −y 2 , appear not to have a coefficient. The

multiplicative identity property states that 1 times anything is itself and occurs so
often that it is customary to omit this factor and write
Therefore, the coefficient of y 2 is actually 1 and the coefficient of −y 2 is −1. In

addition, you will encounter terms that have variable parts composed of algebraic
expressions as factors.
2.1 Introduction to Algebra 186

−3(x + y) + (x + y) .
Example 2: List all coefficients and variable parts of each term:
3 2
Solution: This is an expression with two terms:
Terms Coefficient Variable Part
−3(x + y) (x + y)
3 3
−3
(x + y) (x + y)
2 2
1
Answer: Coefficients: {−3, 1}; variable parts: {(x + y) , (x + y) }

3 2
In our study of algebra, we will encounter a wide variety of algebraic expressions.

Typically, expressions use the two most common variables, x and y. However,
expressions may use any letter (or symbol) for a variable, even Greek letters, such
as alpha (α) and beta (β). Some letters and symbols are reserved for constants, such
as π ≈ 3.14159 and e ≈ 2.71828. Since there is only a limited number of letters,
you will also use subscripts, x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , …, to indicate different variables.
Try this! List all coefficients and variable parts of the expression:
−5a2 + ab − 2b2 − 3.
Answer: Coefficients: {−5, − 3, − 2, 1}; variable parts: {a2 , ab, b2 }
Video Solution

Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
Think of an algebraic expression as a generalization of particular arithmetic

operations. Performing these operations after substituting given values for
variables is called evaluating8. In algebra, a variable represents an unknown value.
However, if the problem specifically assigns a value to a variable, then you can
replace that letter with the given number and evaluate using the order of
operations.
Example 3: Evaluate:
a. 2x + 3 , where x = −4
b. 23 y, where y = 9
Solution: To avoid common errors, it is a best practice to first replace all variables
with parentheses and then replace, or substitute9, the given value.
a.
b.
8. The process of performing the

operations of an algebraic
expression for given values of
the variables.
9. The act of replacing a variable

with an equivalent quantity.

Answers: a. −5; b. 6
If parentheses are not used in part (a) of the previous example, the result is quite
different: 2x + 3 = 2 − 4 + 4. Without parentheses, the first operation is
subtraction, which leads to an incorrect result.
Example 4: Evaluate: −2x − y , where x = −5 and y = −3 .
Solution: After substituting the given values for the variables, simplify using the
order of operations.
Answer: 13
Example 5: Evaluate: 9a2 − b2 , where a = 2 and b = −5.
Solution:

Answer: 11
Example 6: Evaluate: −x 2 − 4x + 1, where x = − 12 .
Solution:
Answer: 11/4
The answer to the previous example is 114, which can be written as a mixed number
2 34. In algebra, improper fractions are generally preferred. Unless the original
problem has mixed numbers in it, or it is an answer to a real-world application,
solutions will be expressed as reduced improper fractions.
Example 7: Evaluate: (3x − 2) (x − 7), where x = 23 .
Solution: The order of operations requires us to perform the operations within the
parentheses first.

Answer: 0
Example 8: Evaluate: b2 − 4ac, where a = −1, b = −3, and c = 2.
Solution: The expression b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant10; it is an essential

quantity seen later in our study of algebra.
Answer: 17
Try this! Evaluate a3 − b3 , where a = 2 and b = −3.
Answer: 35
10. The algebraic expression
b2 − 4ac.

Video Solution

Using Formulas
The main difference between algebra and arithmetic is the organized use of
variables. This idea leads to reusable formulas11, which are mathematical models
using algebraic expressions to describe common applications. For example, the area
of a rectangle is modeled by the formula:
In this equation, variables are used to describe the relationship between the area of
a rectangle and the length of its sides. The area is the product of the length and
width of the rectangle. If the length of a rectangle measures 3 meters and the width
measures 2 meters, then the area can be calculated using the formula as follows:
Example 9: The cost of a daily truck rental is $48.00 plus an additional $0.45 for
every mile driven. This cost in dollars can be modeled by the formula
cost = 0.45x + 48, where x represents the number of miles driven in one day. Use
this formula to calculate the cost to rent the truck for a day and drive it 120 miles.
Solution: Use the formula to find the cost when the number of miles x = 120.
11. A reusable mathematical model

using algebraic expressions to Substitute 120 into the given formula for x and then simplify.
describe a common
application.

Answer: The rental costs $102.
Uniform motion12 is modeled by the formula D = rt, which expresses distance D in

terms of the average rate r, or speed, and the time t traveled at that rate. This
formula, D = rt, is used often and is read “distance equals rate times time.”
Example 10: Jim’s road trip takes 2 12 hours at an average speed of 66 miles per
hour. How far does he travel?
Solution: Substitute the appropriate values into the formula and then simplify.
Answer: Jim travels 165 miles.
12. Described by the formula

D = rt, where the distance D
is given as the product of the The volume in cubic units of a rectangular box is given by the formula V = lwh ,
average rate r and the time t where l represents the length, w represents the width, and h represents the height.
traveled at that rate.

Example 11: A wooden box is 1 foot in length, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches high.
Find the volume of the box in cubic inches.
Solution: Take care to ensure that all the units are consistent and use 12 inches for
the length instead of 1 foot.
Answer: The volume of the box is 360 cubic inches.
Simple interest13 I is given by the formula I = prt, where p represents the

principal amount invested at an annual interest rate r for t years.
Example 12: Calculate the simple interest earned on a 2-year investment of $1,250
at an annual interest rate of 3 34 %.
13. Modeled by the formula
I = prt, where p represents
the principal amount invested Solution: Convert 3 3
4
%to a decimal number before using it in the formula.
at an annual interest rate r for
t years.

Use this value for r and the fact that p = $1,250 and t = 2 years to calculate the simple
interest.
Answer: The simple interest earned is $93.75.
Try this! The perimeter of a rectangle is given by the formula P = 2l + 2w, where
l represents the length and w represents the width. Use the formula to calculate the
perimeter of a rectangle with a length of 5 feet and a width of 2 12 feet.
Answer: 15 feet
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Think of algebraic expressions as generalizations of common arithmetic

operations that are formed by combining numbers, variables, and
mathematical operations.
• It is customary to omit the coefficient if it is 1, as in x 2 = 1x 2 .
• To avoid common errors when evaluating, it is a best practice to replace
all variables with parentheses and then substitute the appropriate
values.
• The use of algebraic expressions allows us to create useful and reusable
formulas that model common applications.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Definitions
List all of the coefficients and variable parts of the following expressions.
1. 4x −1
2. – 7x 2 − 2x + 1
3. −x 2 + 5x − 3
2
4. 3x 2 y 2 − xy + 7
3
1 1 5
5.
3
y2 − 2
y+ 7
6. −4a2 b + 5ab 2 − ab + 1
7. 2(a + b) − 3(a + b)
3 5
8. 5(x + 2) 2 − 2 (x + 2) − 7
9. m 2 n − mn 2 + 10mn − 27
10. x 4 − 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 4x − 1
Part B: Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
Evaluate.
11. x + 3 , where x = −4
12. 2x − 3 , where x = −3
13. −5x + 20 , where x = 4
14. −5y , where y = −1

3
15.
4
a, where a = 32
16. 2(a − 4), where a = −1
17. −10(5 − z) , where z = 14

1
18. 5y − 1 , where y = − 5
1
19. −2a + 1, where a = − 3
3
20. 4x + 3 , where x = 16
1
21. −x + , where x = −2
2
2 1 1
22.
3
x− 2
, where x =− 4
2
For each problem below, evaluate b − 4ac, given the following values for a, b,
and c.
23. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
24. a = 3, b =– 4 , c =– 1
25. a =– 6, b = 0, c =– 2
1 2
26. a = ,b = 1, c =
2 3
1 1
27. a = −3, b = − ,c =
2 9
2
28. a = −13, b = − ,c =0
3
Evaluate.
29. −4xy 2 , where x = −3 and y = 2

5
30.
8
x 2 y , where x = −1 and y = 16

31. a2 − b 2, where a = 2 and b = 3.
32. a2 − b 2, where a = −1 and b = −2

1 1
33. x 2 − y 2, where x = and y =−
2 2
34. 3x 2 − 5x + 1 , where x = −3
35. y 2 − y − 6, where y = 0
1
36. 1 − y 2 , where y = − 2
37. (x + 3) (x − 2) , where x = −4
38. (y − 5) (y + 6) , where y = 5
39. 3 (α − β) + 4, where α = −1 and β = 6
40. 3α2 − β 2 , where α = 2 and β = −3
41. Evaluate 4 (x + h) , given x = 5 and h = 0.01 .
42. Evaluate −2 (x + h) + 3 , given x = 3 and h = 0.1 .
43. Evaluate 2(x + h) − 5 (x + h) + 3 , given x = 2 and h = 0.1 .

2
44. Evaluate 3(x + h) + 2 (x + h) − 1 , given x = 1 and

2
h = 0.01 .
Part C: Using Formulas
Convert the following temperatures to degrees Celsius given C = 5

9
(F − 32),
where F represents degrees Fahrenheit.
45. 86°F

46. 95°F
47. −13°F
48. 14°F
49. 32°F
50. 0°F
Given the base and height of a triangle, calculate the area. (A = 1

2
bh )
51. b = 25 centimeters and h = 10 centimeters
52. b = 40 inches and h = 6 inches

1
53. b = foot and h = 2 feet
2
3 5
54. b = inches and h = inches
4 8
55. A certain cellular phone plan charges $23.00 per month plus $0.09 for
each minute of usage. The monthly charge is given by the formula
monthly charge = 0.09x + 23 , where x represents the number of
minutes of usage per month. What is the charge for a month with 5 hours of
usage?
56. A taxi service charges $3.75 plus $1.15 per mile given by the formula
charge = 1.15x + 3.75 , where x represents the number of miles
driven. What is the charge for a 17-mile ride?
57. If a calculator is sold for $14.95, then the revenue in dollars, R, generated
by this item is given by the formula R = 14.95q , where q represents the
number of calculators sold. Use the formula to determine the revenue
generated by this item if 35 calculators are sold.
58. Yearly subscriptions to a tutoring website can be sold for $49.95. The
revenue in dollars, R, generated by subscription sales is given by the formula
R = 49.95q , where q represents the number of yearly subscriptions sold.
Use the formula to calculate the revenue generated by selling 250
subscriptions.

59. The cost of producing pens with the company logo printed on them
consists of a onetime setup fee of $175 plus $0.85 for each pen produced.
This cost can be calculated using the formula C = 175 + 0.85q , where q
represents the number of pens produced. Use the formula to calculate the
cost of producing 2,000 pens.
60. The cost of producing a subscription website consists of an initial

programming and setup fee of $4,500 plus a monthly Web hosting fee of
$29.95. The cost of creating and hosting the website can be calculated using
the formula C = 4500 + 29.95n , where n represents the number of
months the website is hosted. How much will it cost to set up and host the
website for 1 year?
61. The perimeter of a rectangle is given by the formula P = 2l + 2w ,

where l represents the length and w represents the width. What is the
perimeter of a fenced-in rectangular yard measuring 70 feet by 100 feet?
62. Calculate the perimeter of an 8-by-10-inch picture.
63. Calculate the perimeter of a room that measures 12 feet by 18 feet.
64. A computer monitor measures 57.3 centimeters in length and 40.9

centimeters high. Calculate the perimeter.
65. The formula for the area of a rectangle in square units is given by
A = l ⋅ w , where l represents the length and w represents the width. Use
this formula to calculate the area of a rectangle with length 12 centimeters
and width 3 centimeters.
66. Calculate the area of an 8-by-12-inch picture.
67. Calculate the area of a room that measures 12 feet by 18 feet.
68. A computer monitor measures 57.3 centimeters in length and 40.9

centimeters in height. Calculate the total area of the screen.
69. A concrete slab is poured in the shape of a rectangle for a shed

measuring 8 feet by 10 feet. Determine the area and perimeter of the slab.
70. Each side of a square deck measures 8 feet. Determine the area and
perimeter of the deck.

71. The volume of a rectangular solid is given by V = lwh , where l

represents the length, w represents the width, and h is the height of the
solid. Find the volume of a rectangular solid if the length is 2 inches, the
width is 3 inches, and the height is 4 inches.
72. If a trunk measures 3 feet by 2 feet and is 2½ feet tall, then what is the
volume of the trunk?
73. The interior of an industrial freezer measures 3 feet wide by 3 feet deep
and 4 feet high. What is the volume of the freezer?
74. A laptop case measures 1 feet 2 inches by 10 inches by 2 inches. What is

the volume of the case?
75. If the trip from Fresno to Sacramento can be made by car in 2½ hours at
an average speed of 67 miles per hour, then how far is Sacramento from
Fresno?
76. A high-speed train averages 170 miles per hour. How far can it travel in
1½ hours?
77. A jumbo jet can cruises at an average speed of 550 miles per hour. How
far can it travel in 4 hours?
78. A fighter jet reaches a top speed of 1,316 miles per hour. How far will the
jet travel if it can sustain this speed for 15 minutes?
79. The Hubble Space Telescope is in low earth orbit traveling at an average
speed of 16,950 miles per hour. What distance does it travel in 1½ hours?
80. Earth orbits the sun a speed of about 66,600 miles per hour. How far does
earth travel around the sun in 1 day?
81. Calculate the simple interest earned on a $2,500 investment at 3% annual

interest rate for 4 years.
82. Calculate the simple interest earned on a $1,000 investment at 5% annual

interest rate for 20 years.
83. How much simple interest is earned on a $3,200 investment at a 2.4%

annual interest for 1 year?

84. How much simple interest is earned on a $500 investment at a 5.9%

annual interest rate for 3 years?
85. Calculate the simple interest earned on a $10,500 investment at a 4 1

4
%
annual interest rate for 4 years.
86. Calculate the simple interest earned on a $6,250 investment at a 6 3

4
%
annual interest rate for 1 year.
87. Research and discuss the history of the symbols for addition (+) and
subtraction (−).
88. What are mathematical models and why are they useful in everyday life?
89. Find and post a useful formula. Demonstrate its use with some values.
90. Discuss the history and importance of the variable. How can you denote a
variable when you run out of letters?
91. Find and post a useful resource describing the Greek alphabet.

ANSWERS
1: Coefficients: {−1, 4} ; variable parts: {x}
3: Coefficients: {−3, − 1, 5} ; variable parts: {x 2 , x}
5: Coefficients: {− 7}
; variable parts: {y 2 , y}
1 1 5
2
, 3
,
7: Coefficients: {−3, 2} ; variable parts: {(a + b) , (a + b) }

3 5
9: Coefficients: {−27, − 1, 1, 10} ; variable parts:

{m n, mn , mn}
2 2
11: −1
13: 0
15: 24
17: 90
19: 5/3
21: 5/2
23: −8
25: −48
27: 19/12
29: 48
31: −5
33: 0

35: −6
37: 6
39: −17
41: 20.04
43: 1.32
45: 30°C
47: −25°C
49: 0°C
53: 1/2 square feet
55: $50
57: $523.25
59: $1,875.00
61: 340 feet
63: 60 feet
67: 216 square feet
69: Area: 80 square feet; Perimeter: 36 feet
71: 24 cubic inches
73: 36 cubic feet

75: 167.5 miles
77: 2,200 miles
79: 25,425 miles
81: $300
83: $76.80
85: $1,785

2.2 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Apply the distributive property to simplify an algebraic expression.

2. Identify and combine like terms.
Distributive Property
The properties of real numbers are important in our study of algebra because a
variable is simply a letter that represents a real number. In particular, the
distributive property14 states that given any real numbers a, b, and c,
This property is applied when simplifying algebraic expressions. To demonstrate

how it is used, we simplify 2(5 − 3) in two ways, and observe the same correct
result.
Certainly, if the contents of the parentheses can be simplified, do that first. On the
other hand, when the contents of parentheses cannot be simplified, multiply every
term within the parentheses by the factor outside of the parentheses using the
distributive property. Applying the distributive property allows you to multiply and
remove the parentheses.
and c, a (b + c) = ab + ac
14. Given any real numbers a, b,
or (b + c) a = ba + ca. Example 1: Simplify: 5 (7y + 2).
206
Solution: Multiply 5 times each term inside the parentheses.
Answer: 35y + 10
Example 2: Simplify: −3 (2x 2 + 5x + 1).
Solution: Multiply −3 times each of the coefficients of the terms inside the
parentheses.
Answer: −6x 2 − 15x − 3
Example 3: Simplify: 5 (−2a + 5b) − 2c.
Solution: Apply the distributive property by multiplying only the terms grouped
within the parentheses by 5.
Answer: −10a + 25b − 2c
2.2 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions 207

in the following manner: (b + c) a = ba + ca.

Because multiplication is commutative, we can also write the distributive property
Example 4: Simplify: (3x − 4y + 1) ⋅ 3.
Solution: Multiply each term within the parentheses by 3.
Answer: 9x − 12y + 3
Division in algebra is often indicated using the fraction bar rather than with the
symbol (÷). And sometimes it is useful to rewrite expressions involving division as
products:
Rewriting algebraic expressions as products allows us to apply the distributive

property.

25x 2 −5x+10
.
Solution: First, treat this as 15 times the expression in the numerator and then
distribute.
Alternate Solution: Think of 5 as a common denominator and divide each of the

terms in the numerator by 5:
Answer: 5x 2 − x + 2
We will discuss the division of algebraic expressions in more detail as we progress

through the course.
Try this! Simplify: 13 (−9x + 27y − 3).
Answer: −3x + 9y − 1

Video Solution

Combining Like Terms
Terms with the same variable parts are called like terms15, or similar terms16.
Furthermore, constant terms are considered to be like terms. If an algebraic
expression contains like terms, apply the distributive property as follows:
In other words, if the variable parts of terms are exactly the same, then we may add
or subtract the coefficients to obtain the coefficient of a single term with the same
variable part. This process is called combining like terms17. For example,
Notice that the variable factors and their exponents do not change. Combining like
terms in this manner, so that the expression contains no other similar terms, is
called simplifying the expression18. Use this idea to simplify algebraic expressions
with multiple like terms.
15. Constant terms or terms with

the same variable parts.
Example 6: Simplify: 3a + 2b − 4a + 9b.
16. Used when referring to like
terms.
Solution: Identify the like terms and combine them.
17. Adding or subtracting like
terms within an algebraic
expression to obtain a single
term with the same variable
part.
18. The process of combining like

terms until the expression
contains no more similar
terms.

Answer: −a + 11b
In the previous example, rearranging the terms is typically performed mentally and
is not shown in the presentation of the solution.
Example 7: Simplify: x 2 + 3x + 2 + 4x 2 − 5x − 7.
Solution: Identify the like terms and add the corresponding coefficients.
Answer: 5x 2 − 2x − 5
Example 8: Simplify: 5x 2 y − 3xy 2 + 4x 2 y − 2xy 2 .
Solution: Remember to leave the variable factors and their exponents unchanged
in the resulting combined term.
Answer: 9x 2 y − 5xy 2
Example 9: Simplify: 12 a − 13 b + 34 a + .b

Solution: To add the fractional coefficients, use equivalent coefficients with

common denominators for each like term.
Answer: 54 a + 23 b
Example 10: Simplify: −12x(x + y) + 26x(x + y) .

3 3
Solution: Consider the variable part to be x(x + y) . Then this expression has two
3
like terms with coefficients −12 and 26.
Answer: 14x(x + y)
3
Try this! Simplify: −7x + 8y − 2x − 3y .
Answer: −9x + 5y
Video Solution

Distributive Property and Like Terms
When simplifying, we will often have to combine like terms after we apply the
distributive property. This step is consistent with the order of operations:
multiplication before addition.
Example 11: Simplify: 2 (3a − b) − 7 (−2a + 3b).
Solution: Distribute 2 and −7 and then combine like terms.
Answer: 20a − 23b
In the example above, it is important to point out that you can remove the
parentheses and collect like terms because you multiply the second quantity by −7,
times the given quantity, 2 (3a − b) + (−7) (−2a + 3b).

not just by 7. To correctly apply the distributive property, think of this as adding −7
Try this! Simplify: −5 (2x − 3) + 7x.
Answer: −3x + 15
Video Solution

Often we will encounter algebraic expressions like + (a + b) or − (a + b). As we

have seen, the coefficients are actually implied to be +1 and −1, respectively, and
therefore, the distributive property applies using +1 or –1 as the factor. Multiply
each term within the parentheses by these factors:
This leads to two useful properties,
Example 12: Simplify: 5x − (−2x 2 + 3x − 1).
Solution: Multiply each term within the parentheses by −1 and then combine like
terms.
Answer: 2x 2 + 2x + 1
When distributing a negative number, all of the signs within the parentheses will
change. Note that 5x in the example above is a separate term; hence the
distributive property does not apply to it.

Example 13: Simplify: 5 − 2 (x 2 − 4x − 3).
Solution: The order of operations requires that we multiply before subtracting.

Therefore, distribute −2 and then combine the constant terms. Subtracting 5 − 2
first leads to an incorrect result, as illustrated below:
Answer: −2x2 + 8x + 11
Caution
It is worth repeating that you must follow the order of operations: multiply and
divide before adding and subtracting!
Try this! Simplify: 8 − 3 (−x 2 + 2x − 7).
Answer: 3x 2 − 6x + 29
Video Solution
Example 14: Subtract 3x − 2 from twice the quantity −4x 2 + 2x − 8.

Solution: First, group each expression and treat each as a quantity:
Next, identify the key words and translate them into a mathematical expression.
Finally, simplify the resulting expression.
Answer: −8x 2 + x − 14
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The properties of real numbers apply to algebraic expressions, because

variables are simply representations of unknown real numbers.
• Combine like terms, or terms with the same variable part, to simplify
expressions.
expressions, a (b + c) = ab + ac.
• Use the distributive property when multiplying grouped algebraic
• It is a best practice to apply the distributive property only when the

expression within the grouping is completely simplified.
• After applying the distributive property, eliminate the parentheses and
then combine any like terms.
• Always use the order of operations when simplifying.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Distributive Property
Multiply.
1. 3 (3x − 2)
2. 12(−5y + 1)
3. −2 (x + 1)
4. 5(a − b)
(8x − 16)
5
5.
8
(10x − 5)
3
6. −
5
7. (2x + 3) ⋅ 2
8. (5x − 1) ⋅ 5
9. (−x + 7) (−3)
10. (−8x + 1) (−2)
11. −(2a − 3b)
12. −(x − 1)
1
13.
3
(2x + 5)
3
14. − (y − 2)
4
15. −3 (2a + 5b − c)
16. − (2y 2 − 5y + 7)

17. 5 (y 2 − 6y − 9)
18. −6 (5x 2 + 2x − 1)
19. 7x 2 − (3x − 11)
20. − (2a − 3b) + c
21. 3 (7x 2 − 2x) − 3
(4a − 6a + 4)
1 2
22.
2
(9y − 3y + 27)
1 2
23. −
3
24. (5x 2 − 7x + 9) (−5)
25. 6 ( x + 12 )
1 1
3
x2 − 6
26. −2 (3x 3 − 2x 2 + x − 3)
20x+30y−10z
27.
10
−4a+20b−8c
28.
4
3x 2 −9x+81
29.
−3
−15y 2 +20y−5
30.
5
Translate the following sentences into algebraic expressions and then simplify.
31. Simplify two times the expression 25x 2 − 9.
32. Simplify the opposite of the expression 6x 2 + 5x − 1 .

33. Simplify the product of 5 and x 2 − 8.
34. Simplify the product of −3 and −2x 2 + x − 8.
Part B: Combining Like Terms
Simplify.
35. 2x − 3x
36. −2a + 5a − 12a
37. 10y − 30 − 15y

1 5
38.
3
x+ 12
x
1 4 3
39. − x+ + x
4 5 8
40. 2x − 4x + 7x − x
41. −3y − 2y + 10y − 4y
42. 5x − 7x + 8y + 2y
43. −8α + 2β − 5α − 6β
44. −6α + 7β − 2α + β
45. 3x + 5 − 2y + 7 − 5x + 3y
46. – y + 8x − 3 + 14x + 1 − y
47. 4xy − 6 + 2xy + 8
48. −12ab − 3 + 4ab − 20

1 2 2 3
49.
3
x− 5
y+ 3
x− 5
y

3 2 1 3
50.
8
a− 7
b− 4
a+ 14
b
51. −4x 2 − 3xy + 7 + 4x 2 − 5xy − 3
52. x 2 + y 2 − 2xy − x 2 + 5xy − y 2
53. x 2 − y 2 + 2x 2 − 3y
1 2 1 1
54.
2
x2 − 3
y2 − 8
x2 + 5
y2
3 4 1 1
55.
16
a2 − 5
+ 4
a2 − 4
1 3 7 1
56.
5
y2 − 4
+ 10
y2 − 2
57. 6x 2 y − 3xy 2 + 2x 2 y − 5xy 2
58. 12x 2 y 2 + 3xy − 13x 2 y 2 + 10xy

2
59. −ab + a2 b − 2ab 2 + 5a2 b
60. m 2 n 2 − mn + mn − 3m 2 n + 4m 2 n 2
61. 2(x + y) + 3(x + y)

2 2
1 2
62.
5
(x + 2) 3 − 3
(x + 2) 3
63. −3x (x 2 − 1) + 5x (x 2 − 1)
64. 5 (x − 3) − 8 (x − 3)
65. −14 (2x + 7) + 6 (2x + 7)
66. 4xy(x + 2) 2 − 9xy(x + 2) 2 + xy(x + 2) 2
Part C: Mixed Practice

Simplify.
67. 5 (2x − 3) + 7
68. −2 (4y + 2) − 3y
69. 5x − 2(4x − 5)
70. 3 − (2x + 7)
71. 2x − (3x − 4y − 1)
72. (10y − 8) − (40x + 20y − 7)
73.
1
2
y− 3
4
x − ( 23 y − 1
5
x)
1 3 3 1
74.
5
a− 4
b+ 15
a− 2
b
(x − y) + x − 2y
2
75.
3
(6x − 1) + (4y − 1) − (−2x + 2y − 6 )

1 1 1
76. −
3 2
77. (2x 2 − 7x + 1) + (x 2 + 7x − 5)
78. 6 (−2x 2 + 3x − 1) + 10x 2 − 5x
79. − (x 2 − 3x + 8) + x 2 − 12
80. 2 (3a − 4b) + 4 (−2a + 3b)
81. −7 (10x − 7y) − 6 (8x + 4y)
82. 10 (6x − 9) − (80x − 35)
83. 10 − 5 (x 2 − 3x − 1)

84. 4 + 6 (y 2 − 9)
85.
3
4
x − ( 12 x 2 + 2
3
x − 75 )
86. −
7
3
x 2 + (− 1
6
x 2 + 7x − 1)
87. (2y 2 − 3y + 1) − (5y 2 + 10y − 7)
88. (−10a2 − b 2 + c) + (12a2 + b 2 − 4c)
89. −4 (2x 2 + 3x − 2) + 5 (x 2 − 4x − 1)
90. 2 (3x 2 − 7x + 1) − 3 (x 2 + 5x − 1)
91. x 2 y + 3xy 2 − (2x 2 y − xy 2 )
92. 3 (x 2 y 2 − 12xy) − (7x 2 y 2 − 20xy + 18)
93. 3 − 5 (ab − 3) + 2 (ba − 4)
94. −9 − 2 (xy + 7) − (yx − 1)
95. −5 (4α − 2β + 1) + 10 (α − 3β + 2)
(100α − 50αβ + 2β ) − (50α + 10αβ − 5β )

1 2 2 1 2 2
96.
2 5
Translate the following sentences into algebraic expressions and then simplify.
97. What is the difference of 3x −4 and −2x + 5?
98. Subtract 2x −3 from 5x + 7.
99. Subtract 4x +3 from twice the quantity x − 2.
100. Subtract three times the quantity −x + 8 from 10x − 9 .

101. Do we need a distributive property for division, (a + b) ÷ c? Explain.
102. Do we need a separate distributive property for three terms,

a(b + c + d)? Explain.
103. Explain how to subtract one expression from another. Give some
examples and demonstrate the importance of the order in which subtraction
is performed.
104. Given the algebraic expression 8 − 5(3x + 4) , explain why

subtracting 8 − 5 is not the first step.
105. Can you apply the distributive property to the expression 5(abc)?
Explain why or why not and give some examples.
106. How can you check to see if you have simplified an expression
correctly? Give some examples.

ANSWERS
1: 9x −6
3: −2x −2
5: 5x − 10
7: 4x +6
9: 3x − 21
11: −2a + 3b
2 5
13:
3
x+ 3
15: −6a − 15b + 3c
17: 5y 2 − 30y − 45
19: 7x 2 − 3x + 11
21: 21x 2 − 6x − 3
23: −3y 2 +y−9
25: 2x 2 −x+3
27: 2x + 3y − z
29: −x 2 + 3x − 27
31: 50x 2 − 18
33: 5x 2 − 40
35: −x

37: −5y − 30
1 4
39:
8
x+ 5
41: y
43: −13α − 4β
45: −2x + y + 12
47: 6xy +2
49: x −y
51: −8xy +4
53: 3x 2 − y 2 − 3y
7 21
55:
16
a2 − 20
57: 8x 2 y − 8xy 2
59: 6a2 b − 3ab 2
61: 5(x + y)
2
63: 2x (x 2 − 1)
65: −8 (2x + 7)
67: 10x −8
69: −3x + 10
71: −x + 4y + 1
11 1
73: − x− y
20 6

5 8
75:
3
x− 3
y
77: 3x 2 −4
79: 3x − 20
81: −118x + 25y
83: −5x 2 + 15x + 15

1 1 7
85: −
2
x2 + 12
x+ 5
87: −3y 2 − 13y + 8
89: −3x 2 − 32x + 3
91: −x 2 y + 4xy 2
93: −3ab + 10
95: −10α − 20β + 15
97: 5x −9
99: −2x −7

2.3 Solving Linear Equations: Part I
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify linear equations with one variable and verify their solutions.
2. Use the properties of equality to solve basic linear equations.
3. Use multiple steps to solve linear equations by isolating the variable.
4. Solve linear equations where the coefficients are fractions or decimals.
Linear Equations with One Variable and Their Solutions
Learning how to solve various algebraic equations is one of the main goals in
algebra. This section introduces the basic techniques used for solving linear
equations with one variable.
An equation19 is a statement indicating that two algebraic expressions are equal. A

linear equation with one variable20, x, is an equation that can be written in the
general form ax + b = 0, where a and b are real numbers and a ≠ 0. Here are
some examples of linear equations, all of which are solved in this section:
A solution21 to a linear equation is any value that can replace the variable to
produce a true statement. The variable in the linear equation 2x + 3 = 13 is x, and
the solution is x = 5 . To verify this, substitute the value 5 for x and check that you
obtain a true statement.
19. Statement indicating that two

algebraic expressions are
equal.
20. An equation that can be

written in the general form
ax + b = 0, where a and b
are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
21. Any value that can replace the

variable in an equation to
produce a true statement.
227
Alternatively, when an equation is equal to a constant, we can verify a solution by

substituting the value for the variable and show that the result is equal to that
constant. In this sense, we say that solutions satisfy the equation22.
Example 1: Is x = 3 a solution to −2x − 3 = −9?
Answer: Yes, it is a solution, because x = 3 satisfies the equation.
Example 2: Is a = − 12 a solution to −10a + 5 = 25?
Answer: No, it is not a solution, because a = − 12 does not satisfy the equation.
Recall that when evaluating expressions, it is a good practice to first replace all
variables with parentheses, then substitute the appropriate values. By making use
of parentheses we avoid some common errors when working the order of
operations.
Example 3: Is y = −3 a solution to 2y − 5 = −y − 14 ?
22. After replacing the variable Solution:

with a solution and
simplifying, it produces a true
statement.
2.3 Solving Linear Equations: Part I 228

Answer: Yes, it is a solution, because y = −3 produces a true statement.
Try this! Is x = −3 a solution to −2x + 5 = −1?
Answer: No
Video Solution

Solving Basic Linear Equations
We begin by defining equivalent equations23 as equations with the same solution

set. Consider the following two linear equations and check to see if the solution is
x = 7.
Here we can see that the two linear equations 3x − 5 = 16 and 3x = 21 are
equivalent because they share the same solution set, namely, {7}. The goal is to
develop a systematic process to find equivalent equations until the variable is
23. Equations with the same isolated:
solution set.

To do this, use the properties of equality24. Given algebraic expressions A and B,

where c is a real number, we have the following:
Note
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by 0 is carefully avoided.

Dividing by 0 is undefined and multiplying both sides by 0 results in the
equation 0 = 0.
To summarize, equality is retained and you obtain an

equivalent equation if you add, subtract, multiply, or
divide both sides of an equation by any nonzero real
number. The technique for solving linear equations
involves applying these properties in order to isolate the
variable on one side of the equation. If the linear
equation has a constant term, then we add to or
subtract it from both sides of the equation to obtain an
equivalent equation where the variable term is isolated.
24. Properties that allow us to

obtain equivalent equations by
adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing both
sides of an equation by Example 4: Solve: x + 3 = −5.
nonzero real numbers.

Solution: To isolate the variable x on the left side, subtract 3 from both sides.
Answer: The solution is x = −8 . To check that this is true, substitute −8 into the
original equation and simplify to see that it is satisfied: x + 3 = −8 + 3 = −5 ✓.
In the previous example, after subtracting 3 from both sides, you get x + 0 = −8.
By the additive identity property of real numbers, this is equivalent to x = −8 .
This step is often left out in the presentation of the solution.
If the variable term of the equation (including the coefficient) is isolated, then apply
the multiplication or division property of equality to obtain an equivalent equation
with the variable isolated. In other words, our goal is to obtain an equivalent
equation with x or 1x isolated on one side of the equal sign.
Example 5: Solve: −5x = −35.
Solution: The coefficient of x is –5, so divide both sides by −5.
Answer: The solution is x = 7 . Perform the check mentally by substituting 7 for x in

the original equation.

In the previous example, after dividing both sides by −5, x is left with a coefficient of
1, because −5−5
= 1. In fact, when we say “isolate the variable,” we mean to change
the coefficient of the variable to 1, because 1x = 7 is equivalent to x = 7 . This step
is often left out of the instructional examples even though its omission is sometimes
a source of confusion.
Another important property is the symmetric property25: for any algebraic

expressions A and B,
The equation 2 = x is equivalent to x = 2 . It does not matter on which side we

choose to isolate the variable.
Example 6: Solve: 2 = 5 + x.
Solution: Isolate the variable x by subtracting 5 from both sides of the equation.
Answer: The solution is −3, and checking the solution shows that 2 = 5 − 3.
25. Allows you to solve for the Try this! Solve: 6 = x − 4.

variable on either side of the
equal sign, because 5 = x is
equivalent to x = 5 . Answer: x = 10

Video Solution

Isolating the Variable in Two Steps
A linear equation of the form ax + b = c takes two steps to solve. First, use the
appropriate equality property of addition or subtraction to isolate the variable
term. Next, isolate the variable using the equality property of multiplication or
division. Checking solutions in the following examples is left to the reader.
Example 7: Solve: 2x − 5 = 15.
Solution:
Answer: The solution is 10.
Example 8: Solve: −3x − 2 = 9.
Solution:

Answer: The solution is − 113.
Example 9: Solve: 6 − 5y = −14.
Solution: When no sign precedes the term, it is understood to be positive. In other

words, think of this as +6 − 5y = −14. Begin by subtracting 6 from both sides of
the equal sign.
Example 10: Solve: 3x + 12 = 23.
Solution:

1
Answer: The solution is 18
.
Example 11: Solve: 3 − y = 1.
Solution:
Recall that −y is equivalent to −1y ; divide both sides of the equation by −1.

Alternatively, multiply both sides of −y = −2 by −1 and achieve the same result:
In summary, to retain equivalent equations, we must perform the same operation

on both sides of the equation. First, apply the addition or subtraction property of
equality to isolate the variable term and then apply the multiplication or division
property of equality to isolate the variable on one side of the equation.
Try this! Solve: −7x + 6 = 27.
Answer: x = −3
Video Solution

Multiplying by the Reciprocal
To solve an equation like 34 x = 1, we can isolate the variable by dividing both sides
by the coefficient. For example,

On the left side of the equal sign, the fraction cancels. On the right side, we have a
complex fraction and multiply by the reciprocal of the coefficient. You can save a
step by recognizing this and start by multiplying both sides of the equation by the
reciprocal of the coefficient.
Recall that the product of reciprocals is 1, in this case 4

3
⋅ 3
4
= 1, leaving the
variable isolated.
Example 12: Solve: 53 x + 2 = −8.
Solution: Isolate the variable term using the addition property of equality and then
multiply both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of the coefficient 53 .

Answer: The solution is −6.
Example 13: Solve: − 45 x − 5 = 15.
Solution:
The reciprocal of − 45 is − 54 because (− 54 ) (− 45 ) = + 20

20
= .1Therefore, to
isolate the variable x, multiply both sides by − 54.

Try this! Solve: 23 x − 9 = −4.
Answer: x = 15
2
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Linear equations with one variable can be written in the form

ax + b = 0, where a and b are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
• To “solve a linear equation” means to find a numerical value that can
replace the variable and produce a true statement.
• The properties of equality provide tools for isolating the variable and
solving equations.
• To solve a linear equation, first isolate the variable term by adding the
opposite of the constant term to both sides of the equation. Then isolate
the variable by dividing both sides of the equation by its coefficient.
• After isolating a variable term with a fraction coefficient, solve by
multiplying both sides by the reciprocal of the coefficient.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solutions to Linear Equations
Is the given value a solution to the linear equation?
1. x − 6 = 20; x = 26
2. y + 7 = −6; y = −13
3. −x + 5 = 17; x = 12
4. −2y = 44; y = 11
5. 4x = −24; x = −6
6. 5x − 1 = 34; x = −7
7. −2a − 7 = −7; a = 0
1
8. − x − 4 = −5; x = −3
3
1 2 1 11
9. − x+ =− ; x=
2 3 4 6
10. −8x − 33 = 3x; x = 3
11. 3y − 5 = −2y − 15; y = −2

1
12. 3 (2x + 1) = −4x − 3; x = − 2
1 1 1 1
13.
2
y− 3
= 3
y+ 6
;y =3
4 1 2 1 1
14. − y+ =− y− ;y =
3 9 3 9 3
Part B: Solving Basic Linear Equations
Solve.

15. x + 3 = 13
16. y − 4 = 22
17. −6 + x = 12
18. 9 + y = −4
1 1
19. x − =
2 3
2 1
20. x + =−
3 5
1 1
21. x +2 =3
2 3
22. −37 + x = −37
23. 4x = −44
24. −9x = 63
25. −y = 13
26. −x = −10
27. −9x =0
28. −3a = −33
29. 27 = 18y
30. 14 = −7x
31. 5.6a = −39.2
32. −1.2y = 3.72

1 1
33.
3
x=− 2

t 1
34. − =
12 4
7 1
35. − x=
3 2
x
36.
5
= −3
4 2
37.
9
y=− 3
5 5
38. − y=−
8 2
Part C: Solving Linear Equations
Solve.
39. 5x + 7 = 32
40. 4x − 3 = 21
41. 3a − 7 = 23
42. 12y +1=1
43. 21x −7=0
44. −3y + 2 = −13
45. −5x +9=8
46. 22x − 55 = −22
47. 4.5x − 2.3 = 6.7
48. 1.4 − 3.2x = 3
49. 9.6 − 1.4y = −10.28
50. 4.2y − 3.71 = 8.89

51. 3 − 2y = −11
52. −4 − 7a = 24
53. −10 = 2x − 5
54. 24 = 6 − 12y
5 1 2
55.
6
x− 2
= 3
1 1 2
56.
2
x+ 3
= 5
2 1
57. 4a − =−
3 6
3 1 1
58.
5
x− 2
= 10
4 1 1
59. − y+ =
5 3 15
9 4 4
60. − x+ =
16 3 3
61. −x + 5 = 14
62. −y − 7 = −12
63. 75 − a = 200
64. 15 =5−x
65. −8 = 4 − 2x
66. 33 − x = 33
67. 18 =6−y
68. −12 = −2x + 3
69. −3 = 3.36 − 1.2a

70. 0 = −3.1a + 32.55

1 3
71.
4
=− 8
+ 10x
1
72. 70 = 50 − y
2
Translate the following sentences into linear equations and then solve.
73. The sum of 2x and 5 is equal to 15.
74. The sum of −3x and 7 is equal to 14.
75. The difference of 5x and 6 is equal to 4.
76. Twelve times x is equal to 36.
77. A number n divided by 8 is 5.
78. Six subtracted from two times a number x is 12.
79. Four added to three times a number n is 25.
80. Three-fourths of a number x is 9.
81. Negative two-thirds times a number x is equal to 20.
82. One-half of a number x plus 3 is equal to 10.
Find a linear equation of the form ax + b = 0 with the given solution, where a
and b are integers. (Answers may vary.)
83. x =2
84. x = −3
1
85. x =− 2
2
86. x = 3

87. How many steps are needed to solve any equation of the form
ax + b = c? Explain.
88. Instead of dividing by 6 when 6x = 12 , could you multiply by the

reciprocal of 6? Does this always work?

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: No
5: Yes
7: Yes
9: Yes
11: Yes
13: Yes
15: 10
17: 18
19: 5/6
21: 5/6
23: −11
25: −13
27: 0
29: 3/2
31: −7
33: −3/2
35: −3/14
37: −3/2

39: 5
41: 10
43: 1/3
45: 1/5
47: 2
49: 14.2
51: 7
53: −5/2
55: 7/5
57: 1/8
59: 1/3
61: −9
63: −125
65: 6
67: −12
69: 5.3
71: 1/16
73: 2x + 5 = 15 ; x = 5
75: 5x − 6 = 4; x = 2
n
77:
8
= 5; n = 40

79: 3n + 4 = 25 ; n = 7
2
81: − x = 20 ; x = −30
3
83: x −2=0
85: 2x +1=0

2.4 Solving Linear Equations: Part II
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve general linear equations.

2. Identify and solve conditional equations, identities, and contradictions.
3. Clear decimals and fractions from equations.
4. Solve literal equations or formulas for a given variable.
Combining Like Terms and Simplifying
Linear equations typically are not given in standard form, so solving them requires
additional steps. These additional steps include simplifying expressions on each
side of the equal sign using the order of operations.
Same-Side Like Terms
We will often encounter linear equations where the expressions on each side of the
equal sign can be simplified. Typically, this involves combining same-side like
terms26. If this is the case, then it is best to simplify each side first before solving.
Example 1: Solve: −4a + 2 − a = 3 − 2.
Solution: First, combine the like terms on each side of the equal sign.
26. Like terms of an equation on

the same side of the equal sign.
249
Opposite-Side Like Terms
Given a linear equation in the form ax + b = cx + d, we begin by combining like

terms on opposite sides of the equal sign. To combine opposite-side like terms27,
use the addition or subtraction property of equality to effectively “move terms”
from one side to the other so that they can be combined.
Example 2: Solve: −2y − 3 = 5y + 11 .
Solution: To “move” the term 5y to the left side, subtract it on both sides.
From here, solve using the techniques developed previously.
Always check to see that the solution is correct by substituting the solution back
into the original equation and simplifying to see if you obtain a true statement.
27. Like terms of an equation on

opposite sides of the equal
sign.
2.4 Solving Linear Equations: Part II 250

General Guidelines for Solving Linear Equations
When solving linear equations, the goal is to determine what value, if any, will
produce a true statement when substituted in the original equation. Do this by
isolating the variable using the following steps:
Step 1: Simplify both sides of the equation using the order of operations and
combine all same-side like terms.
Step 2: Use the appropriate properties of equality to combine opposite-side like

terms with the variable term on one side of the equation and the constant term on
the other.
Step 3: Divide or multiply as needed to isolate the variable.
Step 4: Check to see if the answer solves the original equation.
Example 3: Solve: − 12 (10y − 2) + 3 = 14.
Solution: Simplify the linear expression on the left side before solving.
To check,

Example 4: Solve: 5 (3x + 2) − 2 = −2 (1 − 7x).
Solution: First, simplify the expressions on both sides of the equal sign.
Answer: The solution is −10. The check is left as an exercise.
Try this! Solve: 6 − 3 (4x − 1) = 4x − 7.
Answer: x = 1

Video Solution

Conditional Equations, Identities, and Contradictions
There are three different types of equations. Up to this point, we have been solving
conditional equations28. These are equations that are true for particular values. An
identity29 is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable. For
example,
has a solution set consisting of all real numbers, R. A contradiction30 is an equation

that is never true and thus has no solutions. For example,
has no solution. We use the empty set, ∅, to indicate that there are no solutions.
If the end result of solving an equation is a true statement, like 0 = 0, then the
equation is an identity and any real number is a solution. If solving results in a false
statement, like 0 = 1, then the equation is a contradiction and there is no solution.
Example 5: Solve: 4 (x + 5) + 6 = 2 (2x + 3).
Solution:
28. Equations that are true for

particular values.
29. An equation that is true for all

possible values.
30. An equation that is never true

and has no solution.

Answer: ∅. Solving leads to a false statement; therefore, the equation is a

contradiction and there is no solution.
Example 6: Solve: 3 (3y + 5) + 5 = 10 (y + 2) − y.
Solution:
Answer: R. Solving leads to a true statement; therefore, the equation is an identity

and any real number is a solution.
If it is hard to believe that any real number is a solution to the equation in the
previous example, then choose your favorite real number, and substitute it in the
equation to see that it leads to a true statement. Choose x = 7 and check:
Try this! Solve: −2 (3x + 1) − (x − 3) = −7x + 1.

Answer: R
Video Solution

Clearing Decimals and Fractions
The coefficients of linear equations may be any real number, even decimals and
fractions. When decimals and fractions are used, it is possible to use the
multiplication property of equality to clear the coefficients in a single step. If given
decimal coefficients, then multiply by an appropriate power of 10 to clear the
decimals. If given fractional coefficients, then multiply both sides of the equation by
the least common multiple of the denominators (LCD).
Example 7: Solve: 2.3x + 2.8 = −1.2x + 9.8.
Solution: Notice that all decimal coefficients are expressed with digits in the tenths
place; this suggests that we can clear the decimals by multiplying both sides by 10.
Take care to distribute 10 to each term on both sides of the equation.

Example 8: Solve: 13 x + 15 = 15 x − 1
.
multiple of the given denominators. In this case, the LCM (3, 5) = 15.
Solution: Clear the fractions by multiplying both sides by the least common
It is important to know that these techniques only work for equations. Do not try to
clear fractions when simplifying expressions. As a reminder,
Solve equations and simplify expressions. If you multiply an expression by 6, you

will change the problem. However, if you multiply both sides of an equation by 6,
you obtain an equivalent equation.

Literal Equations (Linear Formulas)
Algebra lets us solve whole classes of applications using literal equations31, or

formulas. Formulas often have more than one variable and describe, or model, a
particular real-world problem. For example, the familiar formula D = rt describes
the distance traveled in terms of the average rate and time; given any two of these
quantities, we can determine the third. Using algebra, we can solve the equation for
any one of the variables and derive two more formulas.
If we divide both sides by r, we obtain the formula t = Dr. Use this formula to find
the time, given the distance and the rate.
If we divide both sides by t, we obtain the formula r = Dt. Use this formula to find
the rate, given the distance traveled and the time it takes to travel that distance.
Using the techniques learned up to this point, we now have three equivalent
31. A formula that summarizes formulas relating distance, average rate, and time:
whole classes of problems.

When given a literal equation, it is often necessary to solve for one of the variables
in terms of the others. Use the properties of equality to isolate the indicated
variable.
Example 9: Solve for a: P = 2a + b.
Solution: The goal is to isolate the variable a.
Answer: a = P−b
2
x+y
Example 10: Solve for y: z = 2
.
Solution: The goal is to isolate the variable y.

Answer: y = 2z − x
Try this! Solve for b: 2a − 3b = c.
Answer: b = 2a−c
3
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solving general linear equations involves isolating the variable, with

coefficient 1, on one side of the equal sign.
• The steps for solving linear equations are:
1. Simplify both sides of the equation and combine all same-

side like terms.
2. Combine opposite-side like terms to obtain the variable term
on one side of the equal sign and the constant term on the
other.
3. Divide or multiply as needed to isolate the variable.
4. Check the answer.
• Most linear equations that you will encounter are conditional and have
one solution.
• If solving a linear equation leads to a true statement like 0 = 0, then the
equation is an identity and the solution set consists of all real numbers,
R.
• If solving a linear equation leads to a false statement like 0 = 5, then the
equation is a contradiction and there is no solution, ∅.
• Clear fractions by multiplying both sides of a linear equation by the least
common multiple of all the denominators. Distribute and multiply all
terms by the LCD to obtain an equivalent equation with integer
coefficients.
• Given a formula, solve for any variable using the same techniques for
solving linear equations. This works because variables are simply
representations of real numbers.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Checking for Solutions
1. 2 (3x + 5) − 6 = 3x − 8; x = −4
2. −x + 17 − 8x = 9 − x; x = −1
1
3. 4 (3x − 7) − 3 (x + 2) = −1; x = 3
4. −5 − 2 (x − 5) = − (x + 3) ; x = −8
5. 7 − 2 ( 12 x − 6) = x − 1; x = 10
2 4
6. 3x − (9x − 2) = 0; x =
3 9
Part B: Solving Linear Equations
Solve.
7. 4x − 7 = 7x + 5
8. −5x + 3 = −8x − 9
9. 3x − 5 = 2x − 17
10. −2y − 52 = 3y + 13
11. −4x + 2 = 7x − 20
12. 4x − 3 = 6x − 15
13. 9x − 25 = 12x − 25
14. 12y + 15 = −6y + 23

15. 1.2x − 0.7 = 3x + 4.7
16. 2.1x + 6.1 = −1.3x + 4.4
17. 2.02x + 4.8 = 14.782 − 1.2x
18. −3.6x + 5.5 + 8.2x = 6.5 + 4.6x

1 2 1
19.
2
x− 3
=x+ 5
1 1 1 1
20.
3
x− 2
=− 4
x− 3
1 2 1 3
21. − y+ = y+
10 5 5 10
20 5 5
22. x − = x+
3 2 6
2 1 5 37
23.
3
y+ 2
= 8
y+ 24
1 4 10 1 2
24.
3
+ 3
x= 7
x+ 3
− 21
x
8 11 7 1
25.
9
− 18
x= 6
− 2
x
1 4 1
26.
3
− 9x = 9
+ 2
x
27. 12x − 5 + 9x = 44
28. 10 − 6x − 13 = 12
29. −2 + 4x + 9 = 7x + 8 − 2x
30. 20x − 5 + 12x = 6 − x + 7
31. 3a + 5 − a = 2a + 7
32. −7b + 3 = 2 − 5b + 1 − 2b
33. 7x − 2 + 3x = 4 + 2x − 2

34. −3x + 8 − 4x + 2 = 10
35. 6x + 2 − 3x = −2x − 13
36. 3x − 0.75 + 0.21x = 1.24x + 7.13
37. −x − 2 + 4x = 5 + 3x − 7
38. −2y − 5 = 8y − 6 − 10y

1 1 1 1 7
39.
10
x− 3
= 30
− 15
x− 15
5 4 1 3 1 1
40.
8
− 3
x+ 3
=− 9
x− 4
+ 3
x
Part C: Solving Linear Equations Involving Parentheses
Solve.
41. −5 (2y − 3) + 2 = 12
42. 3 (5x + 4) + 5x = −8
43. 4 − 2 (x − 5) = −2
44. 10 − 5 (3x + 1) = 5 (x − 4)
45. 9 − (x + 7) = 2 (x − 1)
46. −5 (2x − 1) + 3 = −12
47. 3x − 2 (x + 1) = x + 5
48. 5x − 3 (2x − 1) = 2 (x − 3)
49. −6 (x − 1) − 3x = 3 (x + 8)
(5x + 10) =
3 1
50. − (4x − 12)
5 2

51. 3.1 (2x − 3) + 0.5 = 22.2
52. 4.22 − 3.13 (x − 1) = 5.2 (2x + 1) − 11.38
53. 6 (x − 2) − (7x − 12) = 14
54. −9 (x − 3) − 3x = −3 (4x + 9)
55. 3 − 2 (x + 4) = −3 (4x − 5)
56. 12 − 2 (2x + 1) = 4 (x − 1)
57. 3 (x + 5) − 2 (2x + 3) = 7x + 9
58. 3 (2x − 1) − 4 (3x − 2) = −5x + 10
59. −3 (2a − 3) + 2 = 3 (a + 7)
60. −2 (5x − 3) − 1 = 5 (−2x + 1)
1 1
61.
2
(2x + 1) − 4
(8x + 2) = 3 (x − 4)
(6x − 3) −
2 1 3
62. − = (4x + 1)
3 2 2
(2x − 5) = 0
1 1
63.
2
(3x − 1) + 3
1 1 1
64.
3
(x − 2) + 5
= 9
(3x + 3)
65. −2 (2x − 7) − (x + 3) = 6 (x − 1)
66. 10 (3x + 5) − 5 (4x + 2) = 2 (5x + 20)
67. 2 (x − 3) − 6 (2x + 1) = −5 (2x − 4)
68. 5 (x − 2) − (4x − 1) = −2 (3 − x)
69. 6 (3x − 2) − (12x − 1) + 4 = 0

70. −3 (4x − 2) − (9x + 3) − 6x = 0
Part D: Literal Equations
Solve for the indicated variable.
71. Solve for w: A = l ⋅ w.
72. Solve for a: F = ma.
73. Solve for w: P = 2l + 2w .
74. Solve for r: C = 2πr.
75. Solve for b: P = a + b + c.

9
76. Solve for C: F= 5
C + 32.
1
77. Solve for h: A= 2
bh .
78. Solve for t: I = Prt.
79. Solve for y: ax + by = c .
80. Solve for h: S = 2πr2 + 2πrh.

2x+y
81. Solve for x: z= 5
.
3b−2c
82. Solve for c: a= 3
.
83. Solve for b: y = mx + b .
84. Solve for m: y = mx + b .
85. Solve for y: 3x − 2y = 6 .
86. Solve for y: −5x + 2y = 12 .

x y
87. Solve for y:
3
− 5
= 1.
3 1 1
88. Solve for y:
4
x− 5
y= 2
.
Translate the following sentences into linear equations and then solve.
89. The sum of 3x and 5 is equal to the sum of 2x and 7.
90. The sum of −5x and 6 is equal to the difference of 4x and 2.
91. The difference of 5x and 25 is equal to the difference of 3x and 51.
1 3 2
92. The sum of
2
x and 4
is equal to
3
x.
93. A number n divided by 5 is equal to the sum of twice the number and 3.
94. Negative ten times a number n is equal to the sum of three times the
number and 13.
95. What is the origin of the word algebra?
96. What is regarded as the main business of algebra?
97. Why is solving equations such an important algebra topic?
98. Post some real-world linear formulas not presented in this section.
99. Research and discuss the contributions of Diophantus of Alexandria.
100. Create an identity or contradiction of your own and share on the

discussion board. Provide a solution and explain how you found it.

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: No
5: Yes
7: −4
9: −12
11: 2
13: 0
15: −3
17: 3.1
19: −26/15
21: 1/3
23: 25
25: −5/2
27: 7/3
29: −1
31: ∅
33: 1/2
35: −3
37: R

39: −3/5
41: 1/2
43: 8
45: 4/3
47: ∅
49: −3/2
51: 5
53: −14
55: 2
57: 0
59: −10/9
61: 3
63: 1
65: 17/11
67: ∅
69: 7/6
A
71: w = l
P−2l
73: w = 2
75: b =P−a−c
2A
77: h = b

−ax+c
79: y = b
5z−y
81: x = 2
83: b = y − mx
3x−6
85: y = 2
5x−15
87: y = 3
89: 3x + 5 = 2x + 7 ; x = 2
91: 5x − 25 = 3x − 51 ; x = −13
n 5
93:
5
= 2n + 3; n = − 3

2.5 Applications of Linear Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify key words and phrases, translate sentences to mathematical

equations, and develop strategies to solve problems.
2. Solve word problems involving relationships between numbers.
3. Solve geometry problems involving perimeter.
4. Solve percent and money problems including simple interest.
5. Set up and solve uniform motion problems.
Key Words, Translation, and Strategy
Algebra simplifies the process of solving real-world problems. This is done by using
letters to represent unknowns, restating problems in the form of equations, and
offering systematic techniques for solving those equations. To solve problems using
algebra, first translate the wording of the problem into mathematical statements
that describe the relationships between the given information and the unknowns.
Usually, this translation to mathematical statements is the difficult step in the
process. The key to the translation is to carefully read the problem and identify
certain key words and phrases.
Key Words Translation
Sum, increased by, more than, plus, added to, total +
Difference, decreased by, subtracted from, less, minus −
Product, multiplied by, of, times, twice *
Quotient, divided by, ratio, per /
Is, total, result =
Here are some examples of translated key phrases.
Key Phrases Translation
The sum of a number and 7.

x+7
Seven more than a number.
270
The difference of a number and 7.
Seven less than a number. x−7

Seven subtracted from a number.
The product of 2 and a number.

2x
Twice a number.
One-half of a number.
1
2
x
The quotient of a number and 7. x/7
When translating sentences into mathematical statements, be sure to read the

sentence several times and identify the key words and phrases.
Example 1: Translate: Four less than twice some number is 16.
Solution: First, choose a variable for the unknown number and identify the key
words and phrases.
Let x represent the unknown indicated by “some number.”
Remember that subtraction is not commutative. For this reason, take care when
setting up differences. In this example, 4 − 2x = 16 is an incorrect translation.
Answer: 2x − 4 = 16
2.5 Applications of Linear Equations 271

It is important to first identify the variable—let x represent…—and state in words

what the unknown quantity is. This step not only makes your work more readable
but also forces you to think about what you are looking for. Usually, if you know
what you are asked to find, then the task of finding it is achievable.
Example 2: Translate: When 7 is subtracted from 3 times the sum of a number and
12, the result is 20.
Solution: Let n represent the unknown number.
Answer: 3 (n + 12) − 7 = 20
To understand why parentheses are needed, study the structures of the following
two sentences and their translations:
“3 times the sum of a number and 12” 3(n + 12)
“the sum of 3 times a number and 12” 3n + 12
The key is to focus on the phrase “3 times the sum.” This prompts us to group the
sum within parentheses and then multiply by 3. Once an application is translated
into an algebraic equation, solve it using the techniques you have learned.
Guidelines for Setting Up and Solving Word Problems
Step 1: Read the problem several times, identify the key words and phrases, and
organize the given information.

Step 2: Identify the variables by assigning a letter or expression to the unknown

quantities.
Step 3: Translate and set up an algebraic equation that models the problem.
Step 4: Solve the resulting algebraic equation.
Step 5: Finally, answer the question in sentence form and make sure it makes sense
(check it).
For now, set up all of your equations using only one variable. Avoid two variables by
looking for a relationship between the unknowns.
Problems Involving Relationships between Real Numbers
We classify applications involving relationships between real numbers broadly as

number problems. These problems can sometimes be solved using some creative
arithmetic, guessing, and checking. Solving in this manner is not a good practice
and should be avoided. Begin by working through the basic steps outlined in the
general guidelines for solving word problems.
Example 3: A larger integer is 2 less than 3 times a smaller integer. The sum of the
two integers is 18. Find the integers.
Solution:
Identify variables: Begin by assigning a variable to the smaller integer.
Use the first sentence to identify the larger integer in terms of the variable x: “A
larger integer is 2 less than 3 times a smaller.”

Set up an equation: Add the expressions that represent the two integers, and set the
resulting expression equal to 18 as indicated in the second sentence: “The sum of
the two integers is 18.”
Solve: Solve the equation to obtain the smaller integer x.
Back substitute: Use the expression 3x − 2 to find the larger integer—this is called
back substituting32.
Answer the question: The two integers are 5 and 13.
Check: 5 + 13 = 18. The answer makes sense.
32. The process of finding the

answers to other unknowns
after one has been found.

Example 4: The difference between two integers is 2. The larger integer is 6 less
than twice the smaller. Find the integers.
Solution: Use the relationship between the two integers in the second sentence,
“The larger integer is 6 less than twice the smaller,” to identify the unknowns in
terms of one variable.
Since the difference is positive, subtract the smaller integer from the larger.
Solve.
Use 2x − 6 to find the larger integer.
Answer: The two integers are 8 and 10. These integers clearly solve the problem.
It is worth mentioning again that you can often find solutions to simple problems
by guessing and checking. This is so because the numbers are chosen to simplify the
process of solving, so that the algebraic steps are not too tedious. You learn how to

set up algebraic equations with easier problems, so that you can use these ideas to
solve more difficult problems later.
Example 5: The sum of two consecutive even integers is 46. Find the integers.
Solution: The key phrase to focus on is “consecutive even integers.”
Add the even integers and set them equal to 46.
Solve.
Use x + 2 to find the next even integer.
Answer: The consecutive even integers are 22 and 24.

It should be clear that consecutive even integers are separated by two units.
However, it may not be so clear that odd integers are as well.
Example 6: The sum of two consecutive odd integers is 36. Find the integers.
Solution: The key phrase to focus on is “consecutive odd integers.”
Add the two odd integers and set the expression equal to 36.
Solve.
Use x + 2 to find the next odd integer.

Answer: The consecutive odd integers are 17 and 19.
The algebraic setup for even and odd integer problems is the same. A common
mistake is to use x and x + 3 when identifying the variables for consecutive odd
integers. This is incorrect because adding 3 to an odd number yields an even
number: for example, 5 + 3 = 8. An incorrect setup is very likely to lead to a decimal
answer, which may be an indication that the problem was set up incorrectly.
Example 7: The sum of three consecutive integers is 24. Find the integers.
Solution: Consecutive integers are separated by one unit.
Add the integers and set the sum equal to 24.
Solve.

Back substitute to find the other two integers.
Answer: The three consecutive integers are 7, 8 and 9, where 7 + 8 + 9 = 24.
Try this! The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 87. Find the integers.
Answer: The integers are 27, 29, and 31.
Video Solution

Geometry Problems (Perimeter)
Recall that the perimeter33 of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of all the outside
edges. In addition, it is helpful to review the following perimeter formulas
(π ≈ 3.14159).
33. The sum of the lengths of all Perimeter of a rectangle34: P = 2l + 2w

the outside edges of a polygon.
34. P = 2l + 2w, where l

represents the length and w
represents the width. Perimeter of a square35: P = 4s
35. P = 4s, where s represents
the length of a side.

Perimeter of a triangle36: P=a+b+c
Perimeter of a circle (circumference37): C = 2πr
Keep in mind that you are looking for a relationship between the unknowns so that
you can set up algebraic equations using only one variable. When working with
geometry problems, it is often helpful to draw a picture.
Example 8: A rectangle has a perimeter measuring 64 feet. The length is 4 feet more
than 3 times the width. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
Solution: The sentence “The length is 4 feet more than 3 times the width” gives
the relationship between the two variables.
The sentence “A rectangle has a perimeter measuring 64 feet” suggests an

algebraic setup. Substitute 64 for the perimeter and the expression for the length
into the appropriate formula as follows:
36. P = a + b + c, where a, b,
and c each represents the
length of a different side.
37. The perimeter of a circle given

by C = 2πr, where r
represents the radius of the
circle and π ≈ 3.14159 .

Once you have set up an algebraic equation with one variable, solve for the width,
w.
Use 3w + 4 to find the length.
Answer: The rectangle measures 7 feet by 25 feet. To check, add all of the sides:
Example 9: Two sides of a triangle are 5 and 7 inches longer than the third side. If
the perimeter measures 21 inches, find the length of each side.
Solution: The first sentence describes the relationships between the unknowns.

Substitute these expressions into the appropriate formula and use 21 for the
perimeter P.
You now have an equation with one variable to solve.
Back substitute.
Answer: The three sides of the triangle measure 3 inches, 8 inches, and 10 inches.
The check is left to the reader.
Try this! The length of a rectangle is 1 foot less than twice its width. If the
perimeter is 46 feet, find the dimensions.

Answer: Width: 8 feet; length: 15 feet
Video Solution

Problems Involving Money and Percents
Whenever setting up an equation involving a percentage, we usually need to

convert the percentage to a decimal or fraction. If the question asks for a
percentage, then do not forget to convert your answer to a percent at the end. Also,
when money is involved, be sure to round off to two decimal places.
Example 10: If a pair of shoes costs $52.50 including a 7 1

4
%tax, what is the
original cost of the item before taxes are added?
Solution: Begin by converting 7 1

4
%to a decimal.
The amount of tax is this rate times the original cost of the item. The original cost
of the item is what you are asked to find.
Use this equation to solve for c, the original cost of the item.

Answer: The cost of the item before taxes is $48.95. Check this by multiplying $48.95
by 0.0725 to obtain the tax and add it to this cost.
Example 11: Given a 5 18 %annual interest rate, how long will it take $1,200 to yield
$307.50 in simple interest?
Solution:
Organize the data needed to use the simple interest formula I = prt.
Given interest for the time period: I = $307.50
Given principal: p = $1200
Given rate: r=5 1

8
% = 5.125% = 0.05125
Next, substitute all of the known quantities into the formula and then solve for the
only unknown, t.

Answer: It takes 5 years for $1,200 invested at 5 1

8
%to earn $307.50 in simple
interest.
Example 12: Mary invested her total savings of $3,400 in two accounts. Her mutual
fund account earned 8% last year and her CD earned 5%. If her total interest for the
year was $245, how much was in each account?
Solution: The relationship between the two unknowns is that they total $3,400.
When a total is involved, a common technique used to avoid two variables is to
represent the second unknown as the difference of the total and the first unknown.
The total interest is the sum of the interest earned from each account.
Interest
earned in
I = Prt = x ⋅ 0.08 ⋅ 1 = 0.08x
the mutual
fund:
Interest
earned in I = Prt = (3,400 − x) ⋅ 0.05 ⋅ 1 = 0.05(3,400 − x)
the CD:

This equation models the problem with one variable. Solve for x.
Back substitute.
Answer: Mary invested $2,500 at 8% in a mutual fund and $900 at 5% in a CD.
Example 13: Joe has a handful of dimes and quarters that values $5.30. He has one
fewer than twice as many dimes than quarters. How many of each coin does he
have?
Solution: Begin by identifying the variables.

To determine the total value of a number of coins, multiply the number of coins by
the value of each coin. For example, 5 quarters have a value $0.25 ⋅ 5 = $1.25.
Solve for the number of quarters, q.
Back substitute into 2q − 1 to find the number of dimes.
Answer: Joe has 12 quarters and 23 dimes. Check by multiplying $0.25 ⋅ 12 = $3.00
and $0.10 ⋅ 23 = $2.30. Then add to obtain the correct amount: $3.00 + $2.30 = $5.30.
Try this! A total amount of $5,900 is invested in two accounts. One account earns
3.5% interest and another earns 4.5%. If the interest for 1 year is $229.50, then how
much is invested in each account?
Answer: $3,600 is invested at 3.5% and $2,300 at 4.5%.

Video Solution

Uniform Motion Problems (Distance Problems)
Uniform motion refers to movement at a speed, or rate, that does not change. We
can determine the distance traveled by multiplying the average rate by the time
traveled at that rate with the formula D = r ⋅ t. Applications involving uniform
motion usually have a lot of data, so it helps to first organize the data in a chart and
then set up an algebraic equation that models the problem.
Example 14: Two trains leave the station at the same time traveling in opposite
directions. One travels at 70 miles per hour and the other at 60 miles per hour. How
long does it take for the distance between them to reach 390 miles?
Solution: First, identify the unknown quantity and organize the data.
The given information is filled in on the following chart. The time for each train is
equal.

To avoid introducing two more variables, use the formula D = r ⋅ t to fill in the
unknown distances traveled by each train.
We can now completely fill in the chart.
The algebraic setup is defined by the distance column. The problem asks for the
time it takes for the total distance to reach 390 miles.
Solve for t.

Answer: It takes 3 hours for the distance between the trains to reach 390 miles.
Example 15: A train traveling nonstop to its destination is able to make the trip at
an average speed of 72 miles per hour. On the return trip, the train makes several
stops and is only able to average 48 miles per hour. If the return trip takes 2 hours
longer than the initial trip to the destination, then what is the travel time each
way?
The given information is filled in the following chart:

Use the formula D = r ⋅ t to fill in the unknown distances.
Use these expressions to complete the chart.
The algebraic setup is again defined by the distance column. In this case, the
distance to the destination and back is the same, and the equation is
Solve for t.

The return trip takes t + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6 hours.
Answer: It takes 4 hours to arrive at the destination and 6 hours to return.
Try this! Mary departs for school on a bicycle at an average rate of 6 miles per
hour. Her sister Kate, running late, leaves 15 minutes later and cycles at twice that
speed. How long will it take Kate to catch up to Mary? Be careful! Pay attention to
the units given in the problem.
Answer: It takes 15 minutes for Kate to catch up.
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Simplify the process of solving real-world problems by creating

mathematical models that describe the relationship between unknowns.
Use algebra to solve the resulting equations.
• Guessing and checking for solutions is a poor practice. This technique
might sometimes produce correct answers, but is unreliable, especially
when problems become more complex.
• Read the problem several times and search for the key words and
phrases. Identify the unknowns and assign variables or expressions to
the unknown quantities. Look for relationships that allow you to use
only one variable. Set up a mathematical model for the situation and use
algebra to solve the equation. Check to see if the solution makes sense
and present the solution in sentence form.
• Do not avoid word problems: solving them can be fun and rewarding.
With lots of practice you will find that they really are not so bad after
all. Modeling and solving applications is one of the major reasons to
study algebra.
• Do not feel discouraged when the first attempt to solve a word problem
does not work. This is part of the process. Try something different and
learn from incorrect attempts.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Translate
Translate the following into algebraic equations.
1. The sum of a number and 6 is 37.
2. When 12 is subtracted from twice some number the result is 6.
3. Fourteen less than 5 times a number is 1.
4. Twice some number is subtracted from 30 and the result is 50.
5. Five times the sum of 6 and some number is 20.
6. The sum of 5 times some number and 6 is 20.
7. When the sum of a number and 3 is subtracted from 10 the result is 5.
8. The sum of three times a number and five times that same number is 24.
9. Ten is subtracted from twice some number and the result is the sum of the
number and 2.
10. Six less than some number is ten times the sum of that number and 5.
Part B: Number Problems
Set up an algebraic equation and then solve.
11. A larger integer is 1 more than twice another integer. If the sum of the
integers is 25, find the integers.
12. If a larger integer is 2 more than 4 times another integer and their
difference is 32, find the integers.
13. One integer is 30 more than another integer. If the difference between
the larger and twice the smaller is 8, find the integers.

14. The quotient of some number and 4 is 22. Find the number.
15. Eight times a number is decreased by three times the same number,
giving a difference of 20. What is the number?
16. One integer is two units less than another. If their sum is −22, find the
two integers.
17. The sum of two consecutive integers is 139. Find the integers.
18. The sum of three consecutive integers is 63. Find the integers.
20. The difference of twice the smaller of two consecutive integers and the
larger is 39. Find the integers.
21. If the smaller of two consecutive integers is subtracted from two times
the larger, then the result is 17. Find the integers.
22. The sum of two consecutive even integers is 46. Find the integers.
23. The sum of two consecutive even integers is 238. Find the integers.
24. The sum of three consecutive even integers is 96. Find the integers.
25. If the smaller of two consecutive even integers is subtracted from 3 times
the larger the result is 42. Find the integers.
27. The sum of two consecutive odd integers is 68. Find the integers.
28. The sum of two consecutive odd integers is 180. Find the integers.
29. The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 57. Find the integers.
30. If the smaller of two consecutive odd integers is subtracted from twice
the larger the result is 23. Find the integers.
31. Twice the sum of two consecutive odd integers is 32. Find the integers.

32. The difference between twice the larger of two consecutive odd integers
and the smaller is 59. Find the integers.
Part C: Geometry Problems
33. If the perimeter of a square is 48 inches, then find the length of each
side.
34. The length of a rectangle is 2 inches longer than its width. If the
perimeter is 36 inches, find the length and width.
35. The length of a rectangle is 2 feet less than twice its width. If the
perimeter is 26 feet, find the length and width.
36. The width of a rectangle is 2 centimeters less than one-half its length. If
the perimeter is 56 centimeters, find the length and width.
37. The length of a rectangle is 3 feet less than twice its width. If the
perimeter is 54 feet, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
38. If the length of a rectangle is twice as long as the width and its perimeter
measures 72 inches, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
39. The perimeter of an equilateral triangle measures 63 centimeters. Find

the length of each side.
40. An isosceles triangle whose base is one-half as long as the other two
equal sides has a perimeter of 25 centimeters. Find the length of each side.
41. Each of the two equal legs of an isosceles triangle are twice the length of
the base. If the perimeter is 105 centimeters, then how long is each leg?
42. A triangle has sides whose measures are consecutive even integers. If the
perimeter is 42 inches, find the measure of each side.
43. A triangle has sides whose measures are consecutive odd integers. If the
perimeter is 21 inches, find the measure of each side.

44. A triangle has sides whose measures are consecutive integers. If the
perimeter is 102 inches, then find the measure of each side.
45. The circumference of a circle measures 50π units. Find the radius.
46. The circumference of a circle measures 10π units. Find the radius.
47. The circumference of a circle measures 100 centimeters. Determine the

radius to the nearest tenth.
48. The circumference of a circle measures 20 centimeters. Find the

diameter rounded off to the nearest hundredth.
49. The diameter of a circle measures 5 inches. Determine the circumference

to the nearest tenth.
50. The diameter of a circle is 13 feet. Calculate the exact value of the
circumference.
Part D: Percent and Money Problems
51. Calculate the simple interest earned on a 2-year investment of $1,550 at a

8¾% annual interest rate.
52. Calculate the simple interest earned on a 1-year investment of $500 at a

6% annual interest rate.
53. For how many years must $10,000 be invested at an 8½% annual interest
rate to yield $4,250 in simple interest?
54. For how many years must $1,000 be invested at a 7.75% annual interest
rate to yield $503.75 in simple interest?
55. At what annual interest rate must $2,500 be invested for 3 years in order
to yield $412.50 in simple interest?
56. At what annual interest rate must $500 be invested for 2 years in order to
yield $93.50 in simple interest?

57. If the simple interest earned for 1 year was $47.25 and the annual rate
was 6.3%, what was the principal?
58. If the simple interest earned for 2 years was $369.60 and the annual rate
was 5¼%, what was the principal?
59. Joe invested last year’s $2,500 tax return in two different accounts. He
put most of the money in a money market account earning 5% simple
interest. He invested the rest in a CD earning 8% simple interest. How much
did he put in each account if the total interest for the year was $138.50?
60. James invested $1,600 in two accounts. One account earns 4.25% simple
interest and the other earns 8.5%. If the interest after 1 year was $85, how
much did he invest in each account?
61. Jane has her $5,400 savings invested in two accounts. She has part of it in
a CD at 3% annual interest and the rest in a savings account that earns 2%
annual interest. If the simple interest earned from both accounts is $140 for
the year, then how much does she have in each account?
62. Marty put last year’s bonus of $2,400 into two accounts. He invested part
in a CD with 2.5% annual interest and the rest in a money market fund with
1.3% annual interest. His total interest for the year was $42.00. How much
did he invest in each account?
63. Alice puts money into two accounts, one with 2% annual interest and
another with 3% annual interest. She invests 3 times as much in the higher
yielding account as she does in the lower yielding account. If her total
interest for the year is $27.50, how much did she invest in each account?
64. Jim invested an inheritance in two separate banks. One bank offered 5.5%
annual interest rate and the other 6¼%. He invested twice as much in the
higher yielding bank account than he did in the other. If his total simple
interest for 1 year was $4,860, then what was the amount of his inheritance?
65. If an item is advertised to cost $29.99 plus 9.25% tax, what is the total
cost?
66. If an item is advertised to cost $32.98 plus 8¾% tax, what is the total cost?
67. An item, including an 8.75% tax, cost $46.49. What is the original pretax
cost of the item?

68. An item, including a 5.48% tax, cost $17.82. What is the original pretax
cost of the item?
69. If a meal costs $32.75, what is the total after adding a 15% tip?
70. How much is a 15% tip on a restaurant bill that totals $33.33?
71. Ray has a handful of dimes and nickels valuing $3.05. He has 5 more
dimes than he does nickels. How many of each coin does he have?
72. Jill has 3 fewer half-dollars than she has quarters. The value of all 27 of
her coins adds to $9.75. How many of each coin does Jill have?
73. Cathy has to deposit $410 worth of five- and ten-dollar bills. She has 1
fewer than three times as many tens as she does five-dollar bills. How many
of each bill does she have to deposit?
74. Billy has a pile of quarters, dimes, and nickels that values $3.75. He has 3
more dimes than quarters and 5 more nickels than quarters. How many of
each coin does Billy have?
75. Mary has a jar with one-dollar bills, half-dollar coins, and quarters
valuing $14.00. She has twice as many quarters than she does half-dollar
coins and the same amount of half-dollar coins as one-dollar bills. How
many of each does she have?
76. Chad has a bill-fold of one-, five-, and ten-dollar bills totaling $118. He
has 2 more than 3 times as many ones as he does five-dollar bills and 1 fewer
ten- than five-dollar bills. How many of each bill does Chad have?
Part D: Uniform Motion (Distance Problems)
Set up an algebraic equation then solve.
77. Two cars leave a location traveling in opposite directions. If one car
averages 55 miles per hour and the other averages 65 miles per hour, then
how long will it take for them to separate a distance of 300 miles?
78. Two planes leave the airport at the same time traveling in opposite
directions. The average speeds for the planes are 450 miles per hour and 395

miles per hour. How long will it take the planes to be a distance of 1,478.75
miles apart?
79. Bill and Ted are racing across the country. Bill leaves 1 hour earlier than
Ted and travels at an average rate of 60 miles per hour. If Ted intends to
catch up at a rate of 70 miles per hour, then how long will it take?
80. Two brothers leave from the same location, one in a car and the other on
a bicycle, to meet up at their grandmother’s house for dinner. If one brother
averages 30 miles per hour in the car and the other averages 12 miles per
hour on the bicycle, then it takes the brother on the bicycle 1 hour less than
3 times as long as the other in the car. How long does it take each of them to
make the trip?
81. A commercial airline pilot flew at an average speed of 350 miles per hour
before being informed that his destination airfield may be closed due to
poor weather conditions. In an attempt to arrive before the storm, he
increased his speed 400 miles per hour and flew for another 3 hours. If the
total distance flown was 2,950 miles, then how long did the trip take?
82. Two brothers drove the 2,793 miles from Los Angeles to New York. One of
the brothers, driving during the day, was able to average 70 miles per hour,
and the other, driving at night, was able to average 53 miles per hour. If the
brother driving at night drove 3 hours less than the brother driving in the
day, then how many hours did they each drive?
83. Joe and Ellen live 21 miles apart. Departing at the same time, they cycle
toward each other. If Joe averages 8 miles per hour and Ellen averages 6
miles per hour, how long will it take them to meet?
84. If it takes 6 minutes to drive to the automobile repair shop at an average

speed of 30 miles per hour, then how long will it take to walk back at an
average rate of 4 miles per hour?
85. Jaime and Alex leave the same location and travel in opposite directions.
Traffic conditions enabled Alex to average 14 miles per hour faster than
Jaime. After 1½ hours they are 159 miles apart. Find the speed at which each
was able to travel.
86. Jane and Holly live 51 miles apart and leave at the same time traveling
toward each other to meet for lunch. Jane traveled on the freeway at twice

the average speed as Holly. They were able to meet in a half hour. At what
rate did each travel?
87. Discuss ideas for calculating taxes and tips mentally.
88. Research historical methods for representing unknowns.
89. Research and compare simple interest and compound interest. What is
the difference?
90. Discuss why algebra is a required subject.
91. Research ways to show that a repeating decimal is rational. Share your
findings on the discussion board.

ANSWERS
1: x + 6 = 37
3: 5x − 14 = 1
5: 5 (x + 6) = 20
7: 10 − (x + 3) = 5
9: 2x − 10 = x + 2
11: 8, 17
13: 22, 52
15: 4
17: 69, 70
19: 92, 93, 94
21: 15, 16
23: 118, 120
25: 18, 20
27: 33, 35
29: 17, 19, 21
31: 7, 9
33: 12 inches
35: Width: 5 feet; length: 8 feet

39: 21 centimeters
41: 21 centimeters, 42 centimeters, 42 centimeters
43: 5 inches, 7 inches, 9 inches
45: 25 units
47: 15.9 centimeters
49: 15.7 inches
51: $271.25
53: 5 years
55: 5.5%
57: $750.00
59: Joe invested $2,050 in the money market account and $450 in the CD.
61: Jane has $3,200 in the CD and $2,200 in savings.
63: Alice invested $250 at 2% and $750 at a 3%.
65: $32.76
67: $42.75
69: $37.66
71: He has 17 nickels and 22 dimes.
73: Cathy has 12 fives and 35 ten-dollar bills.
75: Mary has 7 one-dollar bills, 7 half-dollar coins, and 14 quarters.
77: 2.5 hours

79: 6 hours
81: 8 hours
83: 1½ hours
85: Jaime: 46 miles per hour; Alex: 60 miles per hour

2.6 Ratio and Proportion Applications
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the difference between a ratio and a proportion.

2. Solve proportions using cross multiplication.
3. Solve applications involving proportions, including similar triangles.
Definitions
A ratio38 is a relationship between two numbers or quantities usually expressed as a

quotient. Ratios are typically expressed using the following notation:
All of the above are equivalent forms used to express a ratio. However, the most
familiar way to express a ratio is in the form of a fraction. When writing ratios, it is
important to pay attention to the units. If the units are the same, then the ratio can
be written without them.
Example 1: Express the ratio 12 feet to 48 feet in reduced form.
Solution:
38. Relationship between two

numbers or quantities usually
expressed as a quotient.
305
Answer: 1 to 4
If the units are different, then we must be sure to include them because the ratio
represents a rate39.
Example 2: Express the ratio 220 miles to 4 hours in reduced form.
Solution:
Answer: 55 miles to 1 hour (or 55 miles per hour)
Rates are useful when determining unit cost40, or the price of each unit. We use the
unit cost to compare values when the quantities are not the same. To determine the
unit cost, divide the cost by the number of units.
Example 3: A local supermarket offers a pack of 12 sodas for $3.48 on sale, and the
local discount warehouse offers the soda in a 36-can case for $11.52. Which is the
better value?
39. A ratio where the units for the
numerator and the
denominator are different. Solution: Divide the cost by the number of cans to obtain the unit price.
40. The price of each unit.
2.6 Ratio and Proportion Applications 306

Supermarket Discount warehouse
$3.48 $11.52
= $0.29/can = $0.32/can
12 cans 36 cans
Answer: The supermarket sale price of $3.48 for a 12-pack is a better value at $0.29
per can.
A proportion41 is a statement of equality of two ratios.
This proportion is often read “a is to b as c is to d.” Here is an example of a simple

proportion,
If we clear the fractions by multiplying both sides of the proportion by the product
of the denominators, 8, then we obtain the following true statement:
Given any nonzero real numbers a, b, c, and d that satisfy a proportion, multiply
both sides by the product of the denominators to obtain the following:
41. A statement of the equality of

two ratios.

This shows that cross products are equal, and is commonly referred to as cross
multiplication42.
Solving Proportions
Cross multiply to solve proportions where terms are unknown.
Example 4: Solve: 58 = n4.
Solution: Cross multiply and then solve for n.
a c
42. If b = d
, then ad = bc.

Answer: n = 5
2
Example 5: Solve: 15 5
x = 6.
Solution: Cross multiply then solve for x.
Answer: x = 18
n+3
Example 6: Solve: 5 = 72.
Solution: When cross multiplying, be sure to group n + 3. Apply the distributive

property in the next step.

Answer: n = 29
2
Try this! Solve: 53 = 3n−1

2
.
Answer: n = 13
9
Video Solution

Applications
When setting up proportions, consistency with the units of each ratio is critical.
Units for the numerators should be the same and units for the denominators should
also be the same.
Example 7: It is claimed that 2 out of 3 dentists prefer a certain brand of

toothpaste. If 600 dentists are surveyed, then how many will say they prefer that
brand?
Solution: First, identify the unknown and assign it a variable.

Since you are looking for the number of dentists who prefer the brand name out of
a total of 600 surveyed, construct the ratios with the number of dentists who prefer
the brand in the numerator and the total number surveyed in the denominator.
Cross multiply and solve for n,
Answer: The claim suggests that 400 out of 600 dentists surveyed prefer the brand
name.
Example 8: In Tulare County, 3 out of every 7 voters said yes to Proposition 40. If
42,000 people voted, how many said no to Proposition 40?
Solution: The problem gives the ratio of voters who said yes, but it asks for the
number who said no.

If 3 out of 7 said yes, then we can assume 4 out of 7 said no. Set up the ratios with
the number of voters who said no in the numerator and the total number of voters
in the denominator.
Cross multiply and solve for n.
Answer: 24,000 voters out of 42,000 said no.
Example 9: The sum of two integers in the ratio of 4 to 5 is 27. Find the integers.
Solution: The sum of two integers is 27; use this relationship to avoid two variables.
The integers are given to be in the ratio of 4 to 5. Set up the following proportion:

Use 27 − n to determine the other integer.
Answer: The integers are 12 and 15.
Try this! A recipe calls for 5 tablespoons of sugar for every 8 cups of flour. How
many tablespoons of sugar are required for 32 cups of flour?
Answer: 20 tablespoons of sugar
Video Solution

Similar Triangles
We will often encounter proportion problems in geometry and trigonometry. One

application involves similar triangles43, which have the same shape, but not
necessarily the same size. The measures of the corresponding angles of similar
43. Triangles with the same shape triangles are equal, and the measures of the corresponding sides are proportional.
but not necessarily the same Given similar triangles ABC and RST,
size. The measures of
corresponding angles are equal
and the corresponding sides
are proportional.

We may write ABC ~ RST and conclude that all of the corresponding angles are
equal. The notation indicates that angle A corresponds to angle R and that the
measures of these angles are equal: A = R.
In addition, the measures of other pairs of corresponding angles are equal: B = S and
C = T.
Use uppercase letters for angles and a lowercase letter to denote the side opposite
of the given angle. Denote the proportionality of the sides as follows:
Example 10: If triangle ABC is similar to RST, where a = 3, b = 4, c = 5, and

r = 9, then find the remaining two sides.
Solution: Draw a picture and identify the variables pictorially. Represent the
remaining unknown sides by s and t. Set up proportions and solve for the missing
sides.

Answer: The two remaining sides measure 12 units and 15 units.
The reduced ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is called the
scale factor44. In the previous example, the ratio of the two given sides a and r is
Therefore, triangle ABC is similar to triangle RST with a scale factor of 1/3. This
means that each leg of triangle ABC is 1/3 of the measure of the corresponding legs
of triangle RST. Also, another interesting fact is that the perimeters of similar
triangles are in the same proportion as their sides and share the same scale factor.
44. The reduced ratio of any two

corresponding sides of similar
triangles.

Example 11: If a triangle ABC has a perimeter of 12 units and is similar to RST with a
scale factor of 1/3, then find the perimeter of triangle RST.
Solution:
Scale factor 1/3 implies that the perimeters are in proportion to this ratio. Set up a
proportion as follows:
Cross multiply and solve for x.
Answer: The perimeter of triangle RST is 36 units.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solve proportions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the

product of the denominators, or cross multiply.
• When setting up a proportion, it is important to ensure consistent units
in the numerators and denominators.
• The corresponding angles of similar triangles are equal and their
corresponding sides are proportional. The ratio of any two
corresponding sides determines the scale factor, which can be used to
solve many applications involving similar triangles.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Ratios and Rates
Express each ratio in reduced form.
1. 100 inches : 250 inches
2. 480 pixels : 320 pixels
3. 96 feet : 72 feet
240 miles
4.
4 hours
96 feet
5.
3 seconds
6,000 revolutions
6.
4 minutes
7. Google’s average 2008 stock price and earnings per share were $465.66 and
$14.89, respectively. What was Google’s average price-to-earnings ratio in
2008? (Source: Wolfram Alpha)
8. The F-22 Raptor has two engines that each produce 35,000 pounds of
thrust. If the takeoff weight of this fighter jet is 50,000 pounds, calculate the
plane’s thrust-to-weight ratio. (Source: USAF)
9. A discount warehouse offers a box of 55 individual instant oatmeal

servings for $11.10. The supermarket offers smaller boxes of the same
product containing 12 individual servings for $3.60. Which store offers the
better value?
10. Joe and Mary wish to take a road trip together and need to decide whose
car they will take. Joe calculated that his car is able to travel 210 miles on 12
gallons of gasoline. Mary calculates that her car travels 300 miles on 19
gallons. Which of their cars gets more miles to the gallon?
Part B: Solving Proportions

Solve.
2 n
11.
3
= 150
7 21
12. n = 5
1 5
13.
3
= n
12 6
14.
5
= n
n 3
15.
8
=− 2
n 5
16.
3
=− 7
2n
17. 8 = 3
5
18. n = −30
1
19. 1 = n−1
1
20. −1 =− n+1
40 5
21. − n =− 3
2n+1 3
22.
3
=− 5
5 2
23.
3n+3
= 3
n+1 1
24.
2n−1
= 3
5n+7 n−1
25.
5
= 2
n+7
26. −2n +3= 6

27. Find two numbers in the ratio of 3 to 5 whose sum is 160. (Hint: Use n and
160 − n to represent the two numbers.)
28. Find two numbers in the ratio of 2 to 7 whose sum is 90.
29. Find two numbers in the ratio of −3 to 7 whose sum is 80.
30. Find two numbers in the ratio of −1 to 3 whose sum is 90.
31. A larger integer is 5 more than a smaller integer. If the two integers have
a ratio of 6 to 5 find the integers.
32. A larger integer is 7 less than twice a smaller integer. If the two integers
have a ratio of 2 to 3 find the integers.
Given the following proportions, determine each ratio, x : y.

x y
33.
3
= 4
x−2y 3y
34.
3
=− 5
2x+4y 3
35.
2x−4y
= 2
x+y 3
36. x−y = 5
Part C: Applications
Set up a proportion and then solve.
37. If 4 out of every 5 voters support the governor, then how many of the
1,200 people surveyed support the governor?
38. If 1 out of every 3 voters surveyed said they voted yes on Proposition 23,
then how many of the 600 people surveyed voted yes?
39. Out of 460 students surveyed, the ratio to support the student union
remodel project was 3 to 5. How many students were in favor of the
remodel?

40. An estimated 5 out of 7 students carry credit card debt. Estimate the
number of students that carry credit card debt out of a total of 14,000
students.
41. If the ratio of female to male students at the college is 6 to 5, then

determine the number of male students out of 11,000 total students.
42. In the year 2009 it was estimated that there would be 838 deaths in the
United States for every 100,000 people. If the total US population was
estimated to be 307,212,123 people, then how many deaths in the United
States were expected in 2009? (Source: CIA World Factbook)
43. In the year 2009 it was estimated that there would be 1,382 births in the
United States for every 100,000 people. If the total US population was
estimated to be 307,212,123 people, then how many births in the United
States were expected in 2009? (Source: CIA World Factbook)
44. If 2 out of every 7 voters approve of a sales tax increase then determine
the number of voters out of the 588 surveyed who do not support the
increase.
45. A recipe calls for 1 cup of lemon juice to make 4 cups of lemonade. How
much lemon juice is needed to make 2 gallons of lemonade?
46. The classic “Shirley Temple” cocktail requires 1 part cherry syrup to 4
parts lemon-lime soda. How much cherry syrup is needed to mix the cocktail
given a 12-ounce can of lemon-lime soda?
47. A printer prints 30 pages in 1 minute. How long will it take to print a
720-page booklet?
48. A typist can type 75 words per minute. How long will it take to type 72
pages if there are approximately 300 words per page?
1
49. On a particular map, every 16
inch represents 1 mile. How many miles
does 3 12 inches represent?
50. On a graph every 1 centimeter represents 100 feet. What measurement

on the map represents one mile?

51. A candy store offers mixed candy at $3.75 for every half-pound. How
much will 2.6 pounds of candy cost?
52. Mixed nuts are priced at $6.45 per pound. How many pounds of mixed
nuts can be purchased with $20.00?
53. Corn at the farmers market is bundled and priced at $1.33 for 6 ears. How
many ears can be purchased with $15.00?
54. If 4 pizzas cost $21.00, then how much will 16 pizzas cost?
3
55. A sweetened breakfast cereal contains 110 calories in one 4
-cup serving.
How many calories are in a 1 78 -cup serving?
56. Chicken-flavored rice contains 300 calories in each 2.5-ounce serving.

How many calories are in a 4-ounce scoop of chicken-flavored rice?
57. A 200-pound man would weigh about 33.2 pounds on the moon. How
much will a 150-pound man weigh on the moon?
58. A 200-pound man would weigh about 75.4 pounds on Mars. How much
will a 150-pound man weigh on Mars?
59. There is a 1 out of 6 chance of rolling a 1 on a six-sided die. How many

times can we expect a 1 to come up in 360 rolls of the die?
60. There is a 1 out of 6 chance of rolling a 7 with two six-sided dice. How
many times can we expect a 7 to come up in 300 rolls?
61. The ratio of peanuts to all nuts in a certain brand of packaged mixed nuts
is 3 to 5. If the package contains 475 nuts, then how many peanuts can we
expect?
62. A mixed bag of marbles is packaged with a ratio of 6 orange marbles for
every 5 red marbles. If the package contains 216 orange marbles, then how
many red marbles can we expect?
63. A graphic designer wishes to create a 720-pixel-wide screen capture. If

the width to height ratio is to be 3:2, then to how many pixels should he set
the height?

64. If a video monitor is produced in the width to height ratio of 16:9 and the
width of the monitor is 40 inches, then what is the height?
Part D: Similar Triangles
If triangle ABC is similar to triangle RST, find the remaining two sides given the
information.
65. a = 6, b = 8, c = 10, and s = 16
66. b = 36 , c = 48, r = 20, and t = 32
67. b = 2, c = 4, r = 6, and s = 4
68. b = 3, c = 2, r = 10, and t = 12
69. a = 40, c = 50, s = 3, and t = 10
70. c = 2, r = 7, s = 9, and t = 4
71. At the same time of day, a tree casts a 12-foot shadow while a 6-foot man
casts a 3-foot shadow. Estimate the height of the tree.
72. At the same time of day, a father and son, standing side by side, cast a
4-foot and 2-foot shadow, respectively. If the father is 6 feet tall, then how
tall is his son?
73. If the 6-8-10 right triangle ABC is similar to RST with a scale factor of 2/3,
then find the perimeter of triangle RST.
74. If the 3-4-5 right triangle ABC is similar to RST with a scale factor of 5,
then find the perimeter of triangle RST.
75. An equilateral triangle with sides measuring 6 units is similar to another

with scale factor 3:1. Find the length of each side of the unknown triangle.
76. The perimeter of an equilateral triangle ABC measures 45 units. If

triangle ABC ~ RST and r = 20, then what is the scale factor?

77. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle ABC, where the two equal sides
each measure twice that of the base, is 60 units. If the base of a similar
triangle measures 6 units, then find its perimeter.
78. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle ABC measures 11 units and its two
equal sides measure 4 units. If triangle ABC is similar to triangle RST and
triangle RST has a perimeter of 22 units, then find all the sides of triangle
RST.
79. A 6-8-10 right triangle ABC is similar to a triangle RST with perimeter 72
units. Find the length of each leg of triangle RST.
80. The perimeter of triangle ABC is 60 units and b = 20 units. If

ABC ~ RST and s = 10 units, then find the perimeter of triangle RST.
81. What is the golden ratio and where does it appear?
82. Research and discuss the properties of similar triangles.
83. Discuss the mathematics of perspective.
84. Research and discuss the various aspect ratios that are available in
modern media devices.

ANSWERS
1: 2:5
3: 4:3
5: 32 feet per second
7: 31.27
9: The discount warehouse
11: n = 100
13: n = 15
15: n = −12
17: n = 12
19: n =2
21: n = 24
3
23: n = 2
19
25: n =− 5
27: 60, 100
29: −60, 140
31: 25, 30
33: 3/4
35: 10
37: 960 people

39: 276 students
41: 5,000 male students
43: 4,245,672 births
45: 8 cups of lemon juice
47: 24 minutes
49: 56 miles
51: $19.50
53: 66 ears
55: 275 calories
57: 24.9 pounds
59: 60 times
61: 285 peanuts
63: 480 pixels
65: t = 20, r = 12
67: a = 3, t = 8
69: r = 8, b = 15
71: 24 feet
73: 36 units
75: 2 units
77: 30 units

79: r = 18 units, s = 24 units, t = 30 units

2.7 Introduction to Inequalities and Interval Notation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Graph the solutions of a single inequality on a number line and express

the solutions using interval notation.
2. Graph the solutions of a compound inequality on a number line, and
express the solutions using interval notation.
Unbounded Intervals
An algebraic inequality45, such as x ≥ 2 , is read “x is greater than or equal to 2.”

This inequality has infinitely many solutions for x. Some of the solutions are 2, 3,
3.5, 5, 20, and 20.001. Since it is impossible to list all of the solutions, a system is
needed that allows a clear communication of this infinite set. Two common ways of
expressing solutions to an inequality are by graphing them on a number line46
and using interval notation47.
To express the solution graphically, draw a number line and shade in all the values
that are solutions to the inequality. Interval notation is textual and uses specific
notation as follows:
45. Expressions related with the

symbols ≤, <, ≥, and >.
46. Solutions to an algebraic

inequality expressed by
shading the solution on a
number line.
47. A textual system of expressing

solutions to an algebraic
inequality.
Determine the interval notation after graphing the solution set on a number line.
The numbers in interval notation should be written in the same order as they
48. An inequality that includes the appear on the number line, with smaller numbers in the set appearing first. In this
boundary point indicated by
the “or equal” part of the
example, there is an inclusive inequality48, which means that the lower-bound 2 is
symbols ≤ and ≥ and a closed included in the solution. Denote this with a closed dot on the number line and a
dot on the number line. square bracket in interval notation. The symbol (∞) is read as infinity49 and
49. The symbol (∞) indicates the
indicates that the set is unbounded to the right on a number line. Interval notation
interval is unbounded to the requires a parenthesis to enclose infinity. The square bracket indicates the
right. boundary is included in the solution. The parentheses indicate the boundary is not
327
included. Infinity is an upper bound to the real numbers, but is not itself a real
number: it cannot be included in the solution set.
Now compare the interval notation in the previous example to that of the strict, or
noninclusive, inequality that follows:
Strict inequalities50 imply that solutions may get very close to the boundary point,
in this case 2, but not actually include it. Denote this idea with an open dot on the
number line and a round parenthesis in interval notation.
Example 1: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: x < 3 .
Solution: Use an open dot at 3 and shade all real numbers strictly less than 3. Use
negative infinity51 (−∞) to indicate that the solution set is unbounded to the left on
a number line.
Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, 3)
Example 2: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: x ≤ 5 .

50. Express ordering relationships
using the symbol < for “less
than” and > for “greater than.” Solution: Use a closed dot and shade all numbers less than and including 5.
51. The symbol (−∞) indicates the
interval is unbounded to the
left.
2.7 Introduction to Inequalities and Interval Notation 328

Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, 5]
It is important to see that 5 ≥ x is the same as x ≤ 5 . Both require values of x to be

smaller than or equal to 5. To avoid confusion, it is good practice to rewrite all
shortened form of infinity. For example, (−∞, 5] can be expressed textually as

inequalities with the variable on the left. Also, when using text, use “inf” as a
(−inf, 5].
A compound inequality52 is actually two or more inequalities in one statement

joined by the word “and” or by the word “or.” Compound inequalities with the
logical “or” require that either condition must be satisfied. Therefore, the solution
set of this type of compound inequality consists of all the elements of the solution
sets of each inequality. When we join these individual solution sets it is called the
union53, denoted ∪. For example, the solutions to the compound inequality
x < 3 or x ≥ 6 can be graphed as follows:
Sometimes we encounter compound inequalities where the separate solution sets

overlap. In the case where the compound inequality contains the word “or,” we
combine all the elements of both sets to create one set containing all the elements
of each.
52. Two inequalities in one

Example 3: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: x ≤ −1 or x < 3.
statement joined by the word
“and” or by the word “or.”
Solution: Combine all solutions of both inequalities. The solutions to each
53. The set formed by joining the inequality are sketched above the number line as a means to determine the union,
individual solution sets
which is graphed on the number line below.
indicated by the logical use of
the word “or” and denoted
with the symbol ∪.

Any real number less than 3 in the shaded region on the number line will satisfy at
least one of the two given inequalities.
Example 4: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: x < 3 or x ≥ −1.
Solution: Both solution sets are graphed above the union, which is graphed below.
Answer: Interval notation: R = (−∞, ∞)
When you combine both solution sets and form the union, you can see that all real
numbers satisfy the original compound inequality.
In summary,

and
Bounded Intervals
An inequality such as
reads “−1 one is less than or equal to x and x is less than three.” This is a compound
inequality because it can be decomposed as follows:

The logical “and” requires that both conditions must be true. Both inequalities are
satisfied by all the elements in the intersection54, denoted ∩, of the solution sets of
each.
Example 5: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: x < 3 and x ≥ −1.
Solution: Determine the intersection, or overlap, of the two solution sets. The
solutions to each inequality are sketched above the number line as a means to
determine the intersection, which is graphed on the number line below.
Here x = 3 is not a solution because it solves only one of the inequalities.
Answer: Interval notation: [−1, 3)
Alternatively, we may interpret −1 ≤ x < 3 as all possible values for x between or

bounded by −1 and 3 on a number line. For example, one such solution is x = 1 .
Notice that 1 is between −1 and 3 on a number line, or that −1 < 1 < 3. Similarly, we
can see that other possible solutions are −1, −0.99, 0, 0.0056, 1.8, and 2.99. Since
solution graphically and/or with interval notation, in this case [−1, 3).
there are infinitely many real numbers between −1 and 3, we must express the
54. The set formed by the shared

values of the individual
solution sets that is indicated
by the logical use of the word
“and,” denoted with the
symbol ∩.

Example 6: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: − 32 < x < 2.
Solution: Shade all real numbers bounded by, or strictly between, − 3

2
= −1 12and
2.
Answer: Interval notation: (− 3

2
, 2)
Example 7: Graph and give the interval notation equivalent: −5 < x ≤ 15.
Solution: Shade all real numbers between −5 and 15, and indicate that the upper
bound, 15, is included in the solution set by using a closed dot.
Answer: Interval notation: (−5, 15]
In the previous two examples, we did not decompose the inequalities; instead we
chose to think of all real numbers between the two given bounds.
In summary,

Set-Builder Notation
In this text, we use interval notation. However, other resources that you are likely
to encounter use an alternate method for describing sets called set-builder
notation55. We have used set notation to list the elements such as the integers
The braces group the elements of the set and the ellipsis marks indicate that the
integers continue forever. In this section, we wish to describe intervals of real
numbers—for example, the real numbers greater than or equal to 2.
Since the set is too large to list, set-builder notation allows us to describe it using
familiar mathematical notation. An example of set-builder notation follows:
55. A system for describing sets

using familiar mathematical
notation.

Here x∈R describes the type of number, where the symbol (∈) is read “element of.”
This implies that the variable x represents a real number. The vertical bar (|) is read
“such that.” Finally, the statement x ≥ 2 is the condition that describes the set
using mathematical notation. At this point in our study of algebra, it is assumed
that all variables represent real numbers. For this reason, you can omit the “∈R”
and write {x||x ≥ 2} , which is read “the set of all real numbers x such that x is
greater than or equal to 2.”
To describe compound inequalities such as x < 3 or x ≥ 6, write

{x||x < 3 or x ≥ 6} , which is read “the set of all real numbers x such that x is less
than 3 or x is greater than or equal to 6.”
Write bounded intervals, such as −1 ≤ x < 3, as {x|| − 1 ≤ x < 3} , which is read

“the set of all real numbers x such that x is greater than or equal to −1 and less than
3.”

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Inequalities usually have infinitely many solutions, so rather than

presenting an impossibly large list, we present such solutions sets either
graphically on a number line or textually using interval notation.
• Inclusive inequalities with the “or equal to” component are indicated
with a closed dot on the number line and with a square bracket using
interval notation.
• Strict inequalities without the “or equal to” component are indicated
with an open dot on the number line and a parenthesis using interval
notation.
• Compound inequalities that make use of the logical “or” are solved by
solutions of either inequality. The solution set is the union of each
individual solution set.
• Compound inequalities that make use of the logical “and” require that
all inequalities are solved by a single solution. The solution set is the
intersection of each individual solution set.
• Compound inequalities of the form n < A < m can be decomposed
into two inequalities using the logical “and.” However, it is just as valid
to consider the argument A to be bounded between the values n and m.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Simple Inequalities
Graph all solutions on a number line and provide the corresponding interval
notation.
1. x ≤ 10
2. x > −5
3. x >0
4. x ≤0
5. x ≤ −3
6. x ≥ −1
7. −4 <x
8. 1 ≥x
1
9. x <− 2
3
10. x ≥− 2
3
11. x ≥ −1 4
3
12. x < 4
Part B: Compound Inequalities
Graph all solutions on a number line and give the corresponding interval notation.
13. −2 <x<5
14. −5 ≤ x ≤ −1

15. −5 < x ≤ 20
16. 0 ≤ x < 15
17. 10 < x ≤ 40
18. −40 ≤ x < −10
19. 0 < x ≤ 50
20. −30 <x<0

5 1
21. − <x<
8 8
3 1
22. − ≤x≤
4 2
1
23. −1 ≤x<1 2
1 1
24. −1 <x<−
2 2
25. x < −3 or x > 3
26. x < −2 or x ≥ 4
27. x ≤ 0 or x > 10
28. x ≤ −20 or x ≥ −10

2 1
29. x <− or x >
3 3
4 1
30. x ≤− or x > −
3 3
31. x > −5 or x < 5
32. x < 12 or x > −6
33. x < 3 or x ≥ 3

34. x ≤ 0 or x > 0
35. x < −7 or x < 2
36. x ≥ −3 or x > 0
37. x ≥ 5 or x > 0
38. x < 15 or x ≤ 10
39. x > −2 and x < 3
40. x ≥ 0 and x < 5
41. x ≥ −5 and x ≤ −1
42. x < −4 and x > 2
43. x ≤ 3 and x > 3
44. x ≤ 5 and x ≥ 5
45. x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 0
46. x < 2 and x ≤ −1
47. x > 0 and x ≥ −1
48. x < 5 and x < 2
Part C: Interval Notation
Determine the inequality given the answers expressed in interval notation.
49. (−∞, 7]
50. (−4, ∞)
51. [− 1
2
, ∞)

52. (−∞, − 3)
53. (−8, 10]
54. (−20, 0]
55. (−14, − 2)
56. [
3]
2 4
3
,
57. (−
2)
3 1
4
,
58. (−∞, − 8)
59. (8, ∞)
60. (−∞, 4) ∪ [8, ∞)
61. (−∞, − 2] ∪ [0, ∞)
62. (−∞, − 5] ∪ (5, ∞)
63. (−∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞)
64. (−∞, − 15) ∪ (−5, ∞)
Write an equivalent inequality.
65. All real numbers less than 27.
66. All real numbers less than or equal to zero.
67. All real numbers greater than 5.
68. All real numbers greater than or equal to −8.

69. All real numbers strictly between −6 and 6.
70. All real numbers strictly between −80 and 0.
71. Compare interval notation with set-builder notation. Share an example

of a set described using both systems.
72. Explain why we do not use a bracket in interval notation when infinity is
an endpoint.
73. Research and discuss the different compound inequalities, particularly

unions and intersections.
74. Research and discuss the history of infinity.
75. Research and discuss the contributions of Georg Cantor.
76. What is a Venn diagram? Explain and post an example.

ANSWERS
1: (−∞, 10]
3: (0, ∞)
5: (−∞, − 3]
7: (−4, ∞)
9: (−∞, − 12 )
11: [−1 3
4
, ∞)
13: (−2, 5)
15: (−5, 20]

17: (10, 40]
19: (0, 50]
21: (− 5
8
, 1
8 )
23: [−1, 1 12 )
25: (−∞, − 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
27: (−∞, 0] ∪ (10, ∞)
29: (−∞, − 23 ) ∪ ( 13 , ∞)
31: R

33: R
35: (−∞, 2)
37: (0, ∞)
39: (−2, 3)
41: [−5, − 1]
43: ∅
45: {0}
47: (0, ∞)

49: x ≤7
1
51: x ≥− 2
53: −8 < x ≤ 10
55: −14 < x < −2

3 1
57: − <x<
4 2
59: x >8
61: x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 0
63: x < 0 or x > 2
65: x < 27
67: x >5
69: −6 <x<6

2.8 Linear Inequalities (One Variable)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify linear inequalities and check solutions.

2. Solve linear inequalities and express the solutions graphically on a
number line and in interval notation.
3. Solve compound linear inequalities and express the solutions
graphically on a number line and in interval notation.
4. Solve applications involving linear inequalities and interpret the results.
Definition of a Linear Inequality
A linear inequality56 is a mathematical statement that relates a linear expression

as either less than or greater than another. The following are some examples of
linear inequalities, all of which are solved in this section:
A solution to a linear inequality57 is a real number that will produce a true

statement when substituted for the variable. Linear inequalities have either
infinitely many solutions or no solution. If there are infinitely many solutions,
graph the solution set on a number line and/or express the solution using interval
notation.
Example 1: Are x = −2 and x = 4 solutions to 3x + 7 < 16?
Solution: Substitute the values for x, simplify, and check to see if we obtain a true
56. A mathematical statement statement.
relating a linear expression as
either less than or greater than
another.
57. A real number that produces a

true statement when its value
is substituted for the variable.
346
Answer: x = −2 is a solution and x = 4 is not.
Algebra of Linear Inequalities
All but one of the techniques learned for solving linear equations apply to solving
linear inequalities. You may add or subtract any real number to both sides of an
inequality, and you may multiply or divide both sides by any positive real number to
create equivalent inequalities. For example,
Both subtracting 7 from each side and dividing each side by +5 results in an
equivalent inequality that is true.
Example 2: Solve and graph the solution set: 3x + 7 < 16.
Solution:
2.8 Linear Inequalities (One Variable) 347

It is helpful to take a minute and choose a few values in and out of the solution set,
substitute them into the original inequality, and then verify the results. As
indicated, you should expect x = 0 to solve the original inequality, but x = 5
should not.
Checking in this manner gives a good indication that the inequality is solved
correctly. This can be done mentally.
When working with linear inequalities, a different rule applies when multiplying or
dividing by a negative number. To illustrate the problem, consider the true
statement 10 > −5 and divide both sides by −5.

Dividing by −5 results in a false statement. To retain a true statement, the inequality

must be reversed.
The same problem occurs when multiplying by a negative number. This leads to the
following new rule: when multiplying or dividing by a negative number, reverse the
inequality. It is easy to forget to do this so take special care to watch for negative
coefficients.
In general, given algebraic expressions A and B, where c is a positive nonzero real

number, we have the following properties of inequalities58:
58. Properties used to obtain

equivalent inequalities and
used as a means to solve them.

We use these properties to obtain an equivalent inequality59, one with the same
solution set, where the variable is isolated. The process is similar to solving linear
equations.
Example 3: Solve: −2x + 1 ≥ 21.
Solution:
Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, − 10]
Example 4: Solve: −7 (2x + 1) < 1.
Solution:
59. Inequalities that share the

same solution set.

Answer: Interval notation: (− 4

7
, ∞)
Example 5: Solve: 5x − 3 (2x − 1) ≥ 2(x − 3).
Solution:

Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, 3]
Try this! Solve: 3 − 5(x − 1) ≤ 28.
Answer: [−4, ∞)
Video Solution

Compound Inequalities
Following are some examples of compound linear inequalities:
These compound inequalities60 are actually two inequalities in one statement

joined by the word “and” or by the word “or.” For example,
is a compound inequality because it can be decomposed as follows:
60. Two or more inequalities in

one statement joined by the
word “and” or by the word
“or.”

Solve each inequality individually, and the intersection of the two solution sets
solves the original compound inequality. While this method works, there is another
method that usually requires fewer steps. Apply the properties of this section to all
three parts of the compound inequality with the goal of isolating the variable in the
middle of the statement to determine the bounds of the solution set.
Example 6: Solve: −3 < 2x + 5 < 17.
Solution:
Answer: Interval notation: (−4, 6)
Example 7: Solve: −1 ≤ 12 x − 3 < 1.
Solution:

Answer: Interval notation: [4, 8)
It is important to note that when multiplying or dividing all three parts of a

compound inequality by a negative number, you must reverse all of the inequalities
in the statement. For example,
The answer above can be written in an equivalent form, where smaller numbers lie
to the left and the larger numbers lie to the right, as they appear on a number line.
Using interval notation, write (−10, 5).

Try this! Solve: −8 ≤ 2 (−3x + 5) < 34.
Answer: (−4, 3]
Video Solution
For compound inequalities with the word “or” you must work both inequalities
separately and then consider the union of the solution sets. Values in this union
solve either inequality.
Example 8: Solve: 3x + 1 < 10 or 2x − 1 ≥ 11
Solution: Solve each inequality and form the union by combining the solution sets.
Answer: Interval notation: (−∞, 3) ∪ [6, ∞)
Try this! Solve: 4x − 1 < −5 or 4x − 1 > 5.
Answer: (−∞, −1) ∪ ( 32 , ∞)

Video Solution

Applications of Linear Inequalities
Some of the key words and phrases that indicate inequalities are summarized
below:
A number is at least 5.
x≥5
A number is 5 or more inclusive.
A number is at most 3.
x≤3
A number is 3 or less inclusive.
A number is strictly less than 4.

x<4
A number is less than 4, noninclusive.
A number is greater than 7.

x>7
A number is more than 7, noninclusive.
A number is in between 2 and 10. 2 < x < 10
A number is at least 5 and at most 15.

5 ≤ x ≤ 15
A number may range from 5 to 15.
As with all applications, carefully read the problem several times and look for key
words and phrases. Identify the unknowns and assign variables. Next, translate the
wording into a mathematical inequality. Finally, use the properties you have
learned to solve the inequality and express the solution graphically or in interval
notation.
Example 9: Translate: Five less than twice a number is at most 25.
Solution: First, choose a variable for the unknown number and identify the key
words and phrases.

Answer: 2n − 5 ≤ 25. The key phrase “is at most” indicates that the quantity has a
maximum value of 25 or smaller.
Example 10: The temperature in the desert can range from 10°C to 45°C in one
24-hour period. Find the equivalent range in degrees Fahrenheit, F, given that
C = 59 (F − 32).
Solution: Set up a compound inequality where the temperature in Celsius is

inclusively between 10°C and 45°C. Then substitute the expression equivalent to the
Celsius temperature in the inequality and solve for F.
Answer: The equivalent Fahrenheit range is from 50°F to 113°F.
Example 11: In the first four events of a meet, a gymnast scores 7.5, 8.2, 8.5, and 9.0.
What must she score on the fifth event to average at least 8.5?
Solution: The average must be at least 8.5; this means that the average must be
greater than or equal to 8.5.

Answer: She must score at least 9.3 on the fifth event.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Inequalities typically have infinitely many solutions. The solutions are

presented graphically on a number line or using interval notation or
both.
• All but one of the rules for solving linear inequalities are the same as for
solving linear equations. If you divide or multiply an inequality by a
negative number, reverse the inequality to obtain an equivalent
inequality.
• Compound inequalities involving the word “or” require us to solve each
inequality and form the union of each solution set. These are the values
that solve at least one of the given inequalities.
• Compound inequalities involving the word “and” require the
intersection of the solution sets for each inequality. These are the values
that solve both or all of the given inequalities.
• The general guidelines for solving word problems apply to applications
involving inequalities. Be aware of a new list of key words and phrases
that indicate a mathematical setup involving inequalities.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Checking for Solutions
Determine whether the given number is a solution to the given inequality.
1. 2x − 3 < 6; x = −1
2. −3x + 1 ≤ 0; x = −2
3. 5x − 20 > 0; x = 3
1 3 1
4.
2
x+1>− 4
; x=− 4
5. −5 < 7x + 1 < 9; x = 0
6. −20 ≤ −3x − 5 ≤ −10; x = 5
7. x < −3 or x > 3 ; x = −10

1
8. x < 0 or x ≥ 1; x = 2
9. 2x + 1 < −3 or 2x + 1 ≥ 5 ; x = 2
10. 4x − 1 < −17 or 3x + 2 ≥ 6 ; x = 1
Part B: Solving Linear Inequalities
Solve and graph the solution set. In addition, present the solution set in interval
notation.
11. x +5>1
12. x − 3 < −4
13. 6x ≤ 24
14. 4x > −8

15. −7x ≤ 14
16. −2x +5>9
17. 7x − 3 ≤ 25
18. 12x + 7 > −53
19. −2x + 5 < −7
20. −2x +4≤4
21. −15x + 10 > 20
22. −8x + 1 ≤ 29
1
23. 7 x−3<1
1 1 2
24.
2
x− 3
> 3
5 1 1
25.
3
x+ 2
≤ 3
3 1 5
26. − x− ≥
4 2 2
1 3 1
27. − x+ <−
5 4 5
2
28. − x + 1 < −3
3
29. 2 (−3x + 1) < 14
30. −7 (x − 2) + 1 < 15
31. 9x − 3 (3x + 4) > −12
32. 12x − 4 (3x + 5) ≤ −2
33. 5 − 3 (2x − 6) ≥ −1

34. 9x − (10x − 12) < 22
35. 2 (x − 7) − 3 (x + 3) ≤ −3
36. 5x − 3 > 3x + 7
37. 4 (3x − 2) ≤ −2 (x + 3) + 12
38. 5 (x − 3) ≥ 15x − (10x + 4)
39. 12x + 1 > 2 (6x − 3) − 5
40. 3 (x − 2) + 5 > 2 (3x + 5) + 2
41. −4 (3x − 1) + 2x ≤ 2 (4x − 1) − 3
42. −2(x − 2) + 14x < 7(2x + 1)
Set up an algebraic inequality and then solve it.
43. The sum of three times a number and 4 is greater than negative 8.
44. The sum of 7 and three times a number is less than or equal to 1.
45. When a number is subtracted from 10, the result is at most 12.
46. When 5 times a number is subtracted from 6, the result is at least 26.
47. If five is added to three times a number, then the result is less than
twenty.
48. If three is subtracted from two times a number, then the result is greater
than or equal to nine.
49. Bill earns $12.00 for the day plus $0.25 for every person he gets to
register to vote. How many people must he register to earn at least $50.00
for the day?

50. With a golf club membership costing $100 per month, each round of golf
costs only $25.00. How many rounds of golf can a member play if he wishes
to keep his costs to $250 per month at most?
51. Joe earned scores of 72, 85, and 75 on his first three algebra exams. What
must he score on the fourth exam to average at least 80?
52. Maurice earned 4, 7, and 9 points out of 10 on the first three quizzes.
What must he score on the fourth quiz to average at least 7?
53. A computer is set to shut down if the temperature exceeds 40°C. Give an
equivalent statement using degrees Fahrenheit. (Hint: C = 59 (F − 32).)
54. A certain brand of makeup is guaranteed not to run if the temperature is

less than 35°C. Give an equivalent statement using degrees Fahrenheit.
Part C: Compound Inequalities
notation.
55. −1 <x+3<5
56. −10 ≤ 5x < 20
57. −2 ≤ 4x + 6 < 10
58. −10 ≤ 3x − 1 ≤ −4
59. −15 < 3x − 6 ≤ 6
60. −22 < 5x + 3 ≤ 3

1
61. −1 ≤ x−5≤1
2
62. 1 < 8x + 5 < 5

1 2 1 4
63. − ≤ x− <
5 3 5 5

1 3 2 1
64. − < x− ≤
2 4 3 2
65. −3 ≤ 3(x − 1) ≤ 3
66. −12 < 6(x − 3) ≤ 0
67. 4 < −2 (x + 3) < 6
68. −5 ≤ 5 (−x + 1) < 15
( 2 x − 1) +
3 1 1 3 3
69. − ≤ <
2 4 4 2
1
70. −4 ≤− (3x + 12) < 4
3
71. −2 ≤ 12 − 2(x − 3) ≤ 20
72. −5 < 2 (x − 1) − 3 (x + 2) < 5
73. 3x ≤ −15 or 2x > 6
74. 4x − 1 < −17 or 3x + 2 ≥ 8
75. −2x + 1 < −1 or − 2x + 1 > 1
76. 7x + 4 ≤ 4 or 6x − 5 ≥ 1
77. 3x − 7 < 14 or 2x + 3 > 7
78. −3x + 1 < −5 or − 4x − 3 > −23

1 1
79.
2
x − 2 < −1 or 2
x−2>1
1 1
80.
3
x + 3 ≥ −2 or 3
x+3≤2
81. 3x + 7 ≤ 7 or − 5x + 6 > 6
82. −10x − 3 ≤ 17 or 20x − 6 > −26

83. 2x − 10 < −2 or − 3x + 4 > −5
84. 5x + 3 < 4 or 5 − 10x > 4
85. 3x < 18 and 5x > −20
86. x + 7 ≤ 5 and x − 3 ≥ −10
87. 2x − 1 < 5 and 3x − 1 < 10
88. 5x + 2 < −13 and 3x + 4 > 13
Set up a compound inequality for the following and then solve.
89. Five more than two times some number is between 15 and 25.
90. Four subtracted from three times some number is between −4 and 14.
91. Clint wishes to earn a B, which is at least 80 but less than 90. What range
must he score on the fourth exam if the first three were 65, 75, and 90?
92. A certain antifreeze is effective for a temperature range of −35°C to

120°C. Find the equivalent range in degrees Fahrenheit.
93. The average temperature in London ranges from 23°C in the summer to
14°C in the winter. Find the equivalent range in degrees Fahrenheit.
94. If the base of a triangle measures 5 inches, then in what range must the
height be for the area to be between 10 square inches and 20 square inches?
95. A rectangle has a length of 7 inches. Find all possible widths if the area is
to be at least 14 square inches and at most 28 square inches.
96. A rectangle has a width of 3 centimeters. Find all possible lengths, if the
perimeter must be at least 12 centimeters and at most 26 centimeters.
97. The perimeter of a square must be between 40 feet and 200 feet. Find the
length of all possible sides that satisfy this condition.

98. If two times an angle is between 180 degrees and 270 degrees, then what
are the bounds of the original angle?
99. If three times an angle is between 270 degrees and 360 degrees then what
are the bounds of the original angle?
100. Research and discuss the use of set-builder notation with intersections
and unions.
101. Can we combine logical “or” into one statement like we do for logical
“and”?

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: No
5: Yes
7: Yes
9: Yes
11: x > −4 ; (−4, ∞)
13: x ≤ 4 ; (−∞, 4]
15: x ≥ −2 ; [−2, ∞)
17: x ≤ 4 ; (−∞, 4]
19: x > 6 ; (6, ∞)
3 (
21: x <− 2
; −∞, − 23 )

23: x < 28 ; (−∞, 28)
10 ( ]
1
25: x ≤− ; −∞, − 1
10
4 ( 4
27: x > 19
; 19 , ∞)
29: x > −2 ; (−2, ∞)
31: ∅
33: x ≤ 4 ; (−∞, 4]
35: x ≥ −20 ; [−20, ∞)
37: x ≤ 1 ; (−∞, 1]

39: R
2 [2
41: x ≥ 1
; 1 , ∞)
43: n > −4
45: n ≥ −2
47: n <5
49: Bill must register at least 152 people.
51: Joe must earn at least an 88 on the fourth exam.
53: The computer will shut down when the temperature exceeds 104°F.
55: −4 < x < 2 ; (−4, 2)
57: −2 ≤ x < 1 ; [−2, 1)
59: −3 < x ≤ 4 ; (−3, 4]

61: 8 ≤ x ≤ 12 ; [8, 12]
2 [ )
3
63: 0 ≤x< ; 0, 3
2
65: 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 ; [0, 2]
67: −6 < x < −5 ; (−6, − 5)
69: −16 ≤ x < 8 ; [−16, 8)
71: −1 ≤ x ≤ 10 ; [−1, 10]
73: x ≤ −5 or x > 3 ; (−∞, − 5] ∪ (3, ∞)
75: x > 1 or x < 0 ; (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞)

77: R
79: x < 2 or x > 6 ; (−∞, 2) ∪ (6, ∞)
81: x ≤ 0 ; (−∞, 0]
83: x < 4 ; (−∞, 4)
85: −4 < x < 6 ; (−4, 6)
87: x < 3 ; (−∞, 3)
89: 5 < n < 20
91: Clint must earn a score in the range from 90 to 100.
93: The average temperature in London ranges from 57.2°F to 73.4°F.
95: The width must be at least 2 inches and at most 4 inches.
97: Sides must be between 10 feet and 50 feet.

99: The angle is between 90 degrees and 120 degrees.

372
REVIEW EXERCISES
Introduction to Algebra
Evaluate.
1. 2x + 7 , where x = −4
2. −4x + 1 , where x = −2
2 1 3
3.
3
y− 2
, where y = 5
3 5 2
4. − y+ , where y =
4 3 3
2 1
5. b − 4ac, where a = 5, b = −2 , and c = 2
2 1
6. b − 4ac, where a = − ,b = −1 , and c = −3
4
7. 2x 2 − x + 3 , where x = −3
8. 5x 2 − 2x + 4 , where x = −1
9. Calculate the simple interest earned on a 3-year investment of $750 at an

annual interest rate of 8%.
10. A bus traveled for 1 23 hours at an average speed of 48 miles per hour.
What distance did the bus travel?
11. Calculate the area of a rectangle with dimensions 4½ feet by 6 feet.
12. Calculate the volume of a rectangular box with dimensions 4½ feet by 6

feet by 1 foot.
Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
Multiply.
13. −5 (3x − 2)

14. (6x − 9) ⋅ 3
(4x − 8x + 32)
3 2
15.
4
16. −20 ( x − 54 )
1 2
10
x2 − 5
17. − (3a − 2b + 5c − 1)
18. −6 (y 3 + 3y 2 − 7y + 5)
Simplify.
19. 5a − 7b − 3a + 5b
20. 6x 2 − 4x + 7x 2 − 3x
3 1 1 1
21.
5
xy + 2
− 10
xy − 4
3 4 1 1
22. − a− b+ a− 7
b
4 21 3
23. a2 b + 2ab 2 − 7a2 b + 9ab 2
24. y 2 − 3y + 5 − y 2 + 9
25. −8 (8x − 3) − 7
26. 7 − (6x − 9)
27. 2 (3x 2 − 2x + 1) − (5x − 7)
28. (2y 2 + 6y − 8) − (5y 2 − 12y + 1)
29. 6 − 3 (a − 2b) + 7 (5a − 3b)
30. 10 − 5 (x 2 − x + 1) − (3x 2 + 5x − 1)

31. Subtract 5x −1 from 2x − 3.
32. Subtract x − 3 from twice the quantity x − 1 .
Solving Linear Equations: Part I
33. −x + 3 = −18 ; x = −15
34. 4x − 3 = −3x ; x = −2
1
35. 8x + 2 = 5x + 1 ; x = − 3
36. 2x + 4 = 3x − 2 ; x = −1
Solve.
37. y + 23 = 25
38. −3x = 54
x
39.
4
=8
5 2
40.
2
x= 3
41. 7x − 5 = −54
42. −2x + 7 = 43
43. 7x +3=0
44. 4x +5=5
45. 1 = 10 − 3x
46. 10 − 5y = 15
47. 7 − y = 28

48. 33 − x = 16
5 1 3
49.
6
x+ 3
= 2
2 1 1
50. − y+ =−
3 5 3
51. The sum of 9x and 6 is 51.
52. The difference of 3x and 8 is 25.
Solving Linear Equations: Part II
Solve.
53. 5x − 2 = 3x + 6
54. 7x + 1 = 2x − 29
55. 14x + 1 = 15x − 11
56. 6y − 13 = 3 + 7y
57. 8y + 6 − 3y = 22 − 3y
58. 12 − 5y + 6 = y − 6
59. 5 − 2 (7x − 1) = 2x + 1
60. 10 − 5 (x − 1) = 5 − x
61. 2x − (3x − 4) = 7 − x
62. 9x − 3 (2x + 1) = 3x − 3
63. 2 (5x − 2) − 3 (2x + 1) = 5 (x − 3)
64. 3 (5x − 1) − 4 (x − 4) = −5 (2x + 10)

3 1
65.
2
(4x − 3) + 4
=1
3 1
66.
4
− 6
(4x − 9) = 2
67.
2
3
(9x − 3) + 1
2
= 3 (2x − 12 )
68. 1 − 5
4
(4x − 1) = 5 ( 12 − x)
69. The sum of 4x and 3 is equal to the difference of 7x and 8.
70. The difference of 5x and 1 is equal to the sum of 12x and 1.
71. Solve for x: y = 9x + 1
72. Solve for y: 5x + 2y = 3
73. Solve for l: P = 2l + 2w

1
74. Solve for b: A= 2
bh
Applications of Linear Equations
75. A larger integer is 3 more than twice a smaller integer. If their sum is 39,
then find the integers.
76. A larger integer is 5 more than 3 times a smaller integer. If their sum is
49, then find the integers.
80. The length of a rectangle is 7 centimeters less than twice its width. If the
perimeter measures 46 centimeters, then find the dimensions of the
rectangle.

81. A triangle has sides whose measures are consecutive even integers. If the
perimeter is 24 meters, then find the measure of each side.
82. The circumference of a circle measures 24π inches. Find the radius of the
circle.
83. Mary invested $1,800 in two different accounts. One account earned 3.5%
simple interest and the other earned 4.8%. If the total interest after 1 year
was $79.25, then how much did she invest in each account?
84. James has $6 in dimes and quarters. If he has 4 fewer quarters than he
does dimes, then how many of each coin does he have?
85. Two brothers leave the house at the same time traveling in opposite
directions. One averages 40 miles per hour and the other 36 miles per hour.
How long does it take for the distance between them to reach 114 miles?
86. Driving to her grandmother’s house, Jill made several stops and was only
able to average 40 miles per hour. The return trip took 2 hours less time
because she drove nonstop and was able to average 60 miles per hour. How
long did it take Jill to drive home from her grandmother’s house?
Ratio and Proportion Applications
Solve.
3 n
87.
4
= 8
7 28
88.
3
= n
6 30
89. n = 11
n 2
90.
5
= 3
3n−1 1
91.
3
= 2
4 1
92.
2n+5
=− 3

1
93. −3 = n−1
2 1
94.
n−6
= 2n+1
95. Find two numbers in the proportion 4 to 5 whose sum is 27.
96. A larger number is 2 less than twice a smaller number. If the two
numbers are in the proportion 5 to 9, then find the numbers.
97. A recipe calls for 1½ teaspoons of vanilla extract for every 3 cups of
batter. How many teaspoons of vanilla extract should be used with 7 cups of
batter?
98. The ratio of female to male employees at a certain bank is 4 to 5. If there

are 80 female employees at the bank, then determine the total number of
employees.
If triangle ABC is similar to triangle RST, then find the remaining two sides given the
following.
99. a = 4, b = 9, c = 12, and s = 3
100. b = 7, c = 10, t = 15, and r = 6
101. At the same time of day, a pole casts a 27-foot shadow and 4-foot boy
casts a 6-foot shadow. Calculate the height of the pole.
102. An equilateral triangle with sides measuring 10 units is similar to

another equilateral triangle with scale factor of 2:3. Find the perimeter of
the unknown triangle.
Introduction to Inequalities and Interval Notation
Graph all solutions on a number line and provide the corresponding interval
notation.
103. x < −1
104. x ≤ 10

105. x ≥0
106. x > −2
1 3
107. − ≤x<
2 2
108. −20 < x < 30
109. x < 5 or x ≥ 15
110. x < 2 or x > 0
Determine the inequality given the answers expressed in interval notation.
111. (−∞, 3)
112. [−4, ∞)
113. (−2, 2)
114. (−3, 8]
115. (−∞, 1) ∪ [3, ∞)
116. (−∞, − 8] ∪ [8, ∞)
Linear Inequalities (One Variable)
Solve and graph. In addition, present the solution set in interval notation.
117. x + 2 > −1
118. −4x ≥ 16
119. 9x + 4 ≤ −5
120. 5x − 7 < 13

121. 7x + 5 − 8x ≥ 15
122. 5x − 6 + 3x < 2 + 9x − 5
123. 3x − (x − 4) > x + 4
124. 3 (2x − 1) − 3 (x − 2) ≤ 2 (x + 4)
125. 2 − 5 (x − 4) > 12
126. 3x − 5 (x − 2) ≥ 11 − 5x
127. −1 < 2x + 5 ≤ 11
1 7
128. −2 ≤ x− ≤2
4 2
129. 5x + 3 < −2 or 6x − 5 ≥ 7
130. 20 − 3x ≤ 5 or 5 − 2x ≥ 25

SAMPLE EXAM
2
1. Evaluate b − 4ac, where a = −1, b = −2 , and c = 1
2
.
2. Determine the area of a triangle given that the base measures 10

centimeters and the height measures 5 centimeters. (A = 12 bh )
Simplify.
3. 5 − 2 (4x − 1)
1 2 1 3
4.
4
x− 3
y+ 2
x− 5
y
5. (5a + 4ab − 2b) − (3a + 2ab − 3b)
6. 3x − (x 2 + 5x − 1) + (x 2 − x + 4)
Solve.
7. 2 − 5x = 27
1 3 1
8.
2
x− 4
=− 8
9. 5x − 7 = 3x − 5
10. 3 (y − 3) − (4y + 2) = 1
11. 5 (x − 2) − 3 (x + 2) = 2x − 3
5 n
12.
8
= 32
3 6
13.
n+1
=− 4
14. Solve for b: A = a + 2b .
notation.

15. 2x + 3 > 23
16. 5 (−2x + 1) ≤ 35
17. 4 (3x − 2) < 3 (2x + 1) + 1
18. −9 ≤ 3 (x + 4) ≤ 21
19. 6 (x − 13 ) < −2 or 1
5
(x + 10) ≥ 3
20. An algebra student earns 75, 79, and 89 points on the first three quizzes.
What must she score on the fourth quiz to earn an average of at least 80?
22. The length of a rectangle is 6 inches less than twice the width. If the
perimeter measures 39 inches, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
23. Millie invested her $5,350 savings in two accounts. One account earns 5%
annual interest and the other earns 6.2% in annual interest. If she earned
$317.30 simple interest in 1 year, then how much was in each account?
24. Because of traffic, Joe was only able to drive an average of 42 miles per
hour on the trip to a conference. He was able to average 63 miles per hour
on the return trip and it took 1 hour less time. How long did it take Joe to
drive home from the conference?
25. A graphic designer wishes to crop an image in the width-to-height ratio

of 3:2. If the height is required to be 400 pixels, then to how many pixels
should the width be set?

1: −1
3: −1/10
5: −6
7: 24
9: $180
11: 27 square feet
13: −15x + 10
15: 3x 2 − 6x + 24
17: −3a + 2b − 5c + 1
19: 2a − 2b
1 1
21:
2
xy + 4
23: −6a2 b + 11ab 2
25: −64x + 17
27: 6x 2 − 9x + 9
29: 32a − 15b + 6
31: −3x −2
33: No
35: Yes
37: 2

39: 32
41: −7
43: −3/7
45: 3
47: −21
49: 7/5
51: 5
53: 4
55: 12
57: 2
59: 3/8
61: Ø
63: 8
65: 7/8
67: R
69: 11/3
y−1
71: x = 9
P−2w
73: l = 2
75: 12, 27
77: 13, 15, 17

79: 19, 20, 21
81: 6 meters, 8 meters, 10 meters
83: Mary invested $550 at 3.5% and $1,250 at 4.8%.
85: They will be 114 miles apart in 1½ hours.
87: 6
89: 11/5
91: 5/6
93: 2/3
95: 12, 15
97: 3½ teaspoons
99: t = 4, r = 4/3
101: 18 feet
103: (−∞, − 1)
105: [0, ∞)
107: [− 1
2
, 3
2 )

109: (−∞, 5) ∪ [15, ∞)
111: x <3
113: −2 <x<2
115: x < 1 or x ≥ 3
117: x > −3 ; (−3, ∞)
119: x ≤ −1 ; (−∞, − 1]
121: x ≤ −10 ; (−∞, − 10]
123: x > 0 ; (0, ∞)
125: x < 2 ; (−∞, 2)
127: −3 < x ≤ 3 ; (−3, 3]

129: x < −1 or x ≥ 2 ; (−∞, − 1) ∪ [2, ∞)

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: 6
3: −8x +7
5: 2ab + 2a + b
7: −5
9: 1
11: Ø
13: −3
15: x > 10 ; (10, ∞)
17: x < 2 ; (−∞, 2)
19: x < 0 or x ≥ 5 ; (−∞, 0) ∪ [5, ∞)
21: The three odd integers are 37, 39, and 41.
23: Millie invested $1,200 in the account earning 5% annual interest and
$4,150 in the account earning 6.2%.
25: The width should be set to 600 pixels.

Chapter 3
Graphing Lines
390
Chapter 3 Graphing Lines
3.1 Rectangular Coordinate System
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Plot points using the rectangular coordinate system.

2. Calculate the distance between any two points in the rectangular
coordinate plane.
3. Determine the midpoint between any two points.
Rectangular Coordinate System
The rectangular coordinate system1 consists of two real number lines that
intersect at a right angle. The horizontal number line is called the x-axis2, and the
vertical number line is called the y-axis3. These two number lines define a flat
surface called a plane4, and each point on this plane is associated with an ordered
pair5 of real numbers (x, y). The first number is called the x-coordinate, and the
second number is called the y-coordinate. The intersection of the two axes is
known as the origin6, which corresponds to the point (0, 0).
1. A system with two number

lines at right angles uniquely
specifying points in a plane
using ordered pairs (x, y).
2. The horizontal number line

used as reference in the
rectangular coordinate system.
3. The vertical number line used

as reference in the rectangular
coordinate system.
4. The flat surface defined by the

x- and y-axes.
5. A pair (x, y) that identifies

position relative to the origin
on a rectangular coordinate
plane.
6. The point where the x- and y-

axes cross, denoted by (0, 0).
391
An ordered pair (x, y) represents the position of a point relative to the origin. The x-
coordinate represents a position to the right of the origin if it is positive and to the
left of the origin if it is negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the
origin if it is positive and below the origin if it is negative. Using this system, every
position (point) in the plane is uniquely identified. For example, the pair (2, 3)
denotes the position relative to the origin as shown:
This system is often called the Cartesian coordinate

system7, named after the French mathematician René
Descartes (1596–1650).
The x- and y-axes break the plane into four regions

7. Used in honor of René called quadrants8, named using roman numerals I, II,
Descartes when referring to III, and IV, as pictured. In quadrant I, both coordinates
the rectangular coordinate are positive. In quadrant II, the x-coordinate is negative
system.
and the y-coordinate is positive. In quadrant III, both
8. The four regions of a coordinates are negative. In quadrant IV, the x-
rectangular coordinate plane coordinate is positive and the y-coordinate is negative.
partly bounded by the x- and y-
axes and numbered using the
roman numerals I, II, III, and
IV.
3.1 Rectangular Coordinate System 392

Portrait of René Descartes

(1596–1650) after Frans Hals,
from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-
_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Desca
rtes.jpg.
Example 1: Plot the ordered pair (−3, 5) and determine the quadrant in which it
lies.
Solution: The coordinates x = −3 and y = 5 indicate a point 3 units to the left of

and 5 units above the origin.

Answer: The point is plotted in quadrant II (QII) because the x-coordinate is

negative and the y-coordinate is positive.
Ordered pairs with 0 as one of the coordinates do not lie in a quadrant; these points
are on one axis or the other (or the point is the origin if both coordinates are 0).
Also, the scale indicated on the x-axis may be different from the scale indicated on
the y-axis. Choose a scale that is convenient for the given situation.
Example 2: Plot this set of ordered pairs: {(4, 0), (−6, 0), (0, 3), (−2, 6), (−4, −6)}.
Solution: Each tick mark on the x-axis represents 2 units and each tick mark on the
y-axis represents 3 units.

Example 3: Plot this set of ordered pairs: {(−6, −5), (−3, −3), (0, −1), (3, 1), (6, 3)}.
Solution:

In this example, the points appear to be collinear9, or to lie on the same line. The
entire chapter focuses on finding and expressing points with this property.
Try this! Plot the set of points {(5, 3), (−3, 2), (−2, −4), (4, −3)} and indicate in which
quadrant they lie. ([Link: Click here for printable graph paper in PDF.])
Answer:
Video Solution
9. Describes points that lie on the Graphs are used in everyday life to display data visually. A line graph10 consists of a
same line. set of related data values graphed on a coordinate plane and connected by line
10. A set of related data values
segments. Typically, the independent quantity, such as time, is displayed on the x-
graphed on a coordinate plane axis and the dependent quantity, such as distance traveled, on the y-axis.
and connected by line
segments.

Example 4: The following line graph shows the number of mathematics and
statistics bachelor’s degrees awarded in the United States each year since 1970.
Source: Digest of Education Statistics.
a. How many mathematics and statistics bachelor’s degrees were awarded in 1975?
b. In which years were the number of mathematics and statistics degrees awarded
at the low of 11,000?
Solution:
a. The scale on the x-axis represents time since 1970, so to determine the number of
degrees awarded in 1975, read the y-value of the graph at x = 5.

The y-value corresponding to x = 5 is 18. The graph indicates that this is in

thousands; there were 18,000 mathematics and statistics degrees awarded in 1975.
b. To find the year a particular number of degrees was awarded, first look at the y-
axis. In this case, 11,000 degrees is represented by 11 on the y-axis; look to the right
to see in which years this occurred.

The y-value of 11 occurs at two data points, one where x = 10 and the other where x
= 30. These values correspond to the years 1980 and 2000, respectively.
Answers:
a. In the year 1975, 18,000 mathematics and statistics degrees were awarded.
b. In the years 1980 and 2000, the lows of 11,000 mathematics and statistics degrees
were awarded.
Distance Formula
Frequently you need to calculate the distance between two points in a plane. To do
this, form a right triangle using the two points as vertices of the triangle and then
11. Given any right triangle with
legs measuring a and b units apply the Pythagorean theorem. Recall that the Pythagorean theorem11 states that
and hypotenuse measuring c if given any right triangle with legs measuring a and b units, then the square of the
units, then a2 + b2 = c2. measure of the hypotenuse c is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs:

a2 + b2 = c2 . In other words, the hypotenuse of any right triangle is equal to the

square root of the sum of the squares of its legs.
Example 5: Find the distance between (−1, 2) and (3, 5).
Solution: Form a right triangle by drawing horizontal and vertical lines through
the two points. This creates a right triangle as shown below:

The length of leg b is calculated by finding the distance between the x-values of the
given points, and the length of leg a is calculated by finding the distance between
the given y-values.
Next, use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.
Answer: The distance between the two points is 5 units.
Generalize this process to produce a formula that can be used to algebraically

calculate the distance between any two given points.
Given two points, (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) , then the distance, d, between them is

given by the distance formula12:
12. Given two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and
d = √(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 )
(x 2 , y 2 ), calculate the ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
distance d between them using
d = √(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 ) .
the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯

Example 6: Calculate the distance between (−3, −1) and (−2, 4).
Solution: Use the distance formula.
It is a good practice to include the formula in its general form as a part of the
written solution before substituting values for the variables. This improves
readability and reduces the chance for errors.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: √26 units
Try this! Calculate the distance between (−7, 5) and (−1, 13).
Answer: 10 units
Video Solution

Example 7: Do the three points (1, −1), (3, −3), and (3, 1) form a right triangle?
Solution: The Pythagorean theorem states that having side lengths that satisfy the
property a2 + b2 = c2 is a necessary and sufficient condition of right triangles. In
other words, if you can show that the sum of the squares of the leg lengths of the
triangle is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse, then the figure must
be a right triangle. First, calculate the length of each side using the distance
formula.
Now we check to see if a2 + b2 = c2 .

Answer: Yes, the three points form a right triangle. In fact, since two of the legs are
equal in length, the points form an isosceles right triangle.
Midpoint Formula
The point that bisects the line segment formed by two points, (x 1 , y 1 ) and
(x 2 , y 2 ), is called the midpoint13 and is given by the following formula:
The midpoint is an ordered pair formed by finding the average of the x-values and
the average of the y-values of the given points.
Example 8: Calculate the midpoint between (−1, −2) and (7, 4).
Solution: First, calculate the average of the x- and y-values of the given points.
13. Given two points, (x 1 , y 1 )

and (x 2 , y 2 ), the midpoint is
( 2 )
an ordered pair given by
x 1 +x 2 y 1 +y 2
2
, .

Next, form the midpoint as an ordered pair using the averaged coordinates.
Answer: (3, 1)
To verify that this is indeed the midpoint, calculate the distance between the two
given points and verify that the result is equal to the sum of the two equal distances
from the endpoints to this midpoint. This verification is left to the reader as an
exercise.
Try this! Find the midpoint between (−6, 5) and (6, −11).
Answer: (0, −3)

Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Use the rectangular coordinate system to uniquely identify points in a

plane using ordered pairs (x, y). Ordered pairs indicate position relative
to the origin. The x-coordinate indicates position to the left and right of
the origin. The y-coordinate indicates position above or below the
origin.
• The scales on the x-axis and y-axis may be different. Choose a scale for
each axis that is appropriate for the given problem.
• Graphs are used to visualize real-world data. Typically, independent
data is associated with the x-axis and dependent data is associated with
the y-axis.
• The Pythagorean theorem gives us a necessary and sufficient condition
of right triangles. Given a right triangle, then the measures of the sides
2
satisfy a2 + b = c2. Conversely, if the sides satisfy a2 + b 2 = c2,
= √(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 ) , is derived
then the triangle must be a right triangle.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
• The distance formula, d
from the Pythagorean theorem and gives us the distance between any
two points, (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ), in a rectangular coordinate plane.
( ), is derived by taking the

x 1 +x 2 y 1 +y 2
• The midpoint formula,
2
, 2
average of each coordinate and forming an ordered pair.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Ordered Pairs
Give the coordinates of points A, B, C, D, and E.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
Graph the given set of ordered pairs.
7. {(−4, 5), (−1, 1), (−3, −2), (5, −1)}
8. {(−15, −10), (−5, 10), (15, 10), (5, −10)}
9. {(−2, 5), (10, 0), (2, −5), (6, −10)}
10. {(−8, 3), (−4, 6), (0, −6), (6, 9)}
11. {(−10, 5), (20, −10), (30, 15), (50, 0)}
12. {(− , − 12 ) , (− 2) ( 3 , − 1) , ( 3 , 1)}

5 1 1 2 5
3 3
, ,

13. {(− , − 43 ) , ( 25 , 3) (1, − 3 ) , (0, 1)}

3 4 2
5
,
14. {(−3.5, 0), (−1.5, 2), (0, 1.5), (2.5, −1.5)}
15. {(−0.8, 0.2), (−0.2, −0.4), (0, −1), (0.6, −0.4)}
16. {(−1.2, −1.2), (−0.3, −0.3), (0, 0), (0.6, 0.6), (1.2, 1.2)}
State the quadrant in which the given point lies.
17. (−3, 2)
18. (5, 7)
19. (−12, −15)
20. (7, −8)
21. (−3.8, 4.6)
22. (17.3, 1.9)
23. (− 1
8
, − 58 )
24. ( 34 , − 14 )
25. x > 0 and y < 0
26. x < 0 and y < 0
27. x < 0 and y > 0
28. x > 0 and y > 0
The average price of a gallon of regular unleaded gasoline in US cities is given in the
following line graph. Use the graph to answer the following questions.

Source: Bureau of
Labor Statistics.
29. What was the average price of a gallon of unleaded gasoline in 2004?
30. What was the average price of a gallon of unleaded gasoline in 1976?
31. In which years were the average price of a gallon of unleaded gasoline
$1.20?
32. What is the price increase of a gallon of gasoline from 1980 to 2008?
33. What was the percentage increase in the price of a gallon of unleaded
gasoline from 1976 to 1980?
34. What was the percentage increase in the price of a gallon of unleaded
gasoline from 2000 to 2008?
The average price of all-purpose white flour in US cities from 1980 to 2008 is given in
the following line graph. Use the graph to answer the questions that follow.
Source: Bureau of
Labor Statistics.

35. What was the average price per pound of all-purpose white flour in 2000?
36. What was the average price per pound of all-purpose white flour in 2008?
37. In which year did the price of flour average $0.25 per pound?
38. In which years did the price of flour average $0.20 per pound?
39. What was the percentage increase in flour from the year 2000 to 2008?
40. What was the percentage increase in flour from the year 1992 to 2000?
Given the following data, create a line graph.
41. The percentage of total high school graduates who enrolled in college.
Year Percentage
1969 36%
1979 40%
1989 47%
1999 42%
42. The average daily temperature given in degrees Fahrenheit in May.
Exam Temperature
8:00 am 60
12:00 pm 72
4:00 pm 75
8:00 pm 67
12:00 am 60
4:00 am 55
Calculate the area of the shape formed by connecting the following set of vertices.

43. {(0, 0), (0, 3), (5, 0), (5, 3)}
44. {(−1, −1), (−1, 1), (1, −1), (1, 1)}
45. {(−2, −1), (−2, 3), (5, 3), (5, −1)}
46. {(−5, −4), (−5, 5), (3, 5), (3, −4)}
47. {(0, 0), (4, 0), (2, 2)}
48. {(−2, −2), (2, −2), (0, 2)}
49. {(0, 0), (0, 6), (3, 4)}
50. {(−2, 0), (5, 0), (3, −3)}
Part B: Distance Formula
Calculate the distance between the given two points.
51. (−5, 3) and (−1, 6)
52. (6, −2) and (−2, 4)
53. (0, 0) and (5, 12)
54. (−6, −8) and (0, 0)
55. (−7, 8) and (5, −1)
56. (−1, −2) and (9, 22)
57. (−1, 2) and (−7/2, −4)
58. (−
3)
and ( )
1 1 5 11
2
, 2
, − 3
59. (−
3)
and (1, − 13 )
1 2
3
,
60. ( , − 34 )and ( 32 , 4)
1 1
2

61. (1, 2) and (4, 3)
62. (2, −4) and (−3, −2)
63. (−1, 5) and (1, −3)
64. (1, −7) and (5, −1)
65. (−7, −3) and (−1, 6)
66. (0, 1) and (1, 0)
67. (−0.2, −0.2) and (1.8, 1.8)
68. (1.2, −3.3) and (2.2, −1.7)
For each problem, show that the three points form a right triangle.
69. (−3, −2), (0, −2), and (0, 4)
70. (7, 12), (7, −13), and (−5, −4)
71. (−1.4, 0.2), (1, 2), and (1, −3)
72. (2, −1), (−1, 2), and (6, 3)
73. (−5, 2), (−1, −2), and (−2, 5)
74. (1, −2), (2, 3), and (−3, 4)
Isosceles triangles have two legs of equal length. For each problem, show that the
following points form an isosceles triangle.
75. (1, 6), (−1, 1), and (3, 1)
76. (−6, −2), (−3, −5), and (−9, −5)
77. (−3, 0), (0, 3), and (3, 0)
78. (0, −1), (0, 1), and (1, 0)

Calculate the area and the perimeter of the triangles formed by the following set of
vertices.
79. {(−4, −5), (−4, 3), (2, 3)}
80. {(−1, 1), (3, 1), (3, −2)}
81. {(−3, 1), (−3, 5), (1, 5)}
82. {(−3, −1), (−3, 7), (1, −1)}
Part C: Midpoint Formula
Find the midpoint between the given two points.
83. (−1, 6) and (−7, −2)
84. (8, 0) and (4, −3)
85. (−10, 0) and (10, 0)
86. (−3, −6) and (−3, 6)
87. (−10, 5) and (14, −5)
88. (0, 1) and (2, 2)
89. (5, −3) and (4, −5)
90. (0, 0) and (1, 1)
91. (−1, −1) and (4, 4)
92. (3, −5) and (3, 5)
93. (− , − 13 )and ( 32 , 3)
1 7
2
94. ( , − 23 )and ( 18 , − 12 )
3
4

95. (
4)
and (− , − 32 )
5 1 1
3
, 6
96. (− , − 52 )and ( 10 , − 14 )
1 7
5
97. Given the right triangle formed by the vertices (0, 0), (6, 0), and (6, 8),
show that the midpoints of the sides form a right triangle.
98. Given the isosceles triangle formed by the vertices (−10, −12), (0, 12), and
(10, −12), show that the midpoints of the sides also form an isosceles
triangle.
99. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the vertices (−4, −3), (−1, 1),
and (2, −3). (Hint: The vertices form an isosceles triangle.)
100. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the vertices (−2, 1), (4, 1),
and (1, −5).
101. Research and discuss the life and contributions to mathematics of René
Descartes.
102. Research and discuss the history of the right triangle and the
Pythagorean theorem.
103. What is a Pythagorean triple? Provide some examples.
104. Explain why you cannot use a ruler to calculate distance on a graph.
105. How do you bisect a line segment with only a compass and a
straightedge?

ANSWERS
1: A: (3, 5); B: (−2, 3); C: (−5, 0); D: (1, −3); E: (−3, −4)
3: A: (0, 6); B: (−4, 3); C: (−8, 0); D: (−6, −6); E: (8, −9)
5: A: (−10, 25); B: (30, 20); C: (0, 10); D: (15, 0); E: (25, −10)
7:
9:
11:
13:

15:
17: QII
19: QIII
21: QII
23: QIII
25: QIV
27: QII
29: $1.80
31: 1980 to 1984, 1996
33: 100%
35: $0.30
37: 1992
39: 67%

41:
43: 15 square units
45: 28 square units
47: 4 square units
49: 9 square units
51: 5 units
53: 13 units
55: 15 units
57: 13/2 units
59: 5/3 units
⎯⎯⎯⎯
61: √ 10 units
⎯⎯⎯⎯
63: 2√ 17 units
⎯⎯⎯⎯
65: 3√ 13 units
67: 2.8 units
69: Proof

71: Proof
73: Proof
75: Proof
77: Proof
79: Perimeter: 24 units; area: 24 square units
⎯⎯
81: Perimeter: 8 + 4√ 2 units; area: 8 square units
83: (−4, 2)
85: (0, 0)
87: (2, 0)
89: (9/2, −4)
91: (3/2, 3/2)
93: (1/2, 1)
95: (3/4, −5/8)
99: 12 square units

3.2 Graph by Plotting Points
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Verify solutions to linear equations with two variables.

2. Graph lines by plotting points.
3. Identify and graph horizontal and vertical lines.
Solutions to Equations with Two Variables
A linear equation with two variables14 has standard form ax + by = c, where a,

b, and c are real numbers and a and b are not both 0. Solutions to equations of this
form are ordered pairs (x, y), where the coordinates, when substituted into the
equation, produce a true statement.
Example 1: Determine whether (1, −2) and (−4, 1) are solutions to 6x − 3y = 12 .
Solution: Substitute the x- and y-values into the equation to determine whether the
ordered pair produces a true statement.
Answer: (1, −2) is a solution, and (−4, 1) is not.
14. An equation with two variables

that can be written in the
standard form ax + by = c ,
It is often the case that a linear equation is given in a form where one of the
where the real numbers a and b
are not both zero. variables, usually y, is isolated. If this is the case, then we can check that an ordered
420
pair is a solution by substituting in a value for one of the coordinates and

simplifying to see if we obtain the other.
Example 2: Are ( 1
2
, − 3)and (−5, 14) solutions to y = 2x − 4 ?
Solution: Substitute the x-values and simplify to see if the corresponding y-values
are obtained.
Answer: ( 1
2
, − 3)is a solution, and (−5, 14) is not.
Try this! Is (6, −1) a solution to y = − 23 x + 3?
Answer: Yes
Video Solution
When given linear equations with two variables, we can solve for one of the
variables, usually y, and obtain an equivalent equation as follows:
3.2 Graph by Plotting Points 421

Written in this form, we can see that y depends on x. Here x is the independent
variable15 and y is the dependent variable16.
The linear equation y = 2x − 4 can be used to find ordered pair solutions. If we

substitute any real number for x, then we can simplify to find the corresponding y-
value. For example, if x = 3 , then y = 2(3) − 4 = 6 − 4 = 2, and we can form an
ordered pair solution, (3, 2). Since there are infinitely many real numbers to choose
for x, the linear equation has infinitely many ordered pair solutions (x, y).
Example 3: Find ordered pair solutions to the equation 5x − y = 14 with the given
x-values {−2, −1, 0, 4, 6}.
Solution: First, solve for y.
15. The variable that determines

the values of other variables.
Usually we think of the x-value
as the independent variable.
16. The variable whose value is

determined by the value of the
independent variable. Usually
we think of the y-value as the
dependent variable.

Next, substitute the x-values in the equation y = 5x − 14 to find the

corresponding y-values.
Answer: {(−2, −24), (−1, −19), (0, −14), (4, 6), (6, 16)}
In the previous example, certain x-values are given, but that is not always going to
be the case. When treating x as the independent variable, we can choose any values
for x and then substitute them into the equation to find the corresponding y-values.
This method produces as many ordered pair solutions as we wish.
Example 4: Find five ordered pair solutions to 6x + 2y = 10 .
Solution: First, solve for y.

Next, choose any set of x-values. Usually we choose some negative values and some
positive values. In this case, we will find the corresponding y-values when x is {−2,
−1, 0, 1, 2}. Make the substitutions required to fill in the following table (often
referred to as a t-chart):
Answer: {(−2, 11), (−1, 8), (0, 5), (1, 2), (2, −1)}. Since there are infinitely many
ordered pair solutions, answers may vary depending on the choice of values for the
independent variable.
Try this! Find five ordered pair solutions to 10x − 2y = 2 .
Answer: {(−2, −11), (−1, −6), (0, −1), (1, 4), (2, 9)} (answers may vary)
Video Solution

Graph by Plotting Points
Since the solutions to linear equations are ordered pairs, they can be graphed using
the rectangular coordinate system. The set of all solutions to a linear equation can
be represented on a rectangular coordinate plane using a straight line connecting at
least two points; this line is called its graph17. To illustrate this, plot five ordered
pair solutions, {(−2, 11), (−1, 8), (0, 5), (1, 2), (2, −1)}, to the linear equation
6x + 2y = 10 .
Notice that the points are collinear; this will be the case for any linear equation.
Draw a line through the points with a straightedge, and add arrows on either end to
indicate that the graph extends indefinitely.
17. A point on the number line

associated with a coordinate.

The resulting line represents all solutions to 6x + 2y = 10 , of which there are

infinitely many. The steps for graphing lines by plotting points are outlined in the
following example.
Example 5: Find five ordered pair solutions and graph: 10x − 5y = 10 .
Solution:
Step 1: Solve for y.

Step2: Choose at least two x-values and find the corresponding y-values. In this
section, we will choose five real numbers to use as x-values. It is a good practice to
choose 0 and some negative numbers, as well as some positive numbers.
Five ordered pair solutions are {(−2, −6), (−1, −4), (0, −2), (1, 0), (2, 2)}
Step 3: Choose an appropriate scale, plot the points, and draw a line through them
using a straightedge. In this case, choose a scale where each tick mark on the y-axis
represents 2 units because all the y-values are multiples of 2.
Answer:

It will not always be the case that y can be solved in terms of x with integer
coefficients. In fact, the coefficients often turn out to be fractions.
Example 6: Find five ordered pair solutions and graph: −5x + 2y = 10 .
Solution:
Remember that you can choose any real number for the independent variable x, so
choose wisely here. Since the denominator of the coefficient of the variable x is 2,
you can avoid fractions by choosing multiples of 2 for the x-values. In this case,
choose the set of x-values {−6, −4, −2, 0, 2} and find the corresponding y-values.

Five solutions are {(−6, −10), (−4, −5), (−2, 0), (0, 5), (2, 10)}. Here we choose to scale
the x-axis with multiples of 2 and the y-axis with multiples of 5.
Answer:
Try this! Find five ordered pair solutions and graph: x + 2y = 6 .
Answer: {(−2, 4), (0, 3), (2, 2), (4, 1), (6, 0)}

Video Solution

Horizontal and Vertical Lines
We need to recognize by inspection linear equations that represent a vertical or

horizontal line.
Example 7: Graph by plotting five points: y = −2 .
Solution: Since the given equation does not have a variable x, we can rewrite it with
a 0 coefficient for x.
Choose any five values for x and see that the corresponding y-value is always −2.

We now have five ordered pair solutions to plot {(−2, −2), (−1, −2), (0, −2), (1, −2),
(2, −2)}.
Answer:
When the coefficient for the variable x is 0, the graph is a horizontal line. In
general, the equation for a horizontal line18 can be written in the form y = k ,
where k represents any real number.
18. Any line whose equation can be

written in the form y = k, where Example 8: Graph by plotting five points: x = 3.
k is a real number.

Solution: Since the given equation does not have a variable y, rewrite it with a 0
coefficient for y.
Choose any five values for y and see that the corresponding x-value is always 3.
We now have five ordered pair solutions to plot: {(3, −2), (3, −1), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2)}.
Answer:

When the coefficient for the variable y is 0, the graph is a vertical line. In general,
the equation for a vertical line19 can be written as x = k , where k represents any
real number.
To summarize, if k is a real number,
Try this! Graph y = 5 and x = −2 on the same set of axes and determine where
they intersect.
Answer: (−2, 5)
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solutions to linear equations with two variables ax + by = c are

ordered pairs (x, y), where the coordinates, when substituted into the
equation, result in a true statement.
• Linear equations with two variables have infinitely many ordered pair
solutions. When the solutions are graphed, they are collinear.
• To find ordered pair solutions, choose values for the independent
variable, usually x, and substitute them in the equation to find the
corresponding y-values.
• To graph linear equations, determine at least two ordered pair solutions
and draw a line through them with a straightedge.
• Horizontal lines are described by y = k, where k is any real number.
• Vertical lines are described by x = k, where k is any real number.
19. Any line whose equation can be

written in the form x = k, where
k is a real number.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solutions to Linear Systems
Determine whether the given point is a solution.
1. 5x − 2y = 4 ; (−1, 1)
2. 3x − 4y = 10 ; (2, −1)
3. −3x + y = −6 ; (4, 6)
4. −8x − y = 24 ; (−2, −3)
5. −x + y = −7 ; (5, −2)
6. 9x − 3y = 6 ; (0, −2)
1 1 1
7.
2
x+ 3
y=− 6
; (1, −2)
3 1
8.
4
x− 2
y = −1; (2, 1)
9. 4x − 3y = 1 ; ( 12 , 1
3 )
5 (5 )
9
10. −10x + 2y = − ; 1 , 1
10
1
11. y = x + 3 ; (6, 3)
3
12. y = −4x + 1 ; (−2, 9)

2
13. y = x − 3 ; (0, −3)
3
5
14. y =− x + 1 ; (8, −5)
8
4 (
15. y =− 1
2
x+ 3
; − 1
2
, 1)

2 (2
16. y =− 1
3
x− 1
; 1 , − 23 )
17. y = 2 ; (−3, 2)
18. y = 4 ; (4, −4)
19. x = 3 ; (3, −3)
20. x = 0 ; (1, 0)
Find the ordered pair solutions given the set of x-values.
21. y = −2x + 4 ; {−2, 0, 2}

1
22. y = x − 3 ; {−4, 0, 4}
2
3 1
23. y =− x+ ; {−2, 0, 2}
4 2
24. y = −3x + 1 ; {−1/2, 0, 1/2}
25. y = −4 ; {−3, 0, 3}
1 3
26. y = x+ ; {−1/4, 0, 1/4}
2 4
27. 2x − 3y = 1 ; {0, 1, 2}
28. 3x − 5y = −15 ; {−5, 0, 5}
29. – x + y = 3 ; {−5, −1, 0}

1 1
30.
2
x− 3
y = −4; {−4, −2, 0}
3 1
31.
5
x+ 10
y = 2; {−15, −10, −5}
32. x − y = 0 ; {10, 20, 30}
Find the ordered pair solutions, given the set of y-values.

1
33. y = x − 1 ; {−5, 0, 5}
2
3
34. y =− x + 2 ; {0, 2, 4}
4
35. 3x − 2y = 6 ; {−3, −1, 0}
36. −x + 3y = 4 ; {−4, −2, 0}

1 1
37.
3
x− 2
y = −4; {−1, 0, 1}
3 1
38.
5
x+ 10
y = 2; {−20, −10, −5}
Part B: Graphing Lines
Given the set of x-values {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}, find the corresponding y-values and graph
them.
39. y =x+1
40. y = −x + 1
41. y = 2x − 1
42. y = −3x + 2
43. y = 5x − 10
44. 5x + y = 15
45. 3x −y=9
46. 6x − 3y = 9
47. y = −5
48. y =3
Find at least five ordered pair solutions and graph.

49. y = 2x − 1
50. y = −5x + 3
51. y = −4x + 2
52. y = 10x − 20
1
53. y =− x+2
2
1
54. y = x−1
3
2
55. y = x−6
3
2
56. y =− x+2
3
57. y =x
58. y = −x
59. −2x + 5y = −15
60. x + 5y = 5
61. 6x −y=2
62. 4x + y = 12
63. −x + 5y = 0
64. x + 2y = 0
1
65.
10
x−y=3
3
66.
2
x + 5y = 30
Part C: Horizontal and Vertical Lines

Find at least five ordered pair solutions and graph them.
67. y =4
68. y = −10
69. x =4
70. x = −1
71. y =0
72. x =0
3
73. y = 4
5
74. x =− 4
75. Graph the lines y = −4 and x = 2 on the same set of axes. Where do
they intersect?
76. Graph the lines y = 5 and x = −5 on the same set of axes. Where do
they intersect?
77. What is the equation that describes the x-axis?
78. What is the equation that describes the y-axis?
Part D: Mixed Practice
Graph by plotting points.
3
79. y =− x+6
5
3
80. y = x−3
5
81. y = −3
82. x = −5

83. 3x − 2y = 6
84. −2x + 3y = −12
85. Discuss the significance of the relationship between algebra and

geometry in describing lines.
86. Give real-world examples relating two unknowns.

ANSWERS
1: No
3: Yes
5: Yes
7: Yes
9: Yes
11: No
13: Yes
15: Yes
17: Yes
19: Yes
21: {(−2, 8), (0, 4), (2, 0)}
23: {(−2, 2), (0, 1/2), (2, −1)}
25: {(−3, −4), (0, −4), (3, −4)}
27: {(0, −1/3), (1, 1/3), (2, 1)}
29: {(−5, −2), (−1, 2), (0, 3)}
31: {(−15, 110), (−10, 80), (−5, 50)}
33: {(−8, −5), (2, 0), (12, 5)}
35: {(0, −3), (4/3, −1), (2, 0)}
37: {(−27/2, −1), (−12, 0), (−21/2, 1)}

39:
41:
43:
45:
47:

49:
51:
53:
55:

57:
59:
61:
63:

65:
67:
69:
71:

73:
75:
77: y =0
79:
81:

83:

3.3 Graph Using Intercepts
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and find x- and y-intercepts of a graph.

2. Graph a line using x- and y-intercepts.
Definition of x- and y-Intercepts
The x-intercept20 is the point where the graph of a line intersects the x-axis. The y-
intercept21 is the point where the graph of a line intersects the y-axis. These points
have the form (x, 0) and (0, y), respectively.
To find the x- and y-intercepts algebraically, use the fact that all x-intercepts have a
20. The point (or points) where a y-value of zero and all y-intercepts have an x-value of zero. To find the y-intercept,
graph intersects the x-axis, set x = 0 and determine the corresponding y-value. Similarly, to find the x-
expressed as an ordered pair intercept, set y = 0 and determine the corresponding x-value.
(x, 0).
21. The point (or points) where a

graph intersects the y-axis,
expressed as an ordered pair
(0, y).
447
Example 1: Find the x- and y-intercepts: −3x + 2y = 12 .
Solution: To find the x-intercept, set y = 0.
Therefore, the x-intercept is (−4, 0). To find the y-intercept, set x = 0.
Hence the y-intercept is (0, 6). Note that this linear equation is graphed above.
Answer: x-intercept: (−4, 0); y-intercept: (0, 6)
Example 2: Find the x- and y-intercepts: y = −3x + 9 .
Solution: Begin by finding the x-intercept.
3.3 Graph Using Intercepts 448

The x-intercept is (3, 0). Next, determine the y-intercept.
The y-intercept is (0, 9).
Answer: x-intercept: (3, 0); y-intercept: (0, 9)
Keep in mind that the intercepts are ordered pairs and not numbers. In other
words, the x-intercept is not x = 2 but rather (2, 0). In addition, not all graphs
necessarily have both intercepts: for example,
The horizontal line graphed above has a y-intercept of (0, −2) and no x-intercept.

The vertical line graphed above has an x-intercept (3, 0) and no y-intercept.
Try this! Find the x- and y-intercepts: 4x − y = 2 .
Answer: x-intercept: (1/2, 0); y-intercept: (0, −2)
Video Solution

Graphing Lines Using Intercepts
Since two points determine a line, we can use the x- and y-intercepts to graph linear
equations. We have just outlined an easy method for finding intercepts; now we
outline the steps for graphing lines using the intercepts.
Example 3: Graph using intercepts: 2x − 3y = 12 .
Solution:

Step 1: Find the x- and y-intercepts.
Step 2: Plot the intercepts and draw the line through them. Use a straightedge to
create a nice straight line. Add an arrow on either end to indicate that the line
continues indefinitely in either direction.
Answer:
Example 4: Graph using intercepts: y = − 15 x + 3.

Solution: Begin by determining the x- and y-intercepts.
Next, graph the two points and draw a line through them with a straightedge.
Answer:

Example 5: Graph using intercepts: y = −2x .
Solution:
Here the x- and y-intercepts are actually the same point, the origin. We will need at
least one more point so that we can graph the line. Choose any value for x and
determine the corresponding value for y.
Use the ordered pair solutions (0, 0), (−1, 2), and (1, −2) to graph the line.
Answer:

To summarize, any linear equation can be graphed by finding two points and
connecting them with a line drawn with a straightedge. Two important and useful
points are the x- and y-intercepts; find these points by substituting y = 0 and x = 0,
respectively. This method for finding intercepts will be used throughout our study
of algebra.
Try this! Graph using intercepts: 3x − 5y = 15 .
Answer: x-intercept: (5, 0); y-intercept: (0, −3)
Video Solution

Finding Intercepts Given the Graph
The x- and y-intercepts are important points on any graph. This chapter will focus
on the graphs of linear equations. However, at this point, we can use these ideas to
determine intercepts of nonlinear graphs. Remember that intercepts are ordered
pairs that indicate where the graph intersects the axes.

Example 6: Find the x- and y-intercepts given the following graph:
Solution: We see that the graph intersects the x-axis in two places. This graph has
two x-intercepts, namely, (−4, 0) and (2, 0). Furthermore, the graph intersects the y-
axis in one place. The only y-intercept is (0, −3).
Answer: x-intercepts: (−4, 0), (2, 0); y-intercept: (0, −3)
In our study of algebra, we will see that some graphs have many intercepts. Also, we
will see that some graphs do not have any.
Example 7: Given the following graph, find the x- and y-intercepts:

Solution: This is a graph of a circle; we can see that it does not intersect either axis.
Therefore, this graph does not have any intercepts.
Answer: None
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Since two points determine any line, we can graph lines using the x- and
y-intercepts.
• To find the x-intercept, set y = 0 and solve for x.
• To find the y-intercept, set x = 0 and solve for y.
• This method of finding x- and y-intercepts will be used throughout our
study of algebra because it works for any equation.
• To graph a line, find the intercepts, if they exist, and draw a straight line
through them. Use a straightedge to create the line and include arrows
on either end to indicate that the line extends infinitely in either
direction.
• Horizontal and vertical lines do not always have both x- and y-
intercepts.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Intercepts
Given the graph, find the x- and y-intercepts.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
Find the x- and y-intercepts.
7. 5x − 4y = 20
8. −2x + 7y = −28
9. x −y=3
10. −x +y=0
11. 3x − 4y = 1
12. −2x + 5y = 3

13. 1
4
x− 1
3
y=1
14. − 2
5
x+ 3
4
y=2
15. y =6
16. y = −3
17. x =2
18. x = −1
19. y = mx + b
20. ax + by = c
Part B: Graph Using Intercepts
Find the intercepts and graph them.
21. 3x + 4y = 12
22. −2x + 3y = 6
23. 5x − 2y = 10
24. −4x − 8y = 16
1 1
25. − x+ y=1
2 3
3 1
26.
4
x− 2
y = −3
5
27. 2x − y = 10
2
7
28. 2x − y = −14
3
29. 4x − y = −8

30. 6x −y=6
31. – x + 2y = 1
32. 3x + 4y = 6
33. 2x + y = −1
34. −2x + 6y = 3
35. 15x + 4y = −60
36. −25x + 3y = 75
37. 4x + 2y = 0
38. 3x −y=0
39. −12x + 6y = −4
40. 3x + 12y = −4
41. y = 2x + 4
42. y = −x + 3
1
43. y = x+1
2
2
44. y = x−3
3
2
45. y =− x+1
5
5 5
46. y =− x−
8 4
7 7
47. y =− x−
8 2
3
48. y = −x + 2

49. y =3
3
50. y = 2
51. x =5
52. x = −2
53. y = 5x
54. y = −x
Part C: Intercepts of Nonlinear Graphs
Given the graph find the x- and y-intercepts.
55.
56.
57.

58.
59.
60.
61.

62.
63.
64.

65. What are the x-intercepts of the line y = 0?
66. What are the y-intercepts of the line x = 0?
67. Do all lines have intercepts?
68. How many intercepts can a circle have? Draw circles showing all possible
numbers of intercepts.
69. Research and post the definitions of line segment, ray, and line. Why are
the arrows important?

ANSWERS
1: y-intercept: (0, −3); x-intercept: (4, 0)
3: y-intercept: (0, −3); x-intercept: none
5: y-intercept: (0, 0); x-intercept: (0, 0)
7: x-intercept: (4, 0); y-intercept: (0, −5)
11: x-intercept: (1/3, 0); y-intercept: (0, −1/4)
15: x-intercept: none; y-intercept: (0, 6)
17: x-intercept: (2, 0); y-intercept: none
19: x-intercept: (−b/m, 0); y-intercept: (0, b)
21:
23:

25:
27:
29:
31:
33:

35:
37:
39:
41:

43:
45:
47:
49:

51:
53:
55: x-intercepts: (−3, 0), (3, 0); y-intercept: (0, −3)
57: x-intercepts: (−4, 0), (0, 0); y-intercept: (0, 0)
61: x-intercepts: (−3, 0), (0, 0), (2, 0); y-intercept: (0, 0)
63: x-intercepts: (−4, 0), (4, 0); y-intercepts: (0, −4), (0, 4)

3.4 Graph Using the y-Intercept and Slope
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and find the slope of a line.

2. Graph a line using the slope and y-intercept.
Slope
The steepness of any incline can be measured as the ratio of the vertical change to
the horizontal change. For example, a 5% incline can be written as 5/100, which
means that for every 100 feet forward, the height increases 5 feet.
In mathematics, we call the incline of a line the slope22 and use the letter m to
denote it. The vertical change is called the rise23 and the horizontal change is called
the run24.
22. The incline of a line measured

The rise and the run can be positive or negative. A positive rise corresponds to a
as the ratio of the vertical vertical change up and a negative rise corresponds to a vertical change down. A
change to the horizontal positive run denotes a horizontal change to the right and a negative run
change, often referred to as rise corresponds to a horizontal change to the left. Given the graph, we can calculate
over run.
the slope by determining the vertical and horizontal changes between any two
23. The vertical change between points.
any two points on a line.
24. The horizontal change between

any two points on a line.
470
Example 1: Find the slope of the given line:
Solution: From the given points on the graph, count 3 units down and 4 units right.
Answer: m = − 34
Here we have a negative slope, which means that for every 4 units of movement to
the right, the vertical change is 3 units downward. There are four geometric cases
for the value of the slope.
3.4 Graph Using the y-Intercept and Slope 471

Reading the graph from left to right, we see that lines with an upward incline have
positive slopes and lines with a downward incline have negative slopes.
If the line is horizontal, then the rise is 0:
The slope of a horizontal line is 0. If the line is vertical, then the run is 0:
The slope of a vertical line is undefined.
Try this! Find the slope of the given line:

Answer: m = 23
Video Solution
Calculating the slope can be difficult if the graph does not have points with integer
coordinates. Therefore, we next develop a formula that allows us to calculate the
slope algebraically. Given any two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ), we can obtain the
rise and run by subtracting the corresponding coordinates.
This leads us to the slope formula25. Given any two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ),
25. Given two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and the slope is given by
(x 2 , y 2 ), then the slope of the
line is given by the formula
rise y 2 −y 1
m= run = x 2 −x 1.

Example 2: Find the slope of the line passing through (−3, −5) and (2, 1).
Solution: Given (−3, −5) and (2, 1), calculate the difference of the y-values divided by
the difference of the x-values. Since subtraction is not commutative, take care to be
consistent when subtracting the coordinates.
Answer: m = 65
We can graph the line described in the previous example and verify that the slope is
6/5.

Certainly the graph is optional; the beauty of the slope formula is that we can
obtain the slope, given two points, using only algebra.
Example 3: Find the slope of the line passing through (−4, 3) and (−1, −7).
Solution:
Answer: m = − 10
3

When using the slope formula, take care to be consistent since order does matter.
You must subtract the coordinates of the first point from the coordinates of the
second point for both the numerator and the denominator in the same order.
Example 4: Find the slope of the line passing through (7, −2) and (−5, −2).
Solution:
Answer: m = 0. As an exercise, plot the given two points and verify that they lie on
a horizontal line.
Example 5: Find the slope of the line passing through (−4, −3) and (−4, 5).
Solution:
Answer: The slope m is undefined. As an exercise, plot the given two points and
verify that they lie on a vertical line.

Try this! Calculate the slope of the line passing through (−2, 3) and (5, −5).
Answer: m = − 87
Video Solution
When considering the slope as a rate of change it is important to include the correct
units.
Example 6: A Corvette Coupe was purchased new in 1970 for about $5,200 and
depreciated in value over time until it was sold in 1985 for $1,300. At this point, the
car was beginning to be considered a classic and started to increase in value. In the
year 2000, when the car was 30 years old, it sold at auction for $10,450. The
following line graph depicts the value of the car over time.
a. Determine the rate at which the car depreciated in value from 1970 to 1985.

b. Determine the rate at which the car appreciated in value from 1985 to 2000.
Solution: Notice that the value depends on the age of the car and that the slope
measures the rate in dollars per year.
a. The slope of the line segment depicting the value for the first 15 years is
Answer: The value of the car depreciated $260 per year from 1970 to 1985.
b. The slope of the line segment depicting the value for the next 15 years is
Answer: The value of the car appreciated $610 per year from 1985 to 2000.
Slope-Intercept Form of a Line
To this point, we have learned how to graph lines by plotting points and by using
the x- and y-intercepts. In addition, we have seen that we need only two points to
graph a line. In this section, we outline a process to easily determine two points
using the y-intercept and the slope. The equation of any nonvertical line can be
written in slope-intercept form26 y = mx + b . In this form, we can identify the
slope, m, and the y-intercept, (0, b).
Example 7: Determine the slope and y-intercept: y = − 45 x + 7.

26. Any nonvertical line can be
written in the form
y = mx + b , where m is the Solution: In this form, the coefficient of x is the slope, and the constant is the y-
slope and (0, b) is the y- value of the y-intercept. Therefore, by inspection, we have
intercept.

Answer: The y-intercept is (0, 7), and the slope is m = − 45 .
It is not always the case that the linear equation is given in slope-intercept form.
When it is given in standard form, you have to first solve for y to obtain slope-
intercept form.
Example 8: Express 3x + 5y = 30 in slope-intercept form and then identify the

slope and y-intercept.
Solution: Begin by solving for y. To do this, apply the properties of equality to first
isolate 5y and then divide both sides by 5.
Answer: Slope-intercept form: y = − 35 x + 6; y-intercept: (0, 6); slope: m = − 35

Once the equation is in slope-intercept form, we immediately have one point to

plot, the y-intercept. From the intercept, you can mark off the slope to plot another
point on the line. From the previous example we have
Starting from the point (0, 6), use the slope to mark another point 3 units down and
5 units to the right.
It is not necessary to check that the second point, (5, 3), solves the original linear
equation. However, we do it here for the sake of completeness.

Marking off the slope in this fashion produces as many ordered pair solutions as we
desire. Notice that if we mark off the slope again, from the point (5, 3), then we
obtain the x-intercept, (10, 0).
Example 9: Graph: −x + 2y = 4 .
Solution: In this example, we outline the general steps for graphing a line using
slope-intercept form.
Step 1: Solve for y to obtain slope-intercept form.
Step 2: Identify the y-intercept and slope.

Step 3: Plot the y-intercept and use the slope to find another ordered pair solution.
Starting from the y-intercept, mark off the slope and identify a second point. In this
case, mark a point after a rise of 1 unit and a run of 2 units.
Step 4: Draw the line through the two points with a straightedge.
Answer:

In this example, we notice that we could get the x-intercept by marking off the
slope in a different but equivalent manner. Consider the slope as the ratio of two
negative numbers as follows:
We could obtain another point on the line by marking off the equivalent slope down
1 unit and left 2 units. We do this twice to obtain the x-intercept, (−4, 0).

Marking off the slope multiple times is not necessarily always going to give us the x-
intercept, but when it does, we obtain a valuable point with little effort. In fact, it is
a good practice to mark off the slope multiple times; doing so allows you to obtain
more points on the line and produce a more accurate graph.
Example 10: Graph and find the x-intercept: y = 34 x − 2.
Solution: The equation is given in slope-intercept form. Therefore, by inspection,

we have the y-intercept and slope.

We can see that the x-value of the x-intercept is a mixed number between 2 and 3.
To algebraically find x-intercepts, recall that we must set y = 0 and solve for x.
Answer: The x-intercept is (2 2

3
, 0).
Example 11: Graph: x − y = 0 .

Solution: Begin by solving for y.
The equation y = x can be written y = 1x + 0 , and we have
Answer:

Try this! Graph −2x + 5y = 20 and label the x-intercept.
Answer:
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Slope measures the steepness of a line as rise over run. A positive rise
denotes a vertical change up, and a negative rise denotes a vertical
change down. A positive run denotes a horizontal change right, and a
negative run denotes a horizontal change left.
• Horizontal lines have a slope of zero, and vertical lines have undefined
slopes.
• Given any two points on a line, we can algebraically calculate the slope
rise y 2 −y 1
using the slope formula, m = run = x 2 −x 1 .
• Any nonvertical line can be written in slope-intercept form,
y = mx + b , from which we can determine, by inspection, the slope
m and y-intercept (0, b).
• If we know the y-intercept and slope of a line, then we can easily graph
it. First, plot the y-intercept, and from this point use the slope as rise
over run to mark another point on the line. Finally, draw a line through
these two points with a straightedge and add an arrow on either end to
indicate that it extends indefinitely.
• We can obtain as many points on the line as we wish by marking off the
slope multiple times.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Slope
Determine the slope and the y-intercept of the given graph.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
Determine the slope, given two points.
7. (3, 2) and (5, 1)
8. (7, 8) and (−3, 5)
9. (2, −3) and (−3, 2)
10. (−3, 5) and (7, −5)
11. (−1, −6) and (3, 2)
12. (5, 3) and (4, 12)
13. (−9, 3) and (−6, −5)

14. (−22, 4) and (−8, −12)
15. ( 12 , − 13 ) and (− 1
2
, 2
3 )
16. (− 3
4
, 3
2 ) and ( 4 , − 2 )
1 1
17. (− 1
3
, 5
8 ) and ( 2 , − 4 )
1 3
18. (− 3
5
, − 32 ) and ( 101 , 4
5 )
19. (3, −5) and (5, −5)
20. (−3, 1) and (−14, 1)
21. (−2, 3) and (−2, −4)
22. (−4, −4) and (5, 5)
23. A roof drops 4 feet for every 12 feet forward. Determine the slope of the
roof.
24. A road drops 300 feet for every 5,280 feet forward. Determine the slope of
the road.
25. The following graph gives the US population of persons 65 years old and
over. At what rate did this population increase from 2000 to 2008?
Source: US Census
Bureau.

26. The following graph gives total consumer credit outstanding in the
United States. At what rate did consumer credit increase from 2002 to 2008?
Source: US Census
Bureau.
27. A commercial van was purchased new for $20,000 and is expected to be
worth $4,000 in 8 years. Determine the rate at which the van depreciates in
value.
28. A commercial-grade copy machine was purchased new for $4,800 and
will be considered worthless in 6 years. Determine the rate at which the
copy machine depreciates in value.
29. Find y if the slope of the line passing through (−2, 3) and (4, y) is 12.
30. Find y if the slope of the line passing through (5, y) and (6, −1) is 10.
31. Find y if the slope of the line passing through (5, y) and (−4, 2) is 0.
32. Find x if the slope of the line passing through (−3, 2) and (x, 5) is
undefined.
Part B: Slope-Intercept Form
Express the given linear equation in slope-intercept form and identify the slope and
y-intercept.
33. 6x − 5y = 30
34. −2x + 7y = 28

35. 9x − y = 17
36. x − 3y = 18
37. 2x − 3y = 0
38. −6x + 3y = 0
39. 2
3
x− 5
4
y = 10
40. − 4
3
x+ 1
5
y = −5
Graph the line given the slope and the y-intercept.
1
41. m = and (0, −2)
3
2
42. m =− and (0, 4)
3
43. m = 3 and (0, 1)
44. m = −2 and (0, −1)
45. m = 0 and (0, 5)
46. m undefined and (0, 0)
47. m = 1 and (0, 0)
48. m = −1 and (0, 0)

15
49. m =− and (0, 20)
3
50. m = −10 and (0, −5)
Graph using the slope and y-intercept.
2
51. y = x−2
3

1
52. y =− x+1
3
53. y = −3x + 6
54. y = 3x + 1
3
55. y = x
5
3
56. y =− 7
x
57. y = −8
58. y =7
59. y = −x + 2
60. y =x+1
1 3
61. y = x+
2 2
3 5
62. y =− x+
4 2
63. 4x +y=7
64. 3x −y=5
65. 5x − 2y = 10
66. −2x + 3y = 18
67. x −y=0
68. x +y=0
1 1
69.
2
x− 3
y=1
2 1
70. − x+ y=2
3 2

71. 3x + 2y = 1
72. 5x + 3y = 1
73. On the same set of axes, graph the three lines, where y = 3
2
x + b and
b = {−2, 0, 2}.
74. On the same set of axes, graph the three lines, where y = mx + 1 and
m = {−1/2, 0, 1/2}.
75. Name three methods for graphing lines. Discuss the pros and cons of
each method.
76. Choose a linear equation and graph it three different ways. Scan the
work and share it on the discussion board.
77. Why do we use the letter m for slope?
78. How are equivalent fractions useful when working with slopes?
79. Can we graph a line knowing only its slope?
Δy
80. Research and discuss the alternative notation for slope: m = Δx
.
81. What strategies for graphing lines should be brought to an exam?

Explain.

ANSWERS
1: y-intercept: (0, 3); slope: m = −3/4
3: y-intercept: (0, 2); slope: m = 0
5: y-intercept: (0, 0); slope: m = 2
7: −1/2
9: −1
11: 2
13: −8/3
15: −1
17: −33/20
19: 0
21: Undefined
23: −1/3
25: ½ million per year
27: $2,000 per year
29: 75
31: 2
6
33: y = x − 6 ; slope: 6/5; y-intercept: (0, −6)
5
35: y = 9x − 17 ; slope: 9; y-intercept: (0, −17)

2
37: y = x ; slope: 2/3; y-intercept: (0, 0)
3

8
39: y = x − 8 ; slope: 8/15; y-intercept: (0, −8)
15
41:
43:
45:
47:
49:

51:
53:
55:
57:

59:
61:
63:
65:

67:
69:
71:
73:


3.5 Finding Linear Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Given a graph, identify the slope and y-intercept.

2. Find the equation of the line using the slope and y-intercept.
3. Find the equation of the line using point-slope form.
Finding Equations Using Slope-Intercept Form
Given the algebraic equation of a line, we are able to graph it in a number of ways.
In this section, we will be given a geometric description of a line and be asked to
find the algebraic equation. Finding the equation of a line can be accomplished in a
number of ways, the first of which makes use of slope-intercept form, y = mx + b .
If we know the slope, m, and the y-intercept, (0, b), we can construct the equation.
Example 1: Find the equation of a line with slope m = − 58 and y-intercept (0, 1).
Solution: The given y-intercept implies that b = 1. Substitute the slope m and the
y-value of the y-intercept b into the equation y = mx + b .
Answer: y = − 58 x + 1
Finding a linear equation is very straightforward if the slope and y-intercept are
given. This is certainly not always the case; however, the example demonstrates
502
that the algebraic equation of a line depends on these two pieces of information. If
the graph is given, then we can often read it to determine the y-intercept and slope.
Example 2: Find the equation of the line given the graph:
Solution: By reading the graph, we can see that the y-intercept is (0, 4), and thus
Furthermore, from the points (0, 4) to (4, 2), we can see that the rise is −2 units and
the run is 4 units.
Now substitute m and b into slope-intercept form:
3.5 Finding Linear Equations 503

Answer: y = − 12 x + 4
Often the y-intercept and slope will not be given or are not easily discernible from
the graph. For this reason, we will develop some algebraic techniques that allow us
to calculate these quantities.
Example 3: Find the equation of the line with slope m = − 23 passing through
(−6, 3).
Solution: Begin by substituting the given slope into slope-intercept form.
For the ordered pair (−6, 3) to be a solution, it must solve the equation. Therefore,
we can use it to find b. Substitute the appropriate x- and y-values as follows:

After substituting the appropriate values, solve for the only remaining variable, b.
Once we have b, we can then complete the equation:
As a check, verify that (−6, 3) solves this linear equation as follows:
Answer: y = − 23 x − 1
Example 4: Find the equation of the line given the graph:

Solution: Use the graph to determine the slope. From the points (−5, 2) to (−1, 0), we
can see that the rise between the points is −2 units and the run is 4 units. Therefore,
we calculate the slope as follows:
Substitute the slope into slope-intercept form.
Now substitute the coordinates of one of the given points to find b. It does not
matter which one you choose. Here choose (−1, 0):

Next, put it all together.
Answer: y = − 12 x − 12
As an exercise, substitute the coordinates of the point (−5, 2) to see that b will turn
out to be the same value. In fact, you can substitute any ordered pair solution of the
line to find b. We next outline an algebraic technique for finding the equation of a
nonvertical line passing through two given points.
Example 5: Find the equation of the line passing through (−4, −2) and (1, 3).
Solution: When finding a linear equation using slope-intercept form y = mx + b ,

the goal is to find m and then b.
Step 1: Find the slope m. In this case, given two points, use the slope formula.

Substitute m = 1 into slope-intercept form.
Step 2: Find b. To do this, substitute the coordinates of any given ordered pair
solution. Use (1, 3):
Step 3: Finish building the equation by substituting in the value for b. In this case,
we use b = 2.
Answer: y = x + 2

These three steps outline the process for finding the equation of any nonvertical
line in slope-intercept form. This is a completely algebraic method, but always keep
in mind the geometry behind the technique.
Note that the line has a y-intercept at (0, 2), with slope m = 1.
Example 6: Find the equation of the line passing through (−1, 3) and (5, 1).
Solution: First, find m, the slope. Given two points, use the slope formula as follows:

Substitute m = − 13 into slope-intercept form.
Next, find b. Substitute the coordinates of the point (−1, 3).
Finally, substitute b = 8
3
into the equation.

Answer: y = − 13 x + 83
Try this! Find the equation of the line passing through (−3, 4) and (6, −2).
Answer: y = − 23 x + 2
Video Solution

Finding Equations Using a Point and the Slope
Given any point on a line and its slope, we can find the equation of that line. Begin
by applying the slope formula with a given point (x 1 , y 1 ) and a variable point
(x, y) .
The equation y − y 1 = m (x − x 1 ) is called the point-slope form of a line27. Any

nonvertical linear equation can be written in this form. It is useful for finding the
27. Any nonvertical line can be equation of a line given the slope and any ordered pair solution.
written in the form
y − y 1 = m (x − x 1 ),
where m is the slope and
(x 1 , y 1 ) is any point on the
line.

Example 7: Find the equation of the line with slope m = 12 passing through (4, −1).
Solution: Use point-slope form, where m = 12 and (x 1 , y 1 ) = (4, −1).
At this point, we must choose to present the equation of our line in either standard
form or slope-intercept form.
In this textbook, we will present our lines in slope-intercept form. This facilitates
future graphing.
Answer: y = 12 x − 3
Example 8: Find the equation of the line passing through (−5, 3) with slope
m = − 25.

Solution: Substitute (−5, 3) and m = − 25 into point-slope form.
Answer: y = − 25 x + 1
It is always important to understand what is occurring geometrically. Compare the

answer for the last example to the corresponding graph below.

The geometric understanding is important because you will often be given graphs
from which you will need to determine a point on the line and the slope.
Example 9: Find an equation of the given graph:
Solution: Between the points (1, 1) to (3, 0), we can see that the rise is −1 unit and
the run is 2 units. The slope of the line is m = rise −1 1
run = 2 = − .2 Use this and the
point (3, 0) to find the equation as follows:
Answer: y = − 12 x + 32

Example 10: Find the equation of the line passing through (−1, 1) and (7, −1).
Solution: Begin by calculating the slope using the slope formula.
Next, substitute into point-slope form using one of the given points; it does not
matter which point is used. Use m = − 14 and the point (−1, 1).
Answer: y = − 14 x + 34
Try this! Find the equation of the line passing through (4, −5) and (−4, 1).

Answer: y = − 34 x − 2
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Given the graph of a line, you can determine the equation in two ways,
using slope-intercept form, y = mx + b , or point-slope form,
y − y 1 = m (x − x 1 ) .
• The slope and one point on the line is all that is needed to write the
equation of a line.
• All nonvertical lines are completely determined by their y-intercept and
slope.
• If the slope and y-intercept can be determined, then it is best to use
slope-intercept form to write the equation.
• If the slope and a point on the line can be determined, then it is best to
use point-slope form to write the equation.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Slope-Intercept Form
Determine the slope and y-intercept.
1. 5x − 3y = 18
2. −6x + 2y = 12
3. x −y=5
4. −x +y=0
5. 4x − 5y = 15
6. −7x + 2y = 3
7. y =3
3
8. y =− 4
1 1
9.
5
x− 3
y = −1
5 3
10.
16
x+ 8
y=9
2 5 5
11. − x+ y=
3 2 4
1 3 1
12.
2
x− 4
y=− 2
Part B: Finding Equations in Slope-Intercept Form
Given the slope and y-intercept, determine the equation of the line.
13. m = 1/2; (0, 5)
14. m = 4; (0, −1)

15. m = −2/3; (0, −4)
16. m = −3; (0, 9)
17. m = 0; (0, −1)
18. m = 5; (0, 0)
Given the graph, find the equation in slope-intercept form.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23.
24.
Find the equation, given the slope and a point.
25. m = 2/3; (−9, 2)
26. m = −1/5; (5, −5)
27. m = 0; (−4, 3)
28. m = 3; (−2, 1)
29. m = −5; (−2, 8)
30. m = −4; (1/2, −3/2)
31. m = −1/2; (3, 2)

32. m = 3/4; (1/3, 5/4)
33. m = 0; (3, 0)
34. m undefined; (3, 0)
Given two points, find the equation of the line.
35. (−6, 6), (2, 2)
36. (−10, −3), (5, 0)
37. (0, 1/2), (1/2, −1)
38. (1/3, 1/3), (2/3, 1)
39. (3, −4), (−6, −7)
40. (−5, 2), (3, 2)
41. (−6, 4), (−6, −3)
42. (−4, −4), (−1, −1)
43. (3, −3), (−5, 5)
44. (0, 8), (−4, 0)
Part C: Equations Using Point-Slope Form
Find the equation, given the slope and a point.
45. m = 1/2; (4, 3)
46. m = −1/3; (9, −2)
47. m = 6; (1, −5)
48. m = −10; (1, −20)

49. m = −3; (2, 3)
50. m = 2/3; (−3, −5)
51. m = −3/4; (−8, 3)
52. m = 5; (1/5, −3)
53. m = −3; (−1/9, 2)
54. m = 0; (4, −6)
55. m = 0; (−5, 10)
56. m = 5/8; (4, 3)
57. m = −3/5; (−2, −1)
58. m = 1/4; (12, −2)
59. m = 1; (0, 0)
60. m = −3/4; (0, 0)
Given the graph, use the point-slope formula to find the equation.
61.
62.

63.
64.
65.
66.

Use the point-slope formula to find the equation of the line passing through the two
points.
67. (−4, 0), (0, 5)
68. (−1, 2), (0, 3)
69. (−3, −2), (3, 2)
70. (3, −1), (2, −3)
71. (−2, 4), (2, −4)
72. (−5, −2), (5, 2)
73. (−3, −1), (3, 3)
74. (1, 5), (0, 5)
75. (1, 2), (2, 4)
76. (6, 3), (2, −3)
77. (10, −3), (5, −4)
78. (−3, 3), (−1, 12)
79. (4/5, −1/3), (−1/5, 2/3)
80. (5/3, 1/3), (−10/3, −5/3)
81. (3, −1/4), (4, −1/2)

82. (0, 0), (−5, 1)
83. (2, −4), (0, 0)
84. (3, 5), (3, −2)
85. (−4, 7), (−1, 7)
86. (−8, 0), (6, 0)
Part D: Applications
87. Joe has been keeping track of his cellular phone bills for the last two
months. The bill for the first month was $38.00 for 100 minutes of usage. The
bill for the second month was $45.50 for 150 minutes of usage. Find a linear
equation that gives the total monthly bill based on the minutes of usage.
88. A company in its first year of business produced 150 training manuals for
a total cost of $2,350. The following year, the company produced 50 more
manuals at a cost of $1,450. Use this information to find a linear equation
that gives the total cost of producing training manuals from the number of
manuals produced.
89. A corn farmer in California was able to produce 154 bushels of corn per
acre 2 years after starting his operation. Currently, after 7 years of
operation, he has increased his yield to 164 bushels per acre. Use this
information to write a linear equation that gives the total yield per acre
based on the number of years of operation, and use it to predict the yield for
next year.
90. A Webmaster has noticed that the number of registered users has been
steadily increasing since beginning an advertising campaign. Before starting
to advertise, he had 1,200 registered users, and after 3 months of advertising
he now has 1,590 registered users. Use this data to write a linear equation
that gives the total number of registered users, given the number of months
after starting to advertise. Use the equation to predict the number of users 7
months into the advertising campaign.
91. A car purchased new cost $22,000 and was sold 10 years later for $7,000.
Write a linear equation that gives the value of the car in terms of its age in
years.

92. An antique clock was purchased in 1985 for $1,500 and sold at auction in
1997 for $5,700. Determine a linear equation that models the value of the
clock in terms of years since 1985.
93. Discuss the merits and drawbacks of point-slope form and y-intercept
form.
94. Research and discuss linear depreciation. In a linear depreciation model,

what do the slope and y-intercept represent?

ANSWERS
1: m = 5/3; (0, −6)
3: m = 1; (0, −5)
5: m = 4/5; (0, −3)
7: m = 0; (0, 3)
9: m = 3/5; (0, 3)
11: m = 4/15; (0, 1/2)
13: y = 1
2
x+5
15: y =− 2
3
x−4
17: y = −1
19: y = −x + 3
21: y = −1
23: y = 1
2
x
25: y = 2
3
x+8
27: y =3
29: y = −5x − 2
31: y =− 1
2
x+ 7
2
33: y =0
35: y =− 1
2
x+3
37: y = −3x + 1
2

39: y = 1
3
x−5
41: x = −6
43: y = −x
45: y = 1
2
x+1
47: y = 6x − 11
49: y = −3x + 9
51: y =− 3
4
x−3
53: y = −3x + 5
3
55: y = 10
57: y =− 3
5
x− 11
5
59: y =x
61: y = −2x + 5
63: y = 2
3
x+ 17
3
65: y =− 3
5
x− 2
5
67: y = 5
4
x+5
69: y = 2
3
x
71: y = −2x
73: y = 2
3
x+1
75: y = 2x
77: y = 1
5
x−5

79: y = −x + 7
15
81: y =− 1
4
x+ 1
2
83: y = −2x
85: y =7
87: cost = 0.15x + 23
89: yield = 2x + 150 ; 166 bushels
91: value = −1,500x + 22,000

3.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Determine the slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines.

2. Find equations of parallel and perpendicular lines.
Definition of Parallel and Perpendicular
Parallel lines28 are lines in the same plane that never intersect. Two nonvertical
lines in the same plane, with slopes m1 and m2 , are parallel if their slopes are the
same, m1 = m2 . Consider the following two lines:
Consider their corresponding graphs:
28. Lines in the same plane that do

not intersect; their slopes are Both lines have a slope m = 3
4
and thus are parallel.
the same.
529
Perpendicular lines29 are lines in the same plane that intersect at right angles (90
degrees). Two nonvertical lines in the same plane, with slopes m1 and m2 , are
perpendicular if the product of their slopes is −1: m1 ⋅ m2 = −1. We can solve for
m1 and obtain m1 = − m1 . In this form, we see that perpendicular lines have
2
slopes that are negative reciprocals, or opposite reciprocals30. For example, if
given a slope
then the slope of a perpendicular line is the opposite reciprocal:
The mathematical notation m⊥ reads “m perpendicular.” We can verify that two

slopes produce perpendicular lines if their product is −1.
Geometrically, we note that if a line has a positive slope, then any perpendicular
line will have a negative slope. Furthermore, the rise and run between two
perpendicular lines are interchanged.
29. Lines in the same plane that

intersect at right angles; their
slopes are opposite reciprocals.
30. Two real numbers whose

product is −1. Given a real
number ba , the opposite
reciprocal is − ba .
3.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 530

Perpendicular lines have slopes that are opposite reciprocals, so remember to find
the reciprocal and change the sign. In other words,
Determining the slope of a perpendicular line can be performed mentally. Some

examples follow.
Given slope Slope of perpendicular line

1
m= 2
m ⊥ = −2
3 4
m=− 4
m⊥ = 3
1
m=3 m⊥ = − 3
1
m = −4 m⊥ = 4

Example 1: Determine the slope of a line parallel to y = −5x + 3 .
Solution: Since the given line is in slope-intercept form, we can see that its slope is
m = −5. Thus the slope of any line parallel to the given line must be the same,
m∥ = −5. The mathematical notation m∥ reads “m parallel.”
Answer: m∥ = −5
Example 2: Determine the slope of a line perpendicular to 3x − 7y = 21 .
Solution: First, solve for y and express the line in slope-intercept form.
In this form, we can see that the slope of the given line is m = 37, and thus
m⊥ = − 73.
Answer: m⊥ = − 7
3
Try this! Find the slope of the line perpendicular to 15x + 5y = 20 .
Answer: m⊥ = 1
3

Video Solution

Finding Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
We have seen that the graph of a line is completely determined by two points or one
point and its slope. Often you will be asked to find the equation of a line given some
geometric relationship—for instance, whether the line is parallel or perpendicular
to another line.
Example 3: Find the equation of the line passing through (6, −1) and parallel to
y = 12 x + 2.
Solution: Here the given line has slope m = 12 , and the slope of a line parallel is
m∥ = 12. Since you are given a point and the slope, use the point-slope form of a
line to determine the equation.

It is important to have a geometric understanding of this question. We were asked

to find the equation of a line parallel to another line passing through a certain
point.
Through the point (6, −1) we found a parallel line, y = 12 x − 4, shown dashed.
Notice that the slope is the same as the given line, but the y-intercept is different. If
we keep in mind the geometric interpretation, then it will be easier to remember
the process needed to solve the problem.
Example 4: Find the equation of the line passing through (−1, −5) and perpendicular
to y = − 14 x + 2.
Solution: The given line has slope m = − 14 , and thus m⊥ = + 41 = 4. Substitute

this slope and the given point into point-slope form.

Answer: y = 4x − 1
Geometrically, we see that the line y = 4x − 1 , shown dashed below, passes

through (−1, −5) and is perpendicular to the given line.
It is not always the case that the given line is in slope-intercept form. Often you
have to perform additional steps to determine the slope. The general steps for
finding the equation of a line are outlined in the following example.

Example 5: Find the equation of the line passing through (8, −2) and perpendicular
to 6x + 3y = 1 .
Solution:
Step 1: Find the slope m. First, find the slope of the given line. To do this, solve for y
to change standard form to slope-intercept form, y = mx + b .
In this form, you can see that the slope is m = −2 = −2

1
, and thus
1 1
m⊥ = − −2 = + 2.
Step 2: Substitute the slope you found and the given point into the point-slope form
of an equation for a line. In this case, the slope is m⊥ = 12 and the given point is
(8, −2).
Step 3: Solve for y.

Example 6: Find the equation of the line passing through ( 72 , 1)and parallel to
2x + 14y = 7 .
Solution: Find the slope m by solving for y.
The given line has the slope m = − 17 , and so m∥ = − 17. We use this and the point
( 2 , 1)in point-slope form.
7

Answer: y = − 17 x + 32
through (− 12 , 2).
Try this! Find the equation of the line perpendicular to x − 3y = 9 and passing
Answer: y = −3x + 12
Video Solution
When finding an equation of a line perpendicular to a horizontal or vertical line, it

is best to consider the geometric interpretation.
Example 7: Find the equation of the line passing through (−3, −2) and perpendicular
to y = 4 .
Solution: We recognize that y = 4 is a horizontal line and we want to find a

perpendicular line passing through (−3, −2).

If we draw the line perpendicular to the given horizontal line, the result is a vertical
line.
Equations of vertical lines look like x = k . Since it must pass through (−3, −2), we
conclude that x = −3 is the equation. All ordered pair solutions of a vertical line
must share the same x-coordinate.

Answer: x = −3
We can rewrite the equation of any horizontal line, y = k , in slope-intercept form

as follows:
Written in this form, we see that the slope is m = 0 = 01. If we try to find the slope
of a perpendicular line by finding the opposite reciprocal, we run into a problem:
m⊥ = − 10, which is undefined. This is why we took care to restrict the definition to
two nonvertical lines. Remember that horizontal lines are perpendicular to vertical
lines.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Parallel lines have the same slope.

• Perpendicular lines have slopes that are opposite reciprocals. In other
words, if m = ba , then m ⊥ = − ba .
• To find an equation of a line, first use the given information to
determine the slope. Then use the slope and a point on the line to find
the equation using point-slope form.
• Horizontal and vertical lines are perpendicular to each other.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Determine the slope of parallel lines and perpendicular lines.
3
1. y =− x+8
4
1
2. y = x−3
2
3. y = 4x + 4
4. y = −3x + 7
5 1
5. y =− x−
8 2
7 3
6. y = x+
3 2
2
7. y = 9x − 5
1
8. y = −10x + 5
9. y =5
1
10. x =− 2
11. x −y=0
12. x +y=0
13. 4x + 3y = 0
14. 3x − 5y = 10
15. −2x + 7y = 14
16. −x − y = 15

1 1
17.
2
x− 3
y = −1
2 4
18. − x+ y=8
3 5
1 1
19. 2x − y=
5 10
4
20. − x − 2y = 7
5
Determine if the lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
2
y= x+3
{y =
3
21.
2
3
x−3
3
y= x−1
{y =
4
22.
4
3
x+3
y = −2x + 1
{y=
23. 1
2
x+8
{ y = 3x + 2
y = 3x − 2
24.
{ x = −2
y=5
25.
y=7
{y = −
26. 1
7
{ 5x + 3y = 9
3x − 5y = 15
27.

{ 3x + 3y = 2
x−y=7
28.
{ −x + 3y = −2
2x − 6y = 4
29.
{ 6x − 3y = −3
−4x + 2y = 3
30.
{ 2x + 3y = 6
x + 3y = 9
31.
{ x − 10 = 0
y − 10 = 0
32.
{ 2y − 10 = 0
y+2=0
33.
{ 2x + 3y = 6
3x + 2y = 6
34.
{ 10x − 8y = 16
−5x + 4y = 20
35.
1
x − 13 y = 1
{
2
36.
1
6
x + 14 y = −2
Part B: Equations in Point-Slope Form
Find the equation of the line.

1
37. Parallel to y = x + 2 and passing through (6, −1).
2
3
38. Parallel to y =− x − 3 and passing through (−8, 2).
4
39. Perpendicular to y = 3x − 1 and passing through (−3, 2).
1
40. Perpendicular to y =− x + 2 and passing through (4, −3).
3
41. Perpendicular to y = −2 and passing through (−1, 5).
42. Perpendicular to x = 1
5
and passing through (5, −3).
43. Parallel to y = 3 and passing through (2, 4).
44. Parallel to x = 2 and passing through (7, −3).
45. Perpendicular to y =x and passing through (7, −13).
46. Perpendicular to y = 2x + 9 and passing through (3, −1).
1
47. Parallel to y = x − 5 and passing through (−2, 1).
4
3
48. Parallel to y =− x + 1 and passing through (4, 1/4).
4
49. Parallel to 2x − 3y = 6 and passing through (6, −2).
50. Parallel to −x +y=4 and passing through (9, 7).
51. Perpendicular to 5x − 3y = 18 and passing through (−9, 10).
52. Perpendicular to x − y = 11 and passing through (6, −8).
1 1
53. Parallel to
5
x− 3
y = 2 and passing through (−15, 6).
5 1
54. Parallel to −10x − 7
y= and passing through (−1, 1/2).
2
1 1
55. Perpendicular to
2
x− 3
y = 1 and passing through (−10, 3).

56. Perpendicular to −5x + y = −1 and passing through (−4, 0).
57. Parallel to x + 4y = 8 and passing through (−1, −2).
58. Parallel to 7x − 5y = 35 and passing through (2, −3).
59. Perpendicular to 6x + 3y = 1 and passing through (8, −2).
60. Perpendicular to −4x − 5y = 1 and passing through (−1, −1).
and passing through ( , − 14 ).

1
61. Parallel to −5x − 2y = 4 5
62. Parallel to 6x − 3
2
y = 9 and passing through ( 13 , 3)
2
.
63. Perpendicular to y − 3 = 0 and passing through (−6, 12).
64. Perpendicular to x + 7 = 0 and passing through (5, −10).

ANSWERS
3 4
1: m ∥ =− and m ⊥ =
4 3
1
3: m ∥ = 4 and m ⊥ = − 4
5 8
5: m ∥ =− and m ⊥ =
8 5
1
7: m ∥ = 9 and m ⊥ = − 9
9: m ∥ = 0 and m ⊥ undefined
11: m ∥ = 1 and m ⊥ = −1
4 3
13: m ∥ =− and m ⊥ =
3 4
2 7
15: m ∥ = 7
and m ⊥ =− 2
3 2
17: m ∥ = and m ⊥ =−
2 3
1
19: m ∥ = 10 and m ⊥ = − 10
21: Parallel
23: Perpendicular
25: Perpendicular
27: Perpendicular
29: Parallel
31: Neither
33: Parallel
35: Parallel

37: y = 1
2
x−4
39: y =− 1
3
x+1
41: x = −1
43: y =4
45: y = −x − 6
47: y = 1
4
x+ 3
2
49: y = 2
3
x−6
51: y =− 3
5
x+ 23
5
53: y = 3
5
x + 15
55: y =− 2
3
x− 11
3
57: y =− 1
4
x− 9
4
59: y = 1
2
x−6
61: y =− 5
2
x+ 1
4
63: x = −6

3.7 Introduction to Functions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify a function.
2. State the domain and range of a function.
3. Use function notation.
Relations, Functions, Domain, and Range
Relationships between sets occur often in everyday life. For example, for each
month in Cape Canaveral, we can associate an average amount of rainfall. In this
case, the amount of precipitation depends on the month of the year, and the data
can be written in tabular form or as a set of ordered pairs.
Month Precipitation Ordered pairs
January 2.4 in (January, 2.4)
February 3.3 in (February, 3.3)
March 3.1 in (March, 3.1)
April 2.0 in (April, 2.0)
May 3.8 in (May, 3.8)
June 6.8 in (June, 6.8)
July 8.1 in (July, 8.1)
August 7.6 in (August, 7.6)
September 7.3 in (September, 7.3)
October 4.1 in (October, 4.1)
November 3.3 in (November, 3.3)
December 2.4 in (December, 2.4)
31. Any set of ordered pairs.

We define a relation31 as any set of ordered pairs. Usually we write the independent
32. The set of first components of a component of the relation in the first column and the dependent component in the
relation. The x-values define
second column. In the opening example, notice that it makes sense to relate the
the domain in relations
consisting of points (x, y) in the average amount of precipitation as dependent on the month of year. The set of all
rectangular coordinate plane. elements in the first column of a relation is called the domain32. The set of all
548
elements that compose the second column is called the range33. In this example,
the domain consists of the set of all months of the year, and the range consists of
the values that represent the average rainfall for each month.
In the context of algebra, the relations of interest are sets of ordered pairs (x, y) in
the rectangular coordinate plane. In this case, the x-values define the domain and
the y-values define the range. Of special interest are relations where every x-value
corresponds to exactly one y-value; these relations are called functions34.
Example 1: Determine the domain and range of the following relation and state
whether or not it is a function: {(−1, 4), (0, 7), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, −2)}.
Solution: Here we separate the domain and range and depict the correspondence
between the values with arrows.
Answer: The domain is {−1, 0, 2, 3, 4}, and the range is {−2, 3, 4, 7}. The relation is a
function because each x-value corresponds to exactly one y-value.
33. The set of second components

of a relation. The y-values
define the range in relations
consisting of points (x, y) in the Example 2: Determine the domain and range of the following relation and state
rectangular coordinate plane.
whether or not it is a function: {(−4, −3), (−2, 6), (0, 3), (3, 5), (3, 7)}.
34. Relations where every x-value
corresponds to exactly one y-
value. With the definition Solution:
comes new notation:
f (x) = y , which is read “f of
x is equal to y.”
3.7 Introduction to Functions 549

Answer: The domain is {−4, −2, 0, 3}, and the range is {−3, 3, 5, 6, 7}. This relation is
not a function because the x-value 3 has two corresponding y-values.
In the previous example, the relation is not a function because it contains ordered
pairs with the same x-value, (3, 5) and (3, 7). We can recognize functions as relations
where no x-values are repeated.
In algebra, equations such as y = 3

4
x − 2 define relations. This linear equation can
be graphed as follows:

The graph is a relation since it represents the infinite set of ordered pair solutions
to y = 34 x − 2. The domain is the set of all x-values, and in this case consists of all
real numbers. The range is the set of all possible y-values, and in this case also
consists of all real numbers. Furthermore, the graph is a function because for each
x-value there is only one corresponding y-value. In fact, any nonvertical or
nonhorizontal line is a function with domain and range consisting of all real
numbers.
Any graph is a set of ordered pairs and thus defines a relation. Consider the
following graph of a circle:
Here the graph represents a relation where many x-values in the domain
correspond to two y-values. If we draw a vertical line, as illustrated, we can see that
(3, 2) and (3, −2) are two ordered pairs with the same x-value. Therefore, the x-value
3 corresponds to two y-values; hence the graph does not represent a function. The
illustration suggests that if any vertical line intersects a graph more than once,
then the graph does not represent a function. This is called the vertical line test35.
35. If a vertical line intersects a Example 3: Given the following graph, determine the domain and range and state
graph more than once, then whether or not it is a function.
the graph does not represent a
function.

Solution: The given shape is called a parabola and extends indefinitely to the left
and right as indicated by the arrows. This suggests that if we choose any x-value,
then we will be able to find a corresponding point on the graph; therefore, the
domain consists of all real numbers. Furthermore, the graph shows that −1 is the
minimum y-value, and any y-value greater than that is represented in the relation.
Hence the range consists of all y-values greater than or equal to −1, or in interval
notation, [−1, ∞) .

Lastly, any vertical line will intersect the graph only once; therefore, it is a function.
Answer: The domain is all real numbers R = (−∞, ∞), and the range is [−1, ∞) . The
graph represents a function because it passes the vertical line test.
Try this! Given the graph, determine the domain and range and state whether or
not it is a function:
Answer: Domain: [−4, ∞) ; range: (−∞, ∞) ; function: no
Video Solution

Function Notation and Linear Functions
With the definition of a function comes special notation. If we consider each x-value
to be the input that produces exactly one output, then we can use the notation

The notation f (x) reads “f of x” and should not be confused with multiplication.
Most of our study of algebra involves functions, so the notation becomes very useful
when performing common tasks. Functions can be named with different letters;
some common names for functions are g(x), h(x), C(x), and R(x). First, consider
nonvertical lines that we know can be expressed using slope-intercept form,
y = mx + b . For any real numbers m and b, the equation defines a function, and we
can replace y with the new notation f (x) as follows:
Therefore, a linear function36 is any function that can be written in the form
f (x) = mx + b . In particular, we can write the following:
The notation also shows values to evaluate in the equation. If the value for x is given
as 8, then we know that we can find the corresponding y-value by substituting 8 in
for x and simplifying. Using function notation, this is denoted f (8) and can be
interpreted as follows:
Finally, simplify:
36. Any function that can be

written in the form
f(x) = mx + b.

We have f (8) = 4. This notation tells us that when x = 8 (the input), the function
results in 4 (the output).
Example 4: Given the linear function f (x) = −5x + 7, find f (−2).
Solution: In this case, f (−2) indicates that we should evaluate when x = −2 .
Answer: f (−2) = 17
Example 5: Given the linear function f (x) = −5x + 7, find x when f (x) = 10.
Solution: In this case, f (x) = 10 indicates that the function should be set equal to
10.

Answer: Here x = − 35 , and we can write f (− 35 ) = 10.
Example 6: Given the graph of a linear function g(x),
a. Find g(2).
b. Find x when g(x) = 3.

Solution:
a. The notation g(2) implies that x = 2. Use the graph to determine the
corresponding y-value.
Answer: g(2) = 1
b. The notation g(x) = 3 implies that the y-value is given as 3. Use the graph to
determine the corresponding x-value.

Answer: x = 4
Example 7: Graph the linear function f (x) = − 53 x + 6 and state the domain and
range.
Solution: From the function, we see that b = 6 and thus the y-intercept is (0, 6). Also,
we can see that the slope is m = − 53 = −53 = rise. Starting from the y-intercept,
run
mark a second point down 5 units and right 3 units.

Given any coordinate on the x-axis, we can find a corresponding point on the graph;
the domain consists of all real numbers. Also, for any coordinate on the y-axis, we
can find a point on the graph; the range consists of all real numbers.
Answer: Both the domain and range consist of all real numbers R.
Try this! Given the linear function g(x) = −x + 5,
a. Find g (− 12 ).
b. Find x when g(x) = 18.
Answers:
a. g (− 12 ) = 11
2
b. x = −13

Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• A relation is any set of ordered pairs. However, in the context of this

course, we will be working with sets of ordered pairs (x, y) in the
rectangular coordinate system. The set of x-values defines the domain
and the set of y-values defines the range.
• Special relations where every x-value (input) corresponds to exactly one
y-value (output) are called functions.
• We can easily determine whether an equation represents a function by
performing the vertical line test on its graph. If any vertical line
intersects the graph more than once, then the graph does not represent
a function. In this case, there will be more than one point with the same
x-value.
• Any nonvertical or nonhorizontal line is a function and can be

written using function notation f (x) = mx + b . Both the
domain and range consist of all real numbers.
◦ If asked to find f (a), we substitute a in for the variable and

then simplify.
◦ If asked to find x when f (x) = a, we set the function equal
to a and then solve for x .

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Functions
For each problem below, does the correspondence represent a function?
1. Algebra students to their scores on the first exam.
2. Family members to their ages.
3. Lab computers to their users.
4. Students to the schools they have attended.
5. People to their citizenships.
6. Local businesses to their number of employees.
Determine the domain and range and state whether the relation is a function or not.
7. {(3, 2), (5, 3), (7, 4)}
8. {(−5, −3), (0, 0), (5, 0)}
9. {(−10, 2), (−8, 1), (−8, 0)}
10. {(9, 12), (6, 6), (6, 3)}
11.
12.

13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.
23.
24.

25.
26.
Part B: Function Notation
Given the following functions, find the function values.
27. f (x) = 3x , find f (−2) .
28. f (x) = −5x + 1 , find f (−1) .
29. f (x) = 3
5
x − 4 , find f (15) .
30. f (x) = 2
5
x− 1
5
, find f (3) .
31. f (x) = 5
2
x− 1
3
, find f (− 1
3
).

32. f (x) = −6 , find f (7) .
33. g(x) = 5 , find g(−4) .
34. g(x) = −5x , find g(−3) .
35. g(x) =− 1
8
x+ 5
8
, find g ( 58 ) .
36. g(x) = 5
3
x − 5 , find g (3) .
37. f (x) = 5x − 9 , find x when f (x) = 1 .
38. f (x) = −7x + 2 , find x when f (x) = 0 .
39. f (x) =− 7
5
x − 2 , find x when f (x) = −9 .
40. f (x) = −x − 4 , find x when f (x) = 1

2
.
41. g(x) = x , find x when g(x) = 12 .
42. g(x) = −x + 1 , find x when g(x) = 2

3
.
43. g(x) = −5x + 1

3
, find x when g(x) =− 1
2
.
44. g(x) =− 5
8
x + 3 , find x when g(x) = 3 .
Given f (x) = 2
3
x − 1 and g(x) = −3x + 2 calculate the following.
45. f (6)
46. f (−12)
47. f (0)
48. f (1)
49. g ( 23 )
50. g (0)

51. g (−1)
52. g (− 1
2 )
53. Find x when f (x) = 0.
54. Find x when f (x) = −3 .
55. Find x when g(x) = −1 .
56. Find x when g(x) = 0.
Given the graph, find the function values.
57. Given the graph of f (x) , find f (−4) , f (−1) , f (0) , and f (2) .
58. Given the graph of g(x) , find g(−3) , g(−1) , g(0) , and g(1) .
59. Given the graph of f (x) , find f (−4) , f (−1) , f (0) , and f (2) .

61. Given the graph of f (x) , find f (−1) , f (0) , f (1) , and f (3) .
62. Given the graph of g(x) , find g(−2) , g(0) , g(2) , and g(6) .

64. Given the graph of f (x) , find f (−4) , f (0) , f (1) , and f (3) .
Given the graph, find the x-values.
65. Given the graph of f (x) , find x when f (x) = 3 , f (x) = 1 , and
f (x) = −3 .
66. Given the graph of g(x) , find x when g(x) = −1 , g(x) = 0 , and
g(x) = 1 .
67. Given the graph of f (x) , find x when f (x) = 3.

g(x) = 4 .
69. Given the graph of f (x) , find x when f (x) = −16 , f (x) = −12 , and
f (x) = 0 .
g(x) = 1 .
71. Given the graph of f (x) , find x when f (x) = −4 , f (x) = 0 , and
f (x) = −2 .

72. Given the graph of g(x) , find x when g(x) = 5 , g(x) = 3 , and
g(x) = 2 .
73. The cost in dollars of producing pens with a company logo is given by the
function C(x) = 1.65x + 120, where x is the number of pens
produced. Use the function to calculate the cost of producing 200 pens.
74. The revenue in dollars from selling sweat shirts is given by the function
R(x) = 29.95x , where x is the number of sweat shirts sold. Use the
function to determine the revenue if 20 sweat shirts are sold.
75. The value of a new car in dollars is given by the function

V(t) = −2,500t + 18,000 , where t represents the age of the car in
years. Use the function to determine the value of the car when it is 5 years
old. What was the value of the car when new?
76. The monthly income in dollars of a commissioned car salesman is given

by the function I(n) = 550n + 1,250 , where n represents the number
of cars sold in the month. Use the function to determine the salesman’s
monthly income if he sells 3 cars this month. What is his income if he does
not sell any cars in a month?
77. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle with a base measuring 10

centimeters is given by the function P(x) = 2x + 10 , where x represents
the length of each of the equal sides. Find the length of each side if the
perimeter is 40 centimeters.

78. The perimeter of a square depends on the length of each side s and is
modeled by the function P(s) = 4s. If the perimeter of a square measures
140 meters, then use the function to calculate the length of each side.
79. A certain cellular phone plan charges $18 per month and $0.10 per
minute of usage. The cost of the plan is modeled by the function
C(x) = 0.10x + 18 , where x represents the number of minutes of usage
per month. Determine the minutes of usage if the cost for the month was
$36.
80. The monthly revenue generated by selling subscriptions to a tutoring

website is given by the function R(x) = 29x , where x represents the
number of subscription sales per month. How many subscriptions were sold
if the revenues for the month totaled $1,508?
Graph the linear function and state the domain and range.
81. f (x) =− 5
2
x + 10
82. f (x) = 3
5
x − 10
83. g(x) = 6x + 2
84. g(x) = −4x + 6
85. h(t) = 1
2
t−3
86. h(t) =− 3
4
t+3
87. C(x) = 100 + 50x
88. C(x) = 50 + 100x
89. Is a vertical line a function? What are the domain and range of a vertical
line?
90. Is a horizontal line a function? What are the domain and range of a
horizontal line?

91. Come up with your own correspondence between real-world sets.

Explain why it does or does not represent a function.
92. Can a function have more than one y-intercept? Explain.

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: No
5: No
7: Domain: {3, 5, 7}; range: {2, 3, 4}; function: yes
9: Domain: {−10,−8}; range: {0, 1, 2}; function: no
11: Domain: {−4, −1, 2}; range: {1, 2, 3}; function: yes
13: Domain: {−2, 2}; range: {2, 3, 5}; function: no
15: Domain: (−∞, ∞) ; range: {2}; function: yes
17: Domain: (−∞, ∞) ; range: (−∞, ∞) ; function: yes
19: Domain: [−2, ∞) ; range: (−∞, ∞) ; function: no
21: Domain: [−4, ∞) ; range: [0, ∞) ; function: yes
23: Domain: (−∞, ∞) ; range: [0, ∞) ; function: yes
25: Domain: (−∞, ∞) ; range: [2, ∞) ; function: yes
27: f (−2) = −6
29: f (15) =5
31: f (− 1
3
)=− 7
6
33: g(−4) =5
35: g ( 58 ) = 35
64

37: x =2
39: x =5
41: x = 12
43: x = 1
6
45: f (6) =3
47: f (0) = −1
49: g ( 23 ) =0
51: g (−1) =5
53: x = 3
2
55: x =1
57: f (−4) = −3 , f (−1) = 0 , f (0) = 1, and f (2) = 3
59: f (−4) = −4 , f (−1) = −4 , f (0) = −4 , and f (2) = −4
61: f (−1) = 1 , f (0) = −2 , f (1) = −3 , and f (3) = 1
63: g(−4) = 0 , g(−3) = 1 , g(0) = 2 , and g(4) = 3
65: f (−1) = 3 , f (0) = 1, and f (2) = −3
67: f (1) = 3 (answers may vary)
69: f (−4) = −16 ; f (−6) = −12 and f (−2) = −12 ; f (−8) = 0

and f (0) = 0
71: f (−4)
= −4 and f (4) = −4 ; f (0) = 0; f (−2) = −2 and
f (2) = −2
73: $450

75: New: $18,000; 5 years old: $5,500
77: 15 centimeters
79: 180 minutes
81: Domain and range: R
85: Domain and range R


3.8 Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify and check solutions to linear inequalities with two variables.

2. Graph solution sets of linear inequalities with two variables.
Solutions to Linear Inequalities
We know that a linear equation with two variables has infinitely many ordered pair
solutions that form a line when graphed. A linear inequality with two variables37,
on the other hand, has a solution set consisting of a region that defines half of the
plane.
For the inequality, the line defines one boundary of the region that is shaded. This
indicates that any ordered pair that is in the shaded region, including the boundary
line, will satisfy the inequality. To see that this is the case, choose a few test
37. An inequality relating linear points38 and substitute them into the inequality.
expressions with two variables.
The solution set is a region
defining half of the plane.
38. A point not on the boundary of

the linear inequality used as a
means to determine in which
half-plane the solutions lie.
578
Also, we can see that ordered pairs outside the shaded region do not solve the linear
inequality.
The graph of the solution set to a linear inequality is always a region. However, the
boundary may not always be included in that set. In the previous example, the line
was part of the solution set because of the “or equal to” part of the inclusive
inequality ≤. If we have a strict inequality <, we would then use a dashed line to
indicate that those points are not included in the solution set.
3.8 Linear Inequalities (Two Variables) 579

Consider the point (0, 3) on the boundary; this ordered pair satisfies the linear
equation. It is the “or equal to” part of the inclusive inequality that makes it part of
the solution set.
So far, we have seen examples of inequalities that were “less than.” Now consider
the following graphs with the same boundary:

Given the graphs above, what might we expect if we use the origin (0, 0) as a test
point?
Try this! Which of the ordered pairs (−2, −1), (0, 0), (−2, 8), (2, 1), and (4, 2) solve the
inequality y > − 12 x + 2?
Answer: (−2, 8) and (4, 2)
Video Solution

Graphing Solutions to Linear Inequalities
Solutions to linear inequalities are a shaded half-plane, bounded by a solid line or a

dashed line. This boundary is either included in the solution or not, depending on
the given inequality. If we are given a strict inequality, we use a dashed line to
indicate that the boundary is not included. If we are given an inclusive inequality,
we use a solid line to indicate that it is included. The steps for graphing the solution
set for an inequality with two variables are outlined in the following example.
Example 1: Graph the solution set: y > −3x + 1 .
Solution:
Step 1: Graph the boundary line. In this case, graph a dashed line y = −3x + 1
because of the strict inequality. By inspection, we see that the slope is
m = −3 = −3 1
= rise
runand the y-intercept is (0, 1).
Step 2: Test a point not on the boundary. A common test point is the origin (0, 0).
The test point helps us determine which half of the plane to shade.

Step 3: Shade the region containing the solutions. Since the test point (0, 0) was not
a solution, it does not lie in the region containing all the ordered pair solutions.
Therefore, shade the half of the plane that does not contain this test point. In this
case, shade above the boundary line.
Answer:
Consider the problem of shading above or below the boundary line when the
inequality is in slope-intercept form. If y > mx + b , then shade above the line. If
y < mx + b , then shade below the line. Use this with caution; sometimes the
boundary is given in standard form, in which case these rules do not apply.
Example 2: Graph the solution set: 2x − 5y ≥ −10 .

Solution: Here the boundary is defined by the line 2x − 5y = −10 . Since the
inequality is inclusive, we graph the boundary using a solid line. In this case, graph
the boundary line using intercepts.
Next, test a point; this helps decide which region to shade.

Since the test point is in the solution set, shade the half of the plane that contains it.
Answer:
In this example, notice that the solution set consists of all the ordered pairs below
the boundary line. This may be counterintuitive because of the original ≥ in the
inequality. This illustrates that it is a best practice to actually test a point. Solve for
y and you see that the shading is correct.
In slope-intercept form, you can see that the region below the boundary line should
be shaded. An alternate approach is to first express the boundary in slope-intercept
form, graph it, and then shade the appropriate region.

Example 3: Graph the solution set: y < 2 .
Solution: First, graph the boundary line y = 2 with a dashed line because of the
strict inequality.
Next, test a point.
In this case, shade the region that contains the test point.
Answer:

Try this! Graph the solution set: 5x − y ≤ 10 .
Answer:

Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Linear inequalities with two variables have infinitely many ordered pair
solutions, which can be graphed by shading in the appropriate half of a
rectangular coordinate plane.
• To graph the solution set of a linear inequality with two variables, first
graph the boundary with a dashed or solid line depending on the
inequality. If given a strict inequality, use a dashed line for the
boundary. If given an inclusive inequality, use a solid line. Next, choose
a test point not on the boundary. If the test point solves the inequality,
then shade the region that contains it; otherwise, shade the opposite
side.
• When graphing the solution sets of linear inequalities, it is a good
practice to test values in and out of the solution set as a check.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solutions to Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)
Is the ordered pair a solution to the given inequality?
1. y < 5x + 1 ; (0, 0)
1
2. y >− x − 4 ; (0, −2)
2
2
3. y ≤ x + 1 ; (6, 5)
3
1
4. y ≥− x − 5 ; (−3, −8)
3
3 ( 3
5. y < 1
5
x− 1
; −
1
, − 1)
6. 4x − 3y ≤ 2 ; (−2, −1)
7. −x + 4y > 7 ; (0, 0)
8. 7x − 3y < 21 ; (5, −3)
9. y > −5 ; (−3, −1)
10. x ≤ 0 ; (0, 7)
Part B: Graphing Solutions to Linear Inequalities
Graph the solution set.
11. y < −3x + 3

2
12. y <− x+4
3
1
13. y ≥− x
2
4
14. y ≥ x−8
5

15. y ≤ 8x − 7
16. y > −5x + 3
17. y > −x + 4
18. y >x−2
19. y ≥ −1
20. y < −3
21. x <2
22. x ≥2
3 1
23. y ≤ x−
4 2
3 5
24. y >− x+
2 2
25. −2x + 3y > 6
26. 7x − 2y > 14
27. 5x − y < 10
28. x −y<0
29. 3x − 2y ≥ 0
30. x − 5y ≤ 0
31. −x + 2y ≤ −4
32. −x + 2y ≤ 3
33. 2x − 3y ≥ −1
34. 5x − 4y < −3

1 1
35.
2
x− 3
y<1
1 1 1
36.
2
x− 10
y≥ 2
37. x ≥ −2y
38. x < 2y + 3
39. 3x −y+2>0
40. 3 − y − 2x < 0
41. −4x ≤ 12 − 3y
42. 5x ≤ −4y − 12
43. Write an inequality that describes all points in the upper half-plane
above the x-axis.
44. Write an inequality that describes all points in the lower half-plane
below the x-axis.
45. Write an inequality that describes all points in the half-plane left of the
y-axis.
46. Write an inequality that describes all points in the half-plane right of the
y-axis.
47. Write an inequality that describes all ordered pairs whose y-coordinates
are at least 2.
48. Write an inequality that describes all ordered pairs whose x-coordinate is
at most 5.

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: Yes
5: Yes
7: No
9: Yes
11:
13:
15:
17:

19:
21:
23:
25:

27:
29:
31:
33:

35:
37:
39:
41:

43: y >0
45: x <0
47: y ≥2

597
REVIEW EXERCISES
Rectangular Coordinate System
Graph the given set of ordered pairs.
1. {(−3, 4) , (−4, 0) , (0, 3) , (2, 4)}
2. {(−5, 5) , (−3, − 1) , (0, 0) , (3, 2)}
3. Graph the points (−3, 5), (−3, −3), and (3, −3) on a rectangular coordinate
plane. Connect the points and calculate the area of the shape.
4. Graph the points (−4, 1), (0, 1), (0, −2), and (−4, −2) on a rectangular
coordinate plane. Connect the points and calculate the area of the shape.
5. Graph the points (1, 0), (4, 0), (1, −5), and (4, −5) on a rectangular
coordinate plane. Connect the points and calculate the perimeter of the
shape.
6. Graph the points (−5, 2), (−5, −3), (1, 2), and (1, −3) on a rectangular
coordinate plane. Connect the points and calculate the perimeter of the
shape.
Calculate the distance between the given two points.
7. (−1, −2) and (5, 6)
8. (2, −5) and (−2, −2)
9. (−9, −3) and (−8, 4)
10. (−1, 3) and (1, −3)
Calculate the midpoint between the given points.
11. (−1, 3) and (5, −7)
12. (6, −3) and (−8, −11)

13. (7, −2) and (−6, −1)
14. (−6, 0) and (0, 0)
15. Show algebraically that the points (−1, −1), (1, −3), and (2, 0) form an
isosceles triangle.
16. Show algebraically that the points (2, −1), (6, 1), and (5, 3) form a right
triangle.
Graph by Plotting Points
Determine whether the given point is a solution.
17. −5x + 2y = 7 ; (1, − 1)
18. 6x − 5y = 4 ; (−1, − 2)
19. y = 3
4
x + 1 ; (− 2
3
, 1
2 )
20. y =− 3
5
x − 2 ; (10, − 8)
Find at least five ordered pair solutions and graph.
21. y = −x + 2
22. y = 2x − 3
1
23. y = x−2
2
2
24. y =− x
3
25. y =3
26. x = −3
27. x − 5y = 15

28. 2x − 3y = 12
Graph Using Intercepts
Given the graph, find the x- and y- intercepts.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Find the intercepts and graph them.
33. 3x − 4y = 12
34. 2x − y = −4
1 1
35.
2
x− 3
y=1
1 2
36. − x+ y=2
2 3
5
37. y =− x+5
3
38. y = −3x + 4
Graph Using the y-Intercept and Slope
Given the graph, determine the slope and y-intercept.
39.
40.

Determine the slope, given two points.
41. (−3, 8) and (5, −6)
42. (0, −5) and (−6, 3)
43. (1/2, −2/3) and (1/4, −1/3)
44. (5, −3/4) and (2, −3/4)
Express in slope-intercept form and identify the slope and y-intercept.
45. 12x − 4y = 8
46. 3x − 6y = 24
1 3
47. − x+ y=1
3 4
48. −5x + 3y = 0
Graph using the slope and y-intercept.
49. y = −x + 3
50. y = 4x − 1
51. y = −2x
5
52. y =− x+3
2
53. 2x − 3y = 9

3
54. 2x + y=3
2
55. y =0
56. x − 4y = 0
Finding Linear Equations
Given the graph, determine the equation of the line.
57.
58.
59.
60.

Find the equation of a line, given the slope and a point on the line.
61. m = 1/2; (−4, 8)
62. m = −1/5; (−5, −9)
63. m = 2/3; (1, −2)
64. m = −3/4; (2, −3)
Find the equation of the line given two points on the line.
65. (−5, −5) and (10, 7)
66. (−6, 12) and (3, −3)
67. (2, −1) and (−2, 2)
68. (5/2, −2) and (−5, 5/2)
69. (7, −6) and (3, −6)
70. (10, 1) and (10, −3)
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Determine if the lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
{ 6x − 14y = 42
−3x + 7y = 14
71.

{ 2x − 3y = 36
2x + 3y = 18
72.
{ 8x − 2y = −1
x + 4y = 2
73.
{x = 2
y=2
74.
Find the equation of the line in slope-intercept form.
75. Parallel to 5x − y = 15 and passing through (−10, −1).
76. Parallel to x − 3y = 1 and passing through (2, −2).
77. Perpendicular to 8x − 6y = 4 and passing through (8, −1).
78. Perpendicular to 7x + y = 14 and passing through (5, 1).
79. Parallel to y = 1 and passing through (4, −1).
80. Perpendicular to y = 1 and passing through (4, −1).
Introduction to Functions
Determine the domain and range and state whether it is a function or not.
81. {(−10, −1), (−5, 2), (5, 2)}
82. {(−12, 4), (−1, −3), (−1, −2)}
83.

84.
85.
86.
Given the following,
87. f (x) = 9x − 4 , find f (−1) .
88. f (x) = −5x + 1 , find f (−3) .

, find g (− ).
1 1
89. g(x) = x− 1
2 3 3
, find g ( ).
3 1 2
90. g(x) =− x+
4 3 3
91. f (x) = 9x − 4 , find x when f (x) = 0 .
92. f (x) = −5x + 1 , find x when f (x) = 2 .

1 1
93. g(x) = x− , find x when g(x) = 1.
2 3
3 1
94. g(x) =− x+ , find x when g(x) = −1 .
4 3
Given the graph of a function f (x) , determine the following.
95. f (3)
96. x when f (x) =4
Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)
Is the ordered pair a solution to the given inequality?
97. 6x − 2y ≤ 1 ; (−3, −7)
98. −3x + y > 2 ; (0, 2)
99. 6x − 10y < −1 ; (5, −3)

1
100. x − y > 0 ; (1, 4)
3
101. y > 0 ; (−3, −1)

102. x ≤ −5 ; (−6, 4)
103. y ≥ −2x + 1
104. y < 3x − 4
105. −x +y≤3
5 1
106.
2
x+ 2
y≤2
107. 3x − 5y > 0
108. y >0

SAMPLE EXAM
1. Graph the points (−4, −2), (−4, 1), and (0, −2) on a rectangular coordinate
plane. Connect the points and calculate the area of the shape.
2. Is (−2, 4) a solution to 3x − 4y = −10 ? Justify your answer.
Given the set of x-values {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}, find the corresponding y-values and graph
the following.
3. y =x−1
4. y = −x + 1
5. On the same set of axes, graph y = 4 and x = −3 . Give the point where
they intersect.
Find the x- and y-intercepts and use those points to graph the following.
6. 2x −y=8
7. 12x + 5y = 15
8. Calculate the slope of the line passing through (−4, −5) and (−3, 1).
Determine the slope and y-intercept. Use them to graph the following.
3
9. y =− x+6
2
10. 5x − 2y = 6
11. Given m = −3 , determine m ⊥ .
12. Are the given lines parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
{ 4x − 6y = 30
−2x + 3y = −12

13. Determine the slope of the given lines.
a. y = −2
b. x = 1
3
c. Are these lines parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
15. Determine the equation of the line with slope m =− 3

4
passing
through (8, 1).
16. Find the equation to the line passing through (−2, 3) and (4, 1).
17. Find the equation of the line parallel to 5x −y=6 passing through
(−1, −2).
18. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to −x + 2y = 4 passing

through (1/2, 5).
4
Given a linear function f (x) =− x + 2 , determine the following.
5
19. f (10)
20. x when f (x) =0
21. Graph the solution set: 3x − 4y > 4 .
22. Graph the solution set: y − 2x ≥ 0 .
23. A rental car company charges $32.00 plus $0.52 per mile driven. Write an
equation that gives the cost of renting the car in terms of the number of
miles driven. Use the formula to determine the cost of renting the car and
driving it 46 miles.
24. A car was purchased new for $12,000 and was sold 5 years later for
$7,000. Write a linear equation that gives the value of the car in terms of its
age in years.
25. The area of a rectangle is 72 square meters. If the width measures 4

meters, then determine the length of the rectangle.

1:
3: Area: 24 square units
5: Perimeter: 16 units
7: 10 units
⎯⎯
9: 5√ 2 units
11: (2, −2)
13: (1/2, −3/2)
17: No

19: Yes
21:
23:
25:
27:
29: y-intercept: (0, −2); x-intercept: (−4, 0)

31: y-intercept: none; x-intercept: (5, 0)
33:
35:
37:
39: y-intercept: (0, 1); slope: −2
41: −7/4
43: −4/3
45: y = 3x − 2 ; slope: 3; y-intercept (0, −2)

4 4
47: y = x+ ; slope: 4/9; y-intercept (0, 4/3)
9 3
49:

51:
53:
55:
57: y = −2x + 1
59: y = −5
1
61: y = x + 10
2

2 8
63: y = x−
3 3
4
65: y = x−1
5
3 1
67: y =− x+
4 2
69: y = −6
71: Parallel
73: Perpendicular
75: y = 5x + 49
3
77: y =− x+5
4
79: y = −1
81: Domain: {−10, −5, 5}; range: {−1, 2}; function: yes
83: Domain: R; range: R; function: yes
85: Domain: [−3, ∞) ; range: R; function: no
87: f (−1) = −13
89: g (− 1
3 )=−
1
2
91: x = 4
9
93: x = 8
3
95: f (3) = −2
97: Yes
99: No

101: No
103:
105:
107:

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: Area: 6 square units
3:
5: Intersection: (−3, 4)
7:
9: Slope: −3/2; y-intercept: (0, 6)

11: m ⊥ = 1
3
13:a. 0; b. Undefined; c. Perpendicular
3
15: y =− x+7
4
17: y = 5x + 3
19: f (10) = −6
21:
23: cost = 0.52x + 32 ; $55.92
25: 18 meters

Chapter 4
Solving Linear Systems
619
Chapter 4 Solving Linear Systems
4.1 Solving Linear Systems by Graphing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Check solutions to systems of linear equations.

2. Solve linear systems using the graphing method.
3. Identify dependent and inconsistent systems.
Definition of a Linear System
Real-world applications are often modeled using more than one variable and more
than one equation. A system of equations1 consists of a set of two or more
equations with the same variables. In this section, we will study linear systems2
consisting of two linear equations each with two variables. For example,
A solution to a linear system3, or simultaneous solution4, to a linear system is an

ordered pair (x, y) that solves both of the equations. In this case, (3, 2) is the only
solution. To check that an ordered pair is a solution, substitute the corresponding x-
and y-values into each equation and then simplify to see if you obtain a true
statement for both equations.
1. A set of two or more equations

with the same variables.
2. In this section, we restrict our

study to systems of two linear
equations with two variables.
3. An ordered pair that satisfies

both equations and
corresponds to a point of
intersection.
4. Used when referring to a

solution of a system of
equations.
620
{ −2x + 3y = 5
x−y=1
Example 1: Determine whether (1, 0) is a solution to the system .
Solution: Substitute the appropriate values into both equations.
Answer: Since (1, 0) does not satisfy both equations, it is not a solution.
{ −2x + 3y = 16
x − y = −6
Try this! Is (−2, 4) a solution to the system ?
Answer: Yes
Video Solution

Solve by Graphing
Geometrically, a linear system consists of two lines, where a solution is a point of

intersection. To illustrate this, we will graph the following linear system with a
solution of (3, 2):
4.1 Solving Linear Systems by Graphing 621

First, rewrite the equations in slope-intercept form so that we may easily graph
them.
Next, replace these forms of the original equations in the system to obtain what is
called an equivalent system5. Equivalent systems share the same solution set.
If we graph both of the lines on the same set of axes, then we can see that the point
of intersection is indeed (3, 2), the solution to the system.
5. A system consisting of
equivalent equations that
share the same solution set.

To summarize, linear systems described in this section consist of two linear

equations each with two variables. A solution is an ordered pair that corresponds to
a point where the two lines in the rectangular coordinate plane intersect.
Therefore, we can solve linear systems by graphing both lines on the same set of
axes and determining the point where they cross. When graphing the lines, take
care to choose a good scale and use a straightedge to draw the line through the
points; accuracy is very important here. The steps for solving linear systems using
the graphing method6 are outlined in the following example.
{ 2x + y = 1
x − y = −4
Example 2: Solve by graphing: .
Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite the linear equations in slope-intercept form.
6. A means of solving a system by

graphing the equations on the
same set of axes and
determining where they
intersect.

Step 2: Write the equivalent system and graph the lines on the same set of axes.

Step 3: Use the graph to estimate the point where the lines intersect and check to
see if it solves the original system. In the above graph, the point of intersection
appears to be (−1, 3).
Answer: (−1, 3)
{ −2x + 3y = −18
2x + y = 2
Solution: We first solve each equation for y to obtain an equivalent system where
the lines are in slope-intercept form.
Graph the lines and determine the point of intersection.

Answer: (3, −4)
{ y = −3
3x + y = 6
Solution:

Answer: (3, −3)
The graphing method for solving linear systems is not ideal when the solution
consists of coordinates that are not integers. There will be more accurate algebraic
methods in sections to come, but for now, the goal is to understand the geometry
involved when solving systems. It is important to remember that the solutions to a
system correspond to the point, or points, where the graphs of the equations
intersect.

{ 5x + 2y = −2
−x + y = 6
Try this! Solve by graphing: .
Answer: (−2, 4)
Video Solution

Dependent and Inconsistent Systems
Systems with at least one solution are called consistent systems7. Up to this point,
all of the examples have been of consistent systems with exactly one ordered pair
solution. It turns out that this is not always the case. Sometimes systems consist of
two linear equations that are equivalent. If this is the case, the two lines are the
same and when graphed will coincide. Hence the solution set consists of all the
points on the line. This is a dependent system8. Given a consistent linear system
with two variables, there are two possible results:
The solutions to independent systems9 are ordered pairs (x, y). We need some way
to express the solution sets to dependent systems, since these systems have
infinitely many solutions, or points of intersection. Recall that any line can be
written in slope-intercept form, y = mx + b . Here, y depends on x. So we may
express all the ordered pair solutions (x, y) in the form (x, mx + b) , where x is
any real number.
7. A system with at least one
solution.
8. A system that consists of

equivalent equations with
infinitely many ordered pair
{ 4x − 6y = 18
solutions, denoted by −2x + 3y = −9
(x, mx + b). Example 5: Solve by graphing: .
9. A system of equations with one

ordered pair solution (x, y).

Solution: Determine slope-intercept form for each linear equation in the system.
In slope-intercept form, we can easily see that the system consists of two lines with
the same slope and same y-intercept. They are, in fact, the same line. And the
system is dependent.

Answer: (x, 2
3
x − 3)
In this example, it is important to notice that the two lines have the same slope and
same y-intercept. This tells us that the two equations are equivalent and that the
simultaneous solutions are all the points on the line y = 23 x − 3. This is a
dependent system, and the infinitely many solutions are expressed using the form
(x, mx + b) . Other resources may express this set using set notation, {(x, y) |
y = 23 x − 3}, which reads “the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that y equals two-
thirds x minus 3.”
Sometimes the lines do not cross and there is no point of intersection. Such systems
have no solution, Ø, and are called inconsistent systems10.
{ −4x + 10y = 10
−2x + 5y = −15
Solution: Determine slope-intercept form for each linear equation.
10. A system with no simultaneous

solution.

In slope-intercept form, we can easily see that the system consists of two lines with
the same slope and different y-intercepts. Therefore, they are parallel and will
never intersect.
Answer: There is no simultaneous solution, Ø.

{ −2x − 2y = 2
x + y = −1
Try this! Solve by graphing: .
Answer: (x, − x − 1)
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• In this section, we limit our study to systems of two linear equations

with two variables. Solutions to such systems, if they exist, consist of
ordered pairs that satisfy both equations. Geometrically, solutions are
the points where the graphs intersect.
• The graphing method for solving linear systems requires us to graph
both of the lines on the same set of axes as a means to determine where
they intersect.
• The graphing method is not the most accurate method for determining
solutions, particularly when the solutions have coordinates that are not
integers. It is a good practice to always check your solutions.
• Some linear systems have no simultaneous solution. These systems
consist of equations that represent parallel lines with different y-
intercepts and do not intersect in the plane. They are called inconsistent
systems and the solution set is the empty set, Ø.
• Some linear systems have infinitely many simultaneous solutions. These
systems consist of equations that are equivalent and represent the same
line. They are called dependent systems and their solutions are
expressed using the notation (x, mx + b) , where x is any real
number.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solutions to Linear Systems
Determine whether the given ordered pair is a solution to the given system.
{ −2x − 2y = 2
x + y = −1
1. (3, −2);
{ −2x − 2y = 2
x + y = −1
2. (−5, 0);
{ 3x − y = −12
−x + y = −4
3. (−2, −6);
{ −5x − 3y = 11
3x + 2y = −8
4. (2, −7);
{ −13x + 2y = −6
5x − 5y = 15
5. (0, −3);
{ −2x − 4y = 0
x+y=− 4
6. (− 1
2
, 1
4
);
{ −4x − 8y = 5
−x − y = −1
7. ( 34 , 1
4
);
1
x + 12 y = 1
{
3
8. (−3, 4);
2
3
x − 32 y = −8

{ 5x − 10y = 5
y = −3
9. (−5, −3);
{ −7x + 4y = 8
x=4
10. (4, 2);
Given the graph, determine the simultaneous solution.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.
18.

19.
20.
Part B: Solving Linear Systems
Solve by graphing.
{ y = −x + 1
y= 2
x+6
21.
3
y= x+2
{y = −
4
22.
1
4
x−2

{ y = −x + 2
y=x−4
23.
{ y = 4x − 5
y = −5x + 4
24.
y = 2 x + 1

25. 
 y= 3x

5
2
y=− x+6
{y =
5
26.
2
5
x + 10
{y = x + 1
y = −2
27.
{ x = −3
y=3
28.
y=0
{y =
29. 2
5
x−4
{ y = 3x
x=2
30.
y =

31. 
y =
3
x−6

5
3
5
x−3
1
y=− x+1
{y = −
2
32.
1
2
x+1

{ −6x + 3y = −6
2x + 3y = 18
33.
{ 2x + 8y = 8
−3x + 4y = 20
34.
{ 2x − 3y = 9
−2x + y = 1
35.
{ 5x + 4y = −4
x + 2y = −8
36.
{ 2x − 3y = 6
4x + 6y = 36
37.
{ 6x − 3y = −6
2x − 3y = 18
38.
{ −6x − 10y = −10

3x + 5y = 30
39.
{ 5x − 15y = −15
−x + 3y = 3
40.
{ −x + y = 0
x−y=0
41.
{y − x = 1
y=x
42.

{
3x + 2y = 0
43.
x=2
1 2
2x + y=
{ −3x +
3 3
44.
1
2
y = −2
1 1
x+ y=2
{− 1
10 5
45.
1
5
x+ 5
y = −1
1 1
x− y=1
{
3 2
46.
1 1
3
x+ 5
y=1
1 1
x+ y=0
{
9 6
47.
1 1 1
9
x+ 4
y= 2
 5 x− 1 y=5
 16
48. 
− 5 x + 1 y = 5
 16
2
2 2


49. 
−
1
x− 1
y = 92

6 2
1
18
x+ 1
6
y = − 32
1 1 1
x− y=−
{
2 4 2
50.
1 1
3
x− 2
y=3
{ x = −5
y=4
51.
{x = 2
y = −3
52.

{x = 0
y=0
53.
{ y=3
y = −2
54.
{ y = −5
y=5
55.
{y − 2 = 0
y=2
56.
{x = 1
x = −5
57.
{x = 0
y=x
58.
{ −x + y = −2
4x + 6y = 3
59.
{ 3x + 10y = −10
−2x + 20y = 20
60.
Set up a linear system of two equations and two variables and solve it using the
graphing method.
61. The sum of two numbers is 20. The larger number is 10 less than five
times the smaller.
62. The difference between two numbers is 12 and their sum is 4.

63. Where on the graph of 3x − 2y = 6 does the x-coordinate equal the y-

coordinate?
64. Where on the graph of −5x + 2y = 30 does the x-coordinate equal

the y-coordinate?
A regional bottled water company produces and sells bottled water. The following
graph depicts the supply and demand curves of bottled water in the region. The
horizontal axis represents the weekly tonnage of product produced, Q. The vertical
axis represents the price per bottle in dollars, P.
Use the graph to answer the following questions.
65. Determine the price at which the quantity demanded is equal to the
quantity supplied.
66. If production of bottled water slips to 20 tons, then what price does the
demand curve predict for a bottle of water?
67. If production of bottled water increases to 40 tons, then what price does
the demand curve predict for a bottle of water?
68. If the price of bottled water is set at $2.50 dollars per bottle, what
quantity does the demand curve predict?
69. Discuss the weaknesses of the graphing method for solving systems.
70. Explain why the solution set to a dependent linear system is denoted by
(x, mx + b).

ANSWERS
1: No
3: No
5: Yes
7: No
9: Yes
11: (5, 0)
13: (2, 1)
15: (0, 0)
17: (x, 2x − 2)
19: ∅
21: (−2, 3)
23: (3, −1)
25: (5, 3)
27: (−3, −2)
29: (10, 0)
31: ∅
33: (3, 4)
35: (−3, −5)
37: (6, 2)

39: ∅
41: (x, x)
43: (2, −3)
45: (10, 5)
47: (−9, 6)
49: (x, 1
3
x − 9)
51: (−5, 4)
53: (0, 0)
55: ∅
57: ∅
59: (3/2, −1/2)
61: The two numbers are 5 and 15.
63: (6, 6)
65: $1.25
67: $1.00

4.2 Solving Linear Systems by Substitution
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Solve linear systems using the substitution method.
The Substitution Method
In this section, we will define a completely algebraic technique for solving systems.
The idea is to solve one equation for one of the variables and substitute the result
into the other equation. After performing this substitution step, we will be left with
a single equation with one variable, which can be solved using algebra. This is called
the substitution method11, and the steps are outlined in the following example.
{ 3x − 2y = −7
2x + y = 7
Example 1: Solve by substitution: .
Solution:
Step 1: Solve for either variable in either equation. If you choose the first equation,
you can isolate y in one step.
Step 2: Substitute the expression −2x + 7 for the y variable in the other equation.
11. A means of solving a linear

system by solving for one of
the variables and substituting
the result into the other
equation.
644
This leaves you with an equivalent equation with one variable, which can be solved
using the techniques learned up to this point.
Step 3: Solve for the remaining variable. To solve for x, first distribute −2:
Step 4: Back substitute12 to find the value of the other coordinate. Substitute x = 1
into either of the original equations or their equivalents. Typically, we use the
equivalent equation that we found when isolating a variable in step 1.
12. Once a value is found for a

variable, substitute it back into
one of the original equations,
or their equivalent equations, The solution to the system is (1, 5). Be sure to present the solution as an ordered
to determine the pair.
corresponding value of the
other variable.
4.2 Solving Linear Systems by Substitution 645

Step 5: Check. Verify that these coordinates solve both equations of the original
system:
The graph of this linear system follows:
The substitution method for solving systems is a completely algebraic method. Thus
graphing the lines is not required.
Answer: (1, 5)

{ x−y=3
2x − y = 12
Solution: In this example, we can see that x has a coefficient of 1 in the second
equation. This indicates that it can be isolated in one step as follows:
Substitute 3 + y for x in the first equation. Use parentheses and take care to
distribute.
Use x = 3 + y to find x.
Answer: (9, 6). The check is left to the reader.

{ x = −1
3x − 5y = 17
Solution: In this example, the variable x is already isolated. Hence we can substitute
x = −1 into the first equation.
Answer: (−1, −4). It is a good exercise to graph this particular system to compare the
substitution method to the graphing method for solving systems.
{ 8x + 2y = 10
3x + y = 4
Try this! Solve by substitution: .
Answer: (1, 1)
Video Solution
Solving systems algebraically frequently requires work with fractions.

{ 24x − 4y = −15
2x + 8y = 5
Solution: Begin by solving for x in the first equation.
Next, substitute into the second equation and solve for y.
Back substitute into the equation used in the substitution step:

Answer: (−1/2, 3/4)
As we know, not all linear systems have only one ordered pair solution. Recall that
some systems have infinitely many ordered pair solutions and some do not have
any solutions. Next, we explore what happens when using the substitution method
to solve a dependent system.
{ 10x − 2y = 2
−5x + y = −1
Solution: Since the first equation has a term with coefficient 1, we choose to solve
for that first.

Next, substitute this expression in for y in the second equation.
This process led to a true statement; hence the equation is an identity and any real
number is a solution. This indicates that the system is dependent. The simultaneous
solutions take the form (x, mx + b), or in this case, (x, 5x − 1), where x is any real
number.
Answer: (x, 5x − 1)
To have a better understanding of the previous example, rewrite both equations in

slope-intercept form and graph them on the same set of axes.

We can see that both equations represent the same line, and thus the system is
dependent. Now explore what happens when solving an inconsistent system using
the substitution method.
{ 14x − 6y = −16
−7x + 3y = 3
Solution: Solve for y in the first equation.

Substitute into the second equation and solve.
Solving leads to a false statement. This indicates that the equation is a

contradiction. There is no solution for x and hence no solution to the system.
Answer: No solution, Ø
A false statement indicates that the system is inconsistent, or in geometric terms,

that the lines are parallel and do not intersect. To illustrate this, determine the
slope-intercept form of each line and graph them on the same set of axes.

In slope-intercept form, it is easy to see that the two lines have the same slope but
different y-intercepts.
{ 4x − 10y = 6
2x − 5y = 3
Try this! Solve by substitution: .
Answer: (x, 2
5
x − 35 )
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The substitution method is a completely algebraic method for solving a

system of equations.
• The substitution method requires that we solve for one of the variables
and then substitute the result into the other equation. After performing
the substitution step, the resulting equation has one variable and can be
solved using the techniques learned up to this point.
• When the value of one of the variables is determined, go back and
substitute it into one of the original equations, or their equivalent
equations, to determine the corresponding value of the other variable.
• Solutions to systems of two linear equations with two variables, if they
exist, are ordered pairs (x, y).
• If the process of solving a system of equations leads to a false statement,
then the system is inconsistent and there is no solution, Ø.
• If the process of solving a system of equations leads to a true statement,
then the system is dependent and there are infinitely many solutions
that can be expressed using the form (x, mx + b).

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Substitution Method
Solve by substitution.
{ −3x + y = 1
y = 4x − 1
1.
{ 4x − y = 2
y = 3x − 8
2.
{ x + 3y = −8
x = 2y − 3
3.
{ 2x + 3y = 12
x = −4y + 1
4.
{ −5x + 2y = 2
y = 3x
5.
{ 2x + 3y = 10
y=x
6.
{ −4x + y = 2
y = 4x + 1
7.
{ 3x + y = 5
y = −3x + 5
8.

{ 2x − y = −3
y = 2x + 3
9.
{ x − 2y = 5
y = 5x − 1
10.
{ 3x − y = 4
y = −7x + 1
11.
{ 5x − 2y = 0
x = 6y + 2
12.
{ −2x − y = −6
y = −2
13.
{ x − 4y = −3
x = −3
14.
{ 7x − 5y = 9
y=− 5
x+3
15.
{ 6x − 9y = 0
y= 3
x−1
16.
1 1
{ x − 6y = 4
y= 2
x+ 3
17.
3 1
{ 2x + 4y = 1
y=− 8
x+ 2
18.

{ 2x + 3y = 16
x+y=6
19.
{ −2x + 3y = −2
x−y=3
20.
{ 3x − 2y = 17
2x + y = 2
21.
{ 3x + 5y = −5
x − 3y = −11
22.
{ 3x − 4y = −2
x + 2y = −3
23.
{ 9x − y = 10
5x − y = 12
24.
{ −4x − 8y = 24
x + 2y = −6
25.
{ −2x − 6y = −12
x + 3y = −6
26.
{ 6x − 2y = −2
−3x + y = −4
27.
{ 2x − 10y = −20
x − 5y = −10
28.

{ 4x + 3y = −1
3x − y = 9
29.
{ 4x + 2y = −2
2x − y = 5
30.
{ 2x − 5y = −6
−x + 4y = 0
31.
{ 5x + 2y = −8
3y − x = 5
32.
{ 4x + 10y = 2
2x − 5y = 1
33.
{ 6x + 14y = 0
3x − 7y = −3
34.
10x − y = 3
{ −5x +
35. 1
2
y=1
1 1 2
− x+ y=
{
3 6 3
36.
1 1 3
2
x− 3
y=− 2
1 2
x+ y=1
{
3 3
37.
1 1 1
4
x− 3
y=− 12
1
x − y = 12
{
7
38.
1
4
x + 12 y = 2

3 2 1
− x+ y=
{
5 5 2
39.
1 1
3
x− 12
y= − 13
1 2
x= y
{x −
2 3
40.
2
3
y=2
1 1 5
− x+ y=
{
2 2 8
41.
1 1 1
4
x+ 2
y= 4
{ −x + 2y = 3
x−y=0
42.
{ 2x − 3y = 0
y = 3x
43.
{ −6x + 3y = −6
2x + 3y = 18
44.
{ 2x + 8y = 8
−3x + 4y = 20
45.
{ 3x + 2y = 7
5x − 3y = −1
46.
{ 2x + 7y = 1
−3x + 7y = 2
47.
{ y = −3
y=3
48.

{ x = −2
x=5
49.
{y = 4
y=4
50.
Set up a linear system and solve it using the substitution method.
51. The sum of two numbers is 19. The larger number is 1 less than three
times the smaller.
52. The sum of two numbers is 15. The larger is 3 more than twice the
smaller.
53. The difference of two numbers is 7 and their sum is 1.
54. The difference of two numbers is 3 and their sum is −7.
55. Where on the graph of −5x + 3y = 30 does the x-coordinate equal

the y-coordinate?
56. Where on the graph of 1

2
x− 1
3
y = 1 does the x-coordinate equal the
y-coordinate?
Part B: Discussion Board Topics
57. Describe what drives the choice of variable to solve for when beginning
the process of solving by substitution.
58. Discuss the merits and drawbacks of the substitution method.

ANSWERS
1: (2, 7)
3: (−5, −1)
5: (2, 6)
7: ∅
9: (x, 2x + 3)
11: (1/2, −5/2)
13: (4, −2)
15: (3, 12/5)
17: (−3, −7/6)
19: (2, 4)
21: (3, −4)
23: (−8/5, −7/10)
25: (x, − 1
2
x − 3)
27: ∅
29: (2, −3)
31: (−8, −2)
33: (1/2, 0)
35: ∅
37: (1, 1)

39: (−11/10, −2/5)
41: (−1/2, 3/4)
43: (0, 0)
45: (−4, 2)
47: (−1/5, 1/5)
49: ∅
53: The two numbers are 4 and −3.
55: (−15, −15)

4.3 Solving Linear Systems by Elimination
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve linear systems using the elimination method.

2. Solve linear systems with fractions and decimals.
3. Identify the weaknesses and strengths of each method for solving linear
systems.
The Elimination Method
In this section, the goal is to develop another completely algebraic method for
solving a system of linear equations. We begin by defining what it means to add
equations together. In the following example, notice that if we add the expressions
on both sides of the equal sign, we obtain another true statement.
This is true in general: if A, B, C, and D are algebraic expressions, then we have the
following addition property of equations13:
For the system
13. If A, B, C, and D are algebraic

expressions, where A = B and C
= D, then A + C = B + D.
664
we add the two equations together:
The sum of y and −y is zero and that term is eliminated. This leaves us with a linear
equation with one variable that can be easily solved:
At this point, we have the x coordinate of the simultaneous solution, so all that is
left to do is back substitute to find the corresponding y-value.
Hence the solution to the system is (3, 2). This process describes the elimination
(or addition) method14 for solving linear systems. Of course, the variable is not
always so easily eliminated. Typically, we have to find an equivalent system by
applying the multiplication property of equality to one or both of the equations as a
means to line up one of the variables to eliminate. The goal is to arrange that either
the x terms or the y terms are opposites, so that when the equations are added, the
terms eliminate. The steps for the elimination method are outlined in the following
example.
{ 3x − 2y = −7
14. A means of solving a system by 2x + y = 7
Example 1: Solve by elimination: .
adding equivalent equations in
such a way as to eliminate a
variable.
4.3 Solving Linear Systems by Elimination 665

Solution:
Step 1: Multiply one, or both, of the equations to set up the elimination of one of
the variables. In this example, we will eliminate the variable y by multiplying both
sides of the first equation by 2. Take care to distribute.
This leaves us with an equivalent system where the variable y is lined up to

eliminate.
Step 2: Add the equations together to eliminate one of the variables.
Step 3: Solve for the remaining variable.
Step 3: Back substitute into either equation or its equivalent equation.

Step 4: Check. Remember that the solution must solve both of the original
equations.
Answer: (1, 5)
Occasionally, we will have to multiply both equations to line up one of the variables
to eliminate. We want the resulting equivalent equations to have terms with
opposite coefficients.
{ 3x + 2y = 7
5x − 3y = −1
Solution: We choose to eliminate the terms with variable y because the coefficients
have different signs. To do this, we first determine the least common multiple of
the coefficients; in this case, the LCM(3, 2) is 6. Therefore, multiply both sides of
both equations by the appropriate values to obtain coefficients of −6 and 6.

This results in the following equivalent system:
The y terms are now lined up to eliminate.
Back substitute.

Answer: (1, 2)
Sometimes linear systems are not given in standard form. When this is the case, it is
best to first rearrange the equations before beginning the steps to solve by
elimination.
{ 3y = 4x + 1
5x + 12y = 11
Solution: First, rewrite the second equation in standard form.
This results in the following equivalent system where like terms are aligned in
columns:
We can eliminate the term with variable y if we multiply the second equation by −4.
Next, we add the equations together,

Back substitute.
Answer: (1/3, 7/9)
{ −3x − 2y = 4
2x + y = −3
Try this! Solve by elimination: .
Answer: (−2, 1)

Video Solution
At this point, we explore what happens when solving dependent and inconsistent
systems using the elimination method.
{ 6x − 2y = 14
3x − y = 7
Solution: To eliminate the variable x, we could multiply the first equation by −2.
Now adding the equations we have
A true statement indicates that this is a dependent system. The lines coincide, and
we need y in terms of x to present the solution set in the form (x, mx + b) . Choose
one of the original equations and solve for y. Since the equations are equivalent, it
does not matter which one we choose.

Answer: (x, 3x − 7)
{ 2x − 6y = 12
−x + 3y = 9
Solution: We can eliminate x by multiplying the first equation by 2.
Now adding the equations we have
A false statement indicates that the system is inconsistent. The lines are parallel
and do not intersect.
Answer: No solution, ∅
{ 2x + 10y = 30
3x + 15y = −15
Try this! Solve by elimination: .

Video Solution

Clearing Fractions and Decimals
Given a linear system where the equations have fractional coefficients, it is usually
best to clear the fractions before beginning the elimination method.
 − 1 x+ 1 y= 4
 10
Example 6: Solve: 
 1 x + 1 y = − 2.
 7
2 5
3 21
Solution: Recall that we can clear fractions by multiplying both sides of an equation
by the least common denominator (LCD). Take care to distribute and then simplify.
This results in an equivalent system where the equations have integer coefficients,
Solve using the elimination method.

Back substitute.
Answer: (−3, 1)
We can use a similar technique to clear decimals before solving.
{ −0.5x + 0.12y = 0.16

3x − 0.6y = −0.9
Example 7: Solve: .

Solution: Multiply each equation by the lowest power of 10 necessary to result in

integer coefficients. In this case, multiply the first equation by 10 and the second
equation by 100.
This results in an equivalent system where the equations have integer coefficients:
Back substitute.

Answer: (−0.2, 0.5)


Try this! Solve using elimination: 

1 2
x− y=3

3 3
.
1 1 8
3
x− 2
y= 3
Answer: (5, −2)
Video Solution

Summary of the Methods for Solving Linear Systems
We have developed three methods for solving linear systems of two equations with
two variables. In this section, we summarize the strengths and weaknesses of each
method.
The graphing method is useful for understanding what a system of equations is and
what the solutions must look like. When the equations of a system are graphed on
the same set of axes, we can see that the solution is the point where the graphs
intersect. The graphing is made easy when the equations are in slope-intercept
form. For example,

The simultaneous solution (−1, 10) corresponds to the point of intersection. One
drawback of this method is that it is very inaccurate. When the coordinates of the
solution are not integers, the method is practically unusable. If we have a choice, we
typically avoid this method in favor of the more accurate algebraic techniques.
The substitution method, on the other hand, is a completely algebraic method. It

requires you to solve for one of the variables and substitute the result into the other
equation. The resulting equation has one variable for which you can solve. This
method is particularly useful when there is a variable within the system with
coefficient of 1. For example,
In this case, it is easy to solve for y in the first equation and then substitute the
result into the other equation. One drawback of this method is that it often leads to
equivalent equations with fractional coefficients, which are tedious to work with. If
there is not a coefficient of 1, then it usually is best to choose the elimination
method.

The elimination method is a completely algebraic method that makes use of the
addition property of equations. We multiply one or both of the equations to obtain
equivalent equations where one of the variables is eliminated if we add them
together. For example,
Here we multiply both sides of the first equation by 5 and both sides of the second
equation by −2. This results in an equivalent system where the variable x is
eliminated when we add the equations together. Of course, there are other
combinations of numbers that achieve the same result. We could even choose to
eliminate the variable y. No matter which variable is eliminated first, the solution
will be the same. Note that the substitution method, in this case, would require
tedious calculations with fractional coefficients. One weakness of the elimination
method, as we will see later in our study of algebra, is that it does not always work
for nonlinear systems.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The elimination method is a completely algebraic method for solving a

system of equations.
• Multiply one or both of the equations in a system by certain numbers to
obtain an equivalent system consisting of like terms with opposite
coefficients. Adding these equivalent equations together eliminates a
variable, and the resulting equation has one variable for which you can
solve.
• It is a good practice to first rewrite the equations in standard form
before beginning the elimination method.
• When the value of one of the variables is determined, back substitute
into one of the original equations, or their equivalent equations, and
determine the corresponding value of the other variable.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Elimination Method
Solve by elimination.
{ 2x − y = 9
x+y=3
1.
{ 5x + y = −18
x − y = −6
2.
{ −x − 2y = 0
x + 3y = 5
3.
{ x − y = −7
−x + 4y = 4
4.
{ x − y = −3
−x + y = 2
5.
{ 6x + 4y = 2
3x − y = −2
6.
{ 10x − y = 4
5x + 2y = −3
7.
{ x − 7y = 21
−2x + 14y = 28
8.

{ 12x − 6y = −24
−2x + y = 4
9.
{ 3x + 12y = 6
x + 8y = 3
10.
{ 4x + 10y = 14
2x − 3y = 15
11.
{ 3x − 9y = 15
4x + 3y = −10
12.
{ 8x + 3y = −15
−4x − 5y = −3
13.
{ 4x − 2y = −112
−2x + 7y = 56
14.
{ 3x + 5y = −10
−9x − 15y = −15
15.
{ 2x + 6y = −7
6x − 7y = 4
16.
{ −5x − 3y = −7
4x + 2y = 4
17.
{ 3x + 2y = 7
5x − 3y = −1
18.

{ 2x + 5y = −14
7x + 3y = 9
19.
{ 7x + 2y = −15
9x − 3y = 3
20.
{ −7x + 6y = 11
5x − 3y = −7
21.
{ 3x + 7y = −1
2x + 9y = 8
22.
{ 3x + 3y = −5
2x + 2y = 5
23.
{ 2x − 4y = 8
−3x + 6y = −12
24.
{ 15x + 10y = −1
25x + 15y = −1
25.
{ 18x − 12y = 5
2x − 3y = 2
26.
{ −3x − 2y = 4
y = −2x − 3
27.
{ 6y = 4x − 15
28x + 6y = 9
28.

{ y = −5x + 5
y = 5x + 15
29.
{ 5x − 8y = −16
2x − 3y = 9
30.
1 1 1
x− y=
{
2 3 6
31.
5 7
2
x+y= 2
1 1
x− y=1
{ x+y=
4 9
32.
3
4
1 1 1
x− y=
{
2 4 3
33.
1
4
x+ 1
2
y= − 19
6
14
− x + 2y = 4
{−
3
34.
1
3
x + 17 y = 21
4
{ 0.11x + 0.04y = −0.2

0.025x + 0.1y = 0.5
35.
{ 0.5x + y = −2.75
1.3x + 0.1y = 0.35
36.
{ 0.02x + 0.03y = 0.125

x+y=5
37.
{ 0.05x + 0.1y = 2.4

x + y = 30
38.

Set up a linear system and solve it using the elimination method.
39. The sum of two numbers is 14. The larger number is 1 less than two times
the smaller.
40. The sum of two numbers is 30. The larger is 2 more than three times the
smaller.
41. The difference of two numbers is 13 and their sum is 11.
42. The difference of two numbers is 2 and their sum is −12.
Part B: Mixed Exercises
Solve using any method.
{ 3x + y = 12
y = 2x − 3
43.
x + 3y = −5
{y=
44. 1
3
x+5
{ y=3
x = −1
45.
{x + 9 = 0
y= 2
46.
{ −x + y = 1
y=x
47.
{ y = −10
y = 5x
48.

{ 3x + 4y = 2
3y = 2x − 24
49.
{ −2y + 2 = 3x
y=− 2
x+1
50.
{ 7x = 2y + 23
7y = −2x − 1
51.
{ 3x + 2y − 5 = 0
5x + 9y − 14 = 0
52.
 y = − 5 x + 10

53. 
 y = 5 x − 10

16
16
{
y=− 5
x + 12
54.
x=6
2 (x − 3) + y = 0
{ 3 (2x + y − 1) = 15
55.
3 − 2 (x − y) = −3
{ 4x − 3 (y + 1) = 8
56.
2 (x + 1) = 3 (2y − 1) − 21
{ 3 (x + 2) = 1 − (3y − 2)
57.
x y
− = −7
{
2 3
58. y
x
3
− 2
= −8

x y 3
− =
{
4 2 4
59. y
x 1
3
+ 6
= 6
1 2
x− y=3
{
3 3
60.
1 1 8
3
x− 2
y= 3
1 1 4
− x+ y=
{
10 2 5
61.
1 1 2
7
x+ 3
y=− 21
 y=− 5 x+ 1

62. 
 1 x+ 1 y= 1
3
3 2
5 10
1 2
− x+y=−
{−
7 3
63.
1 1 1
14
x+ 2
y= 3
1 1 1
x− y=
{− 3
15 12 3
64.
3 3
10
x+ 8
y=− 2
{ 0.03x + 0.0525y = 193.5

x + y = 4,200
65.
{ 0.2x + 0.1y = 52.5

x + y = 350
66.
{ 0.3x + 0.1y = −0.3

0.2x − 0.05y = 0.43
67.
{ 0.05x − 0.5y = −0.63

0.1x + 0.3y = 0.3
68.

{ −0.75x + 1.25y = −4
0.15x − 0.25y = −0.3
69.
{ −0.03x + 0.25y = 0.08

−0.15x + 1.25y = 0.4
70.
71. How do we choose the best method for solving a linear system?
72. What does it mean for a system to be dependent? How can we tell if a
given system is dependent?

ANSWERS
1: (4, −1)
3: (−10, 5)
5: ∅
7: (1/5, −2)
9: (x, 2x + 4)
11: (6, −1)
13: (−3, 3)
15: ∅
17: (−1, 4)
19: (3, −4)
21: (−1, 2/3)
23: ∅
25: (1/5, −2/5)
27: (−2, 1)
29: (−1, 10)
31: (1, 1)
33: (−2, −16/3)
35: (−4, 6)
37: (2.5, 2.5)

41: The two numbers are 12 and −1.
43: (3, 3)
45: (−1, 3)
47: Ø
49: (6, −4)
51: (3, −1)
53: (32, 0)
55: (x, − 2x + 6)
57: (−4, 3)
59: (1, −1)
61: (−3, 1)
63: ∅
65: (1,200, 3,000)
67: (0.8, −5.4)
69: Ø

4.4 Applications of Linear Systems
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Set up and solve applications involving relationships between numbers.

2. Set up and solve applications involving interest and money.
3. Set up and solve mixture problems.
4. Set up and solve uniform motion problems (distance problems).
Problems Involving Relationships between Real Numbers
We now have the techniques needed to solve linear systems. For this reason, we are
no longer limited to using one variable when setting up equations that model
applications. If we translate an application to a mathematical setup using two
variables, then we need to form a linear system with two equations.
Example 1: The sum of two numbers is 40 and their difference is 8. Find the
numbers.
Solution:
Identify variables.
Set up equations: When using two variables, we need to set up two equations. The
first key phrase, “the sum of the two numbers is 40,” translates as follows:
689
And the second key phrase, “the difference is 8,” leads us to the second equation:
Therefore, our algebraic setup consists of the following system:
Solve: We can solve the resulting system using any method of our choosing. Here we
choose to solve by elimination. Adding the equations together eliminates the
variable y.
Once we have x, back substitute to find y.
Check: The sum of the two numbers should be 42 and their difference 8.
4.4 Applications of Linear Systems 690

Answer: The two numbers are 24 and 16.
Example 2: The sum of 9 times a larger number and twice a smaller is 6. The
difference of 3 times the larger and the smaller is 7. Find the numbers.
Solution: Begin by assigning variables to the larger and smaller number.
The first sentence describes a sum and the second sentence describes a difference.
This leads to the following system:
Solve using the elimination method. Multiply the second equation by 2 and add.

Back substitute to find y.
Answer: The larger number is 4/3 and the smaller number is −3.
Try this! The sum of two numbers is 3. When twice the smaller number is
subtracted from 6 times the larger the result is 22. Find the numbers.
Answer: The two numbers are −1/2 and 7/2.
Video Solution

Interest and Money Problems
In this section, the interest and money problems15 should seem familiar. The
difference is that we will be making use of two variables when setting up the
algebraic equations.
Example 3: A roll of 32 bills contains only $5 bills and $10 bills. If the value of the
roll is $220, then how many of each bill are in the roll?
Solution: Begin by identifying the variables.
When using two variables, we need to set up two equations. The first equation is
created from the fact that there are 32 bills.
The second equation sums the value of each bill: the total value is $220.
Present both equations as a system; this is our algebraic setup.
15. Applications involving simple

interest and money.

Here we choose to solve by elimination, although substitution would work just as

well. Eliminate x by multiplying the first equation by −5.
Now add the equations together:
Once we have y, the number of $10 bills, back substitute to find x.
Answer: There are twenty $5 bills and twelve $10 bills. The check is left to the
reader.
Example 4: A total of $6,300 was invested in two accounts. Part was invested in a CD
at a 4 12 %annual interest rate and part was invested in a money market fund at a
3 34 %annual interest rate. If the total simple interest for one year was $267.75, then
how much was invested in each account?
Solution:

The total amount in both accounts can be expressed as
To set up a second equation, use the fact that the total interest was $267.75. Recall
that the interest for one year is the interest rate times the principal
(I = prt = pr ⋅ 1 = pr ). Use this to add the interest in both accounts. Be sure to use
the decimal equivalents for the interest rates given as percentages.
These two equations together form the following linear system:
Eliminate y by multiplying the first equation by −0.0375.
Next, add the equations together to eliminate the variable y.

Back substitute.
Answer: $4,200 was invested at 4 1

2
%and $2,100 was invested at 3 34 %.
At this point, we should be able to solve these types of problems in two ways: with
one variable and now with two variables. Setting up word problems with two
variables often simplifies the entire process, particularly when the relationships
between the variables are not so clear.
Try this! On the first day of a two-day meeting, 10 coffees and 10 doughnuts were
purchased for a total of $20.00. Since nobody drank the coffee and all the doughnuts
were eaten, the next day only 2 coffees and 14 doughnuts were purchased for a total
of $13.00. How much did each coffee and each doughnut cost?
Answer: Coffee: $1.25; doughnut: $0.75
Video Solution

Mixture Problems
Mixture problems16 often include a percentage and some total amount. It is

important to make a distinction between these two types of quantities. For
example, if a problem states that a 20-ounce container is filled with a 2% saline
(salt) solution, then this means that the container is filled with a mixture of salt and
water as follows:
Percentage Amount
Salt 2% = 0.02 0.02(20 ounces) = 0.4 ounces
Water 98% = 0.98 0.98(20 ounces) = 19.6 ounces
In other words, we multiply the percentage times the total to get the amount of
each part of the mixture.
Example 5: A 2% saline solution is to be combined and mixed with a 5% saline

solution to produce 72 ounces of a 2.5% saline solution. How much of each is
needed?
Solution:
The total amount of saline solution needed is 72 ounces. This leads to one equation,
The second equation adds up the amount of salt in the correct percentages. The
amount of salt is obtained by multiplying the percentage times the amount, where
16. Applications involving a the variables x and y represent the amounts of the solutions.
mixture of amounts usually
given as a percentage of some
total.

The algebraic setup consists of both equations presented as a system:
Solve.
Back substitute.
Answer: We need 60 ounces of the 2% saline solution and 12 ounces of the 5% saline
solution.

Example 6: A 50% alcohol solution is to be mixed with a 10% alcohol solution to

create an 8-ounce mixture of a 32% alcohol solution. How much of each is needed?
Solution:
The total amount of the mixture must be 8 ounces.
The second equation adds up the amount of alcohol from each solution in the
correct percentages. The amount of alcohol in the end result is 32% of 8 ounces, or
0.032(8).
Now we can form a system of two linear equations and two variables as follows:
In this example, multiply the second equation by 100 to eliminate the decimals. In
addition, multiply the first equation by −10 to line up the variable y to eliminate.

We obtain the following equivalent system:
Add the equations and then solve for x:
Back substitute.
Answer: To obtain 8 ounces of a 32% alcohol mixture we need to mix 4.4 ounces of
the 50% alcohol solution and 3.6 ounces of the 10% solution.

Try this! A 70% antifreeze concentrate is to be mixed with water to produce a

5-gallon mixture containing 28% antifreeze. How much water and antifreeze
concentrate is needed?
Answer: We need to mix 3 gallons of water with 2 gallons of antifreeze concentrate.
Video Solution

Uniform Motion Problems (Distance Problems)
Recall that the distance traveled is equal to the average rate times the time traveled
at that rate, D = r ⋅ t. These uniform motion problems17 usually have a lot of
data, so it helps to first organize that data in a chart and then set up a linear
system. In this section, you are encouraged to use two variables.
Example 7: An executive traveled a total of 8 hours and 1,930 miles by car and by
plane. Driving to the airport by car, she averaged 60 miles per hour. In the air, the
plane averaged 350 miles per hour. How long did it take her to drive to the airport?
Solution: We are asked to find the time it takes her to drive to the airport; this
indicates that time is the unknown quantity.
17. Applications relating distance, Use the formula D = r ⋅ t to fill in the unknown distances.
average rate, and time.

The distance column and the time column of the chart help us to set up the
following linear system.
Solve.

Now back substitute to find the time it took to drive to the airport x:
Answer: It took her 3 hours to drive to the airport.
It is not always the case that time is the unknown quantity. Read the problem
carefully and identify what you are asked to find; this defines your variables.
Example 8: Flying with the wind, an airplane traveled 1,365 miles in 3 hours. The
plane then turned against the wind and traveled another 870 miles in 2 hours. Find
the speed of the airplane and the speed of the wind.
Solution: There is no obvious relationship between the speed of the plane and the
speed of the wind. For this reason, use two variables as follows:

Use the following chart to organize the data:
With the wind, the airplane’s total speed is x + w . Flying against the wind, the total
speed is x − w .
Use the rows of the chart along with the formula D = r ⋅ t to construct a linear
system that models this problem. Take care to group the quantities that represent
the rate in parentheses.

If we divide both sides of the first equation by 3 and both sides of the second
equation by 2, then we obtain the following equivalent system:
Back substitute.
Answer: The speed of the airplane is 445 miles per hour and the speed of the wind is
10 miles per hour.
Try this! A boat traveled 24 miles downstream in 2 hours. The return trip, which
was against the current, took twice as long. What are the speeds of the boat and of
the current?
Answer: The speed of the boat is 9 miles per hour and the speed of the current is 3
miles per hour.
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Use two variables as a means to simplify the algebraic setup of

applications where the relationship between unknowns is unclear.
• Carefully read the problem several times. If two variables are used, then
remember that you need to set up two linear equations in order to solve
the problem.
• Be sure to answer the question in sentence form and include the correct
units for the answer.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Applications Involving Numbers
Set up a linear system and solve.
1. The sum of two integers is 54 and their difference is 10. Find the integers.
2. The sum of two integers is 50 and their difference is 24. Find the integers.
3. The sum of two positive integers is 32. When the smaller integer is
subtracted from twice the larger, the result is 40. Find the two integers.
4. The sum of two positive integers is 48. When twice the smaller integer is
subtracted from the larger, the result is 12. Find the two integers.
5. The sum of two integers is 74. The larger is 26 more than twice the
smaller. Find the two integers.
6. The sum of two integers is 45. The larger is 3 less than three times the
smaller. Find the two integers.
7. The sum of two numbers is zero. When 4 times the smaller number is
added to 8 times the larger, the result is 1. Find the two numbers.
8. The sum of a larger number and 4 times a smaller number is 5. When 8

times the smaller is subtracted from twice the larger, the result is −2. Find
the numbers.
9. The sum of 12 times the larger number and 11 times the smaller is −36.
The difference of 12 times the larger and 7 times the smaller is 36. Find the
numbers.
10. The sum of 4 times the larger number and 3 times the smaller is 7. The
difference of 8 times the larger and 6 times the smaller is 10. Find the
numbers.
Part B: Interest and Money Problems

11. A $7,000 principal is invested in two accounts, one earning 3% interest

and another earning 7% interest. If the total interest for the year is $262,
then how much is invested in each account?
12. Mary has her total savings of $12,500 in two different CD accounts. One
CD earns 4.4% interest and another earns 3.2% interest. If her total interest
for the year is $463, then how much does she have in each CD account?
13. Sally’s $1,800 savings is in two accounts. One account earns 6% annual
interest and the other earns 3%. Her total interest for the year is $93. How
much does she have in each account?
14. Joe has two savings accounts totaling $4,500. One account earns 3 34 %
annual interest and the other earns 2 58 %. If his total interest for the year
is $141.75, then how much is in each account?
15. Millicent has $10,000 invested in two accounts. For the year, she earns
$535 more in interest from her 7% mutual fund account than she does from
her 4% CD. How much does she have in each account?
16. A small business has $85,000 invested in two accounts. If the account
earning 3% annual interest earns $825 more in interest than the account
earning 4.5% annual interest, then how much is invested in each account?
17. Jerry earned a total of $284 in simple interest from two separate
accounts. In an account earning 6% interest, Jerry invested $1,000 more than
twice the amount he invested in an account earning 4%. How much did he
invest in each account?
18. James earned a total of $68.25 in simple interest from two separate
accounts. In an account earning 2.6% interest, James invested one-half as
much as he did in the other account that earned 5.2%. How much did he
invest in each account?
19. A cash register contains $10 bills and $20 bills with a total value of $340.
If there are 23 bills total, then how many of each does the register contain?
20. John was able to purchase a pizza for $10.80 with quarters and dimes. If
he uses 60 coins to buy the pizza, then how many of each did he have?

21. Dennis mowed his neighbor’s lawn for a jar of dimes and nickels. Upon
completing the job, he counted the coins and found that there were 4 less
than twice as many dimes as there were nickels. The total value of all the
coins is $6.60. How many of each coin did he have?
22. Two families bought tickets for the big football game. One family ordered
2 adult tickets and 3 children’s tickets for a total of $26.00. Another family
ordered 3 adult tickets and 4 children’s tickets for a total of $37.00. How
much did each adult ticket cost?
23. Two friends found shirts and shorts on sale at a flea market. One bought
5 shirts and 3 shorts for a total of $51.00. The other bought 3 shirts and 7
shorts for a total of $80.00. How much was each shirt and each pair of
shorts?
24. On Monday Joe bought 10 cups of coffee and 5 doughnuts for his office at
a cost of $16.50. It turns out that the doughnuts were more popular than the
coffee. Therefore, on Tuesday he bought 5 cups of coffee and 10 doughnuts
for a total of $14.25. How much was each cup of coffee?
Part C: Mixture Problems
25. A 15% acid solution is to be mixed with a 25% acid solution to produce 12
gallons of a 20% acid solution. How much of each is needed?
26. One alcohol solution contains 12% alcohol and another contains 26%
alcohol. How much of each should be mixed together to obtain 5 gallons of a
14.8% alcohol solution?
27. A nurse wishes to obtain 40 ounces of a 1.2% saline solution. How much
of a 1% saline solution must she mix with a 2% saline solution to achieve the
desired result?
28. A customer ordered 20 pounds of fertilizer that contains 15% nitrogen.

To fill the customer’s order, how much of the stock 30% nitrogen fertilizer
must be mixed with the 10% nitrogen fertilizer?
29. A customer ordered 2 pounds of a mixed peanut product containing 15%

cashews. The inventory consists of only two mixes containing 10% and 30%
cashews. How much of each type must be mixed to fill the order?

30. How many pounds of pure peanuts must be combined with a 20% peanut
mix to produce 10 pounds of a 32% peanut mix?
31. How much cleaning fluid with 20% alcohol content, must be mixed with
water to obtain a 24-ounce mixture with 10% alcohol content?
32. A chemist wishes to create a 32-ounce solution with 12% acid content. He
uses two types of stock solutions, one with 30% acid content and another
with 10% acid content. How much of each does he need?
33. A concentrated cleaning solution that contains 50% ammonia is mixed

with another solution containing 10% ammonia. How much of each is mixed
to obtain 8 ounces of a 32% ammonia cleaning formula?
34. A 50% fruit juice concentrate can be purchased wholesale. Best taste is
achieved when water is mixed with the concentrate in such a way as to
obtain a 12% fruit juice mixture. How much water and concentrate is needed
to make a 50-ounce fruit juice drink?
35. A 75% antifreeze concentrate is to be mixed with water to obtain 6

gallons of a 25% antifreeze solution. How much water is needed?
36. Pure sugar is to be mixed with a fruit salad containing 10% sugar to
produce 48 ounces of a salad containing 16% sugar. How much pure sugar is
required?
Part D: Uniform Motion Problems
37. An airplane averaged 460 miles per hour on a trip with the wind behind
it and 345 miles per hour on the return trip against the wind. If the total
round trip took 7 hours, then how long did the airplane spend on each leg of
the trip?
38. The two legs of a 330-mile trip took 5 hours. The average speed for the
first leg of the trip was 70 miles per hour and the average speed for the
second leg of the trip was 60 miles per hour. How long did each leg of the
trip take?

39. An executive traveled 1,200 miles, part by helicopter and part by private
jet. The jet averaged 320 miles per hour while the helicopter averaged 80
miles per hour. If the total trip took 4½ hours, then how long did she spend
in the private jet?
40. Joe took two buses on the 463-mile trip from San Jose to San Diego. The
first bus averaged 50 miles per hour and the second bus was able to average
64 miles per hour. If the total trip took 8 hours, then how long was spent in
each bus?
41. Billy canoed downstream to the general store at an average rate of 9

miles per hour. His average rate canoeing back upstream was 4 miles per
hour. If the total trip took 6½ hours, then how long did it take Billy to get
back on the return trip?
42. Two brothers drove the 2,793 miles from Los Angeles to New York. One of
the brothers, driving in the day, was able to average 70 miles per hour, and
the other, driving at night, was able to average 53 miles per hour. If the total
trip took 45 hours, then how many hours did each brother drive?
43. A boat traveled 24 miles downstream in 2 hours. The return trip took
twice as long. What was the speed of the boat and the current?
44. A helicopter flying with the wind can travel 525 miles in 5 hours. On the
return trip, against the wind, it will take 7 hours. What are the speeds of the
helicopter and of the wind?
45. A boat can travel 42 miles with the current downstream in 3 hours.
Returning upstream against the current, the boat can only travel 33 miles in
3 hours. Find the speed of the current.
46. A light aircraft flying with the wind can travel 180 miles in 1½ hours. The
aircraft can fly the same distance against the wind in 2 hours. Find the speed
of the wind.
Part E: Discussion Board
47. Compose a number or money problem that can be solved with a system
of equations of your own and share it on the discussion board.
48. Compose a mixture problem that can be solved with a system of

equations of your own and share it on the discussion board.

49. Compose a uniform motion problem that can be solved with a system of
equations of your own and share it on the discussion board.

ANSWERS
1: The integers are 22 and 32.
7: The two numbers are −1/4 and 1/4.
9: The smaller number is −4 and the larger is 2/3.
11: $5,700 at 3% and $1,300 at 7%
13: $1,300 at 6% and $500 at 3%
15: $8,500 at 7% and $1,500 at 4%
17: $1,400 at 4% and $3,800 at 6%
19: 12 tens and 11 twenties
21: 52 dimes and 28 nickels
23: Shirts: $4.50; shorts: $9.50
25: 6 gallons of each
27: 32 ounces of the 1% saline solution and 8 ounces of the 2% saline solution
29: 1.5 pounds of the 10% cashew mix and 0.5 pounds of the 30% cashew mix
31: 12 ounces of cleaning fluid
33: 4.4 ounces of the 50% ammonia solution and 3.6 ounces of the 10%
ammonia solution
35: 4 gallons
37: The airplane flew 3 hours with the wind and 4 hours against the wind.

39: 3.5 hours
41: 4.5 hours
43: Boat: 9 miles per hour; current: 3 miles per hour
45: 1.5 miles per hour

4.5 Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Check solutions to systems of linear inequalities with two variables.

2. Solve systems of linear inequalities.
Solutions to Systems of Linear Inequalities
A system of linear inequalities18 consists of a set of two or more linear inequalities

with the same variables. The inequalities define the conditions that are to be
considered simultaneously. For example,
We know that each inequality in the set contains infinitely many ordered pair
solutions defined by a region in a rectangular coordinate plane. When considering
two of these inequalities together, the intersection of these sets defines the set of
simultaneous ordered pair solutions. When we graph each of the above inequalities
separately, we have
18. A set of two or more linear

inequalities that define the
conditions to be considered When graphed on the same set of axes, the intersection can be determined.
simultaneously.
715
The intersection is shaded darker and the final graph of the solution set is
presented as follows:
The graph suggests that (3, 2) is a solution because it is in the intersection. To verify
this, show that it solves both of the original inequalities:
4.5 Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities (Two Variables) 716

Points on the solid boundary are included in the set of simultaneous solutions and
points on the dashed boundary are not. Consider the point (−1, 0) on the solid
boundary defined by y = 2x + 2 and verify that it solves the original system:
Notice that this point satisfies both inequalities and thus is included in the solution
set. Now consider the point (2, 0) on the dashed boundary defined by y = x − 2
and verify that it does not solve the original system:
This point does not satisfy both inequalities and thus is not included in the solution
set.
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities
Solutions to a system of linear inequalities are the ordered pairs that solve all the
inequalities in the system. Therefore, to solve these systems, graph the solution sets

of the inequalities on the same set of axes and determine where they intersect. This
intersection, or overlap, defines the region of common ordered pair solutions.
{ 3x − 6y ≥ 6
−2x + y > −4
Example 1: Graph the solution set: .
Solution: To facilitate the graphing process, we first solve for y.
For the first inequality, we use a dashed boundary defined by y = 2x − 4 and

shade all points above the line. For the second inequality, we use a solid boundary
defined by y = 12 x − 1 and shade all points below. The intersection is darkened.
Now we present the solution with only the intersection shaded.

Answer:
{ 4x − 6y > 12
−2x + 3y > 6
Example 2: Graph the solution set: .
Solution: Begin by solving both inequalities for y.
Use a dashed line for each boundary. For the first inequality, shade all points above
the boundary. For the second inequality, shade all points below the boundary.

As you can see, there is no intersection of these two shaded regions. Therefore,
there are no simultaneous solutions.
 y ≥ −4

Example 3: Graph the solution set:  y < x + 3 .

 y ≤ −3x + 3
Solution: The intersection of all the shaded regions forms the triangular region as
pictured darkened below:

After graphing all three inequalities on the same set of axes, we determine that the
intersection lies in the triangular region pictured.
Answer:

The graphic suggests that (−1, 1) is a common point. As a check, substitute that
point into the inequalities and verify that it solves all three conditions.
KEY TAKEAWAY
• To solve systems of linear inequalities, graph the solution sets of each

inequality on the same set of axes and determine where they intersect.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities
Determine whether the given point is a solution to the given system of linear
equations.
{ y ≥ −x + 3
y≤x+3
1. (3, 2);
{ y ≥ 2x − 1
y < −3x + 4
2. (−3, −2);
y > −x + 5
{y ≤
3. (5, 0); 3
4
x−2
2
y< x+1
{y ≥
3
4. (0, 1);
5
2
x−2
{ 2x + 3y < 6
−4x + 3y ≥ −12
5. (−1, 8
3
);
 −x + y < 0

6. (−1, −2);  x + y < 0

 x + y < −2
Part B: Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities
{ y ≥ −x + 3
y≤x+3
7.

{ y ≥ 2x − 1
y < −3x + 4
8.
{ y < −1
y>x
9.
2
y< x+1
{y ≥
3
10.
5
2
x−2
y > −x + 5
{y ≤
11. 3
4
x−2
y >

12. 
y <
3
x+3

5
3
5
x−3
{ −3x + 12y ≥ −12

x + 4y < 12
13.
{ 2x + y ≥ 1
−x + y ≤ 6
14.
{ 4x − 3y < 15
−2x + 3y > 3
15.
{ 2x + 3y < 6
−4x + 3y ≥ −12
16.
{ −4x + 3y < −6
5x + y ≤ 4
17.

{ −x + 2y ≤ 0
3x + 5y < 15
18.
{ 5x + y > 5
x≥0
19.
{ y≥1
x ≥ −2
20.
{y + 2 ≥ 0
x−3<0
21.
{ −2x < −5y − 5

5y ≥ 2x + 5
22.
{ −x + y < 1
x−y≥0
23.
{ y−x<1
−x + y ≥ 0
24.
{x ≤ 2
x > −2
25.
{y < 2
y > −1
26.
{ 3x − 6y ≥ 18
−x + 2y > 8
27.

{ 6x − 8y > −8
−3x + 4y ≤ 4
28.
2x + y < 3
{ −x ≤
29. 1
2
y
2x + 6y ≤ 6
{−
30. 1
3
x−y≤3
 y<3

31.  y > x

 x > −4
y < 1

32.  y ≥ x − 1

 y < −3x + 3
 −4x + 3y > −12


33. 

 2x + 3y > 6
y≥2
 −x + y < 0

34.  x + y ≤ 0

 x + y > −2
 x+y<2

35. 

 −x + y ≤ 2
x<3

 y+4≥0
 1
36.  2 x + 3 y ≤ 1
 1
1
− 2 x + 3 y ≤ 1
1
37. Construct a system of linear inequalities that describes all points in the
first quadrant.
second quadrant.
third quadrant.
fourth quadrant.

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: No
5: No
7:
9:
11:
13:

15:
17:
19:
21:

23:
25:
27: No solution, ∅
29:
31:

33:
35:
{y > 0
x>0
37:
{y < 0
x<0
39:

732
REVIEW EXERCISES
Solving Linear Systems by Graphing
Determine whether the given ordered pair is a solution to the given system.
{ −3x + y = −6
5x − y = 8
1. (1, −3);
{ 6x − 5y = −2
4x − 2
y = −10
2. (−3, −4);
 3 x− 1 y=− 2
 5
3. (−1, 1/5); 
− 1 x − 1 y = 1
 5
3 3
2 10
3 1
x+ y=−
{
4 4
4. (1/2, −1);
2 4
3
x−y= 3
5.
6.

7.
8.
Solve by graphing.
1
y= x−3
{y = −
2
9.
3
4
x+2
y=5
{y = −
10. 4
5
x+1
{ 2x − 3y = 3
x − 2y = 0
11.

{ −4x + 2y = 16
5x − y = −11
12.
{ 5x + 4y = 12
2
x + 2y = 6
13.
{ 3x − 5y = 5
6x − 10y = −2
14.
Solving Linear Systems by Substitution
Solve by substitution.
{x + y = 6
y = 7x − 2
15.
{ x = −2y − 1
2x − 4y = 10
16.
{ 5x − 7y = −8
x−y=0
17.
{ −x + y = 7
9x + 2y = −41
18.
{ 2x − 9y = 4
6x − 3y = 4
19.
{ 12x + 3y = 6
8x − y = 7
20.

20x − 4y = −3
{ −5x + y = −
21. 1
2
3x − y = 6
{x −
22. 1
3
y=2
{ 8x − 4y = −10
x = −1
23.
{ 14x − 4y = 0
y = −7
24.
Solving Linear Systems by Elimination
Solve by elimination.
{ 3x − 8y = 5
x−y=5
25.
{ 9x + 4y = −30
7x + 2y = −10
26.
{ 2x − 5y = 17
9x − 6y = −6
27.
{ 3x + 7y = 14
4x − 2y = 30
28.
5 11
x − 2y = −
{
2 4
29.
1 1
6
x− 3
y= − 13

 2x − 3 y = 20

30. 
 3 x − 1 y = 11
2
2 3
3 6
{ 0.6x + 0.5y = −0.13

0.1x − 0.3y = 0.17
31.
{
−1.25x − 0.45y = −12.23
32.
0.5x − 1.5y = 5.9
{ −12x + 5y = 10
6x − 2
y = −5
33.
{ 9x + 4y = 3
27x + 12y = −2
34.
{ 4x − 3y = 2
6x − 5y = 0
35.
{ 10x + 3y = 6
5x = 1
36.
{ 3x = 6y − 18
8y = −2x + 6
37.
{ 9x − 27y − 3 = 0
6y = 3x + 1
38.
Applications of Linear Systems

39. The sum of two numbers is 74 and their difference is 38. Find the
numbers.
40. The sum of two numbers is 34. When the larger is subtracted from twice
the smaller, the result is 8. Find the numbers.
41. A jar full of 40 coins consisting of dimes and nickels has a total value of
$2.90. How many of each coin are in the jar?
42. A total of $9,600 was invested in two separate accounts earning 5.5% and
3.75% annual interest. If the total simple interest earned for the year was
$491.25, then how much was invested in each account?
43. A 1% saline solution is to be mixed with a 3% saline solution to produce 6

ounces of a 1.8% saline solution. How much of each is needed?
44. An 80% fruit juice concentrate is to be mixed with water to produce 10

gallons of a 20% fruit juice mixture. How much of each is needed?
45. An executive traveled a total of 4½ hours and 435 miles to a conference

by car and by light aircraft. Driving to the airport by car, he averaged 50
miles per hour. In the air, the light aircraft averaged 120 miles per hour.
How long did it take him to drive to the airport?
46. Flying with the wind, an airplane traveled 1,065 miles in 3 hours. On the
return trip, against the wind, the airplane traveled 915 miles in 3 hours.
What is the speed of the wind?
Systems of Linear Inequalities (Two Variables)
Determine whether the given point is a solution to the system of linear inequalities.
{ −3x + y ≤ −6
5x − y > 8
47. (5, −2);
{ −5x + y > 1
2x − 3y > −10
48. (2, 3);

{x − y ≥ 0
y < −10
49. (2, −10);
1
y> x−4
{y < −
2
50. (0, −2);
3
4
x+2
{ 2x + 3y < 12
8x + 3y ≤ 24
51.
{ 4x − y ≥ 0
x+y≥7
52.
{ −2x + 6y > −6
x − 3y > −12
53.
{x − y > 0
y≤7
54.
 y<4

55.  y ≥ 3 x + 1

4
 y > −x − 1
 x − y ≥ −3

56.  x − y ≤ 3

 x+y<1

SAMPLE EXAM
{ −4x + y = 14
2x − 3y = −12
1. Is (−3, 2) a solution to the system ?
{ 4x − y < 0
x+y≥7
2. Is (−2, 9) a solution to the system ?
3.
4.
Solve using the graphing method.
{ y = − 12 x + 3
y=x−3
5.
{ −x + 6y = −18
2x + 3y = 6
6.

{x + y = 3
y=2
7.
{ x = −5
y=x
8.
Solve using the substitution method.
{ 2x − 3y = −9
5x + y = −14
9.
{ x − 2y = 2
4x − 3y = 1
10.
{ 10x + 2y = 4
5x + y = 1
11.
{ 3x − 6y = 12
x − 2y = 4
12.
{ −5x + 2y = −17
4x − y = 13
13.
{ 4x + 5y = 7
7x − 3y = −23
14.
{ x − 6y = 6
−3x + 18y = 18
15.

{ 8x − 6y = 6
−4x + 3y = −3
16.
1 3 7
x+ y=
{ 4x −
2 4 4
17.
1 4
3
y= 3
{ −0.3x + 0.5y = 0.08

0.2x − 0.1y = −0.24
18.
{ x − 4y < 8
3x + 4y < 24
19.
{ 3x − 8y ≤ 0
x≤8
20.
Set up a linear system of two equations and two variables and solve it using any
method.
21. The sum of two integers is 23. If the larger integer is one less than twice
the smaller, then find the two integers.
22. James has $2,400 saved in two separate accounts. One account earns 3%
annual interest and the other earns 4%. If his interest for the year totals $88,
then how much is in each account?
23. Mary drives 110 miles to her grandmother’s house in a total of 2 hours.
On the freeway, she averages 62 miles per hour. In the city she averages 34
miles per hour. How long does she spend on the freeway?
24. A 15% acid solution is to be mixed with a 35% acid solution to produce 12
ounces of a 22% acid solution. How much of each is needed?
25. Joey has bag full of 52 dimes and quarters with a total value of $8.35. How
many of each coin does Joey have?

1: Yes
3: Yes
5: (−3, 1)
7: Ø
9: (4, −1)
11: (6, 3)
13: (x, − 5
4
x + 3)
15: (1, 5)
17: (4, 4)
19: (1/2, −1/3)
21: Ø
23: (−1, 1/2)
25: (7, 2)
27: (−4, −5)
29: (−1/2, 3/4)
31: (0.2, −0.5)
33: (x, 12
5
x + 2)
35: (5, 6)
37: (−3, 3/2)

39: 18 and 56
41: 18 dimes and 22 nickels
43: 3.6 ounces of the 1% saline solution and 2.4 ounces of the 3% saline
solution
45: It took him 1½ hours to drive to the airport.
47: Yes
49: No
51:
53:
55:

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: (−1, −2)
5: (4, 1)
7: (1, 2)
9: (−3, 1)
11: Ø
13: (3, −1)
15: Ø
17: (1/2, 2)
19:
21: 8 and 15
23: She drives 1½ hours on the freeway.
25: 21 quarters and 31 dimes

Chapter 5
Polynomials and Their Operations
746
Chapter 5 Polynomials and Their Operations
5.1 Rules of Exponents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Simplify expressions using the rules of exponents.

2. Simplify expressions involving parentheses and exponents.
3. Simplify expressions involving 0 as an exponent.
Product, Quotient, and Power Rule for Exponents
If a factor is repeated multiple times, then the product can be written in

exponential form1 x n . The positive integer exponent n indicates the number of
times the base x is repeated as a factor.
For example,
Here the base is 5 and the exponent is 4. Exponents are sometimes indicated with
the caret (^) symbol found on the keyboard: 5^4 = 5*5*5*5.
Next consider the product of 23 and 25 ,
Expanding the expression using the definition produces multiple factors of the
1. An equivalent expression base, which is quite cumbersome, particularly when n is large. For this reason, we
written using a rational
exponent.
747
will develop some useful rules to help us simplify expressions with exponents. In
this example, notice that we could obtain the same result by adding the exponents.
In general, this describes the product rule for exponents2. If m and n are positive
integers, then
In other words, when multiplying two expressions with the same base, add the
exponents.
Example 1: Simplify: 105 ⋅ 1018 .
Solution:
Answer: 1023
In the previous example, notice that we did not multiply the base 10 times itself.
When applying the product rule, add the exponents and leave the base unchanged.
2. x m ⋅ x n = x m+n; the
product of two expressions
with the same base can be
simplified by adding the
exponents. Example 2: Simplify: x 6 ⋅ x 12 ⋅ x .
5.1 Rules of Exponents 748

Solution: Recall that the variable x is assumed to have an exponent of 1: x = x 1 .
Answer: x 19
The base could be any algebraic expression.
Example 3: Simplify: (x + y) (x + y) .
9 13
Solution: Treat the expression (x + y) as the base.
Answer: (x + y) 22
The commutative property of multiplication allows us to use the product rule for
exponents to simplify factors of an algebraic expression.
Example 4: Simplify: 2x 8 y ⋅ 3x 4 y 7 .

Solution: Multiply the coefficients and add the exponents of variable factors with
the same base.
Answer: 6x 12 y 8
Next, we will develop a rule for division by first looking at the quotient of 27 and
23 .
Here we can cancel factors after applying the definition of exponents. Notice that
the same result can be obtained by subtracting the exponents.
This describes the quotient rule for exponents3. If m and n are positive integers
and x ≠ 0 , then
xm In other words, when you divide two expressions with the same base, subtract the
3. x n = x m−n; the quotient of
two expressions with the same exponents.
base can be simplified by
subtracting the exponents.

12y 15
4y 7
Solution: Divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents of the variable y.
Answer: 3y 8
20x 10 (x+5)
6
10x 9 (x+5)
Example 6: Simplify: 2
.
Solution:
Answer: 2x(x + 5)
4
Now raise 23 to the fourth power as follows:

After writing the base 23 as a factor four times, expand to obtain 12 factors of 2. We
can obtain the same result by multiplying the exponents.
In general, this describes the power rule for exponents4. Given positive integers m
and n, then
In other words, when raising a power to a power, multiply the exponents.
Example 7: Simplify: (y 6 ) .
7
Solution:
n
4. (x m ) = x mn ; a power Answer: y 42
raised to a power can be
simplified by multiplying the
exponents.

To summarize, we have developed three very useful rules of exponents that are
used extensively in algebra. If given positive integers m and n, then
Product rule: x m ⋅ x n = x m+n
xm
Quotient rule: = x m−n , x ≠ 0
x n
(x ) = x
m n
m⋅n
Power rule:
Try this! Simplify: y 5 ⋅ (y 4 ) .

6
Answer: y 29
Video Solution

Power Rules for Products and Quotients
Now we consider raising grouped products to a power. For example,
After expanding, we have four factors of the product xy. This is equivalent to raising
each of the original factors to the fourth power. In general, this describes the
5. (xy) = x n y n; if a product
n power rule for a product5. If n is a positive integer, then
is raised to a power, then apply
that power to each factor in
the product.

Example 8: Simplify: (2ab) .

7
Solution: We must apply the exponent 7 to all the factors, including the coefficient,
2.
If a coefficient is raised to a relatively small power, then present the real number
equivalent, as we did in this example: 27 = 128.
Answer: 128a7 b7
In many cases, the process of simplifying expressions involving exponents requires

the use of several rules of exponents.
Example 9: Simplify: (3xy 3 ) .

4
Solution:

Answer: 81x 4 y 12
Example 10: Simplify: (4x 2 y 5 z) .

3
Solution:
Answer: 64x 6 y 15 z 3
Example 11: Simplify: [5(x + y) ] .

3 3
Solution:
Answer: 125(x + y)
9
Next, consider a quotient raised to a power.

Here we obtain four factors of the quotient, which is equivalent to the numerator
and the denominator both raised to the fourth power. In general, this describes the
power rule for a quotient6. If n is a positive integer and y ≠ 0 , then
In other words, given a fraction raised to a power, we can apply that exponent to
the numerator and the denominator. This rule requires that the denominator is
nonzero. We will make this assumption for the remainder of the section.
Example 12: Simplify: ( 3a

b )
3
.
Solution: First, apply the power rule for a quotient and then the power rule for a
product.
(y ) =
n
x xn
6. y n ; if a quotient is
raised to a power, then apply
that power to the numerator
and the denominator.

3
Answer: 27a3
b
In practice, we often combine these two steps by applying the exponent to all
factors in the numerator and the denominator.
Example 13: Simplify: ( ab3 ) .

2 5
2c
Solution: Apply the exponent 5 to all of the factors in the numerator and the
denominator.
5 10
Answer: a b15
32c
Example 14: Simplify: ( ).

5x 5 (2x−1) 4 2
3y 7
Solution:

25x 10 (2x−1) 8
Answer:
9y 14
It is a good practice to simplify within parentheses before using the power rules;
this is consistent with the order of operations.
Example 15: Simplify: (

xy 2 )
−2x 3 y 4 z 4
.
Solution:
Answer: 16x 8 y 8 z 4

To summarize, we have developed two new rules that are useful when grouping
symbols are used in conjunction with exponents. If given a positive integer n, where
y is a nonzero number, then
(xy) = x y
n n n
Power rule for a product:
(y )
n
x xn
Power rule for a quotient: = n
y
4x 2 (x−y)
( )
3 3
Try this! Simplify: .
3yz 5
64x 6 (x−y)
9
Answer:
27y 3 z 15
Video Solution

Zero as an Exponent
Using the quotient rule for exponents, we can define what it means to have 0 as an
exponent. Consider the following calculation:
Eight divided by 8 is clearly equal to 1, and when the quotient rule for exponents is
applied, we see that a 0 exponent results. This leads us to the definition of zero as
an exponent7, where x ≠ 0 :
7. x 0 = 1; any nonzero base
raised to the 0 power is defined
to be 1.

It is important to note that 00 is undefined. If the base is negative, then the result is
still +1. In other words, any nonzero base raised to the 0 power is defined to be 1. In
the following examples, assume all variables are nonzero.
a. (−5)
0
b. −50
Solution:
a. Any nonzero quantity raised to the 0 power is equal to 1.
b. In the example −50 , the base is 5, not −5.
Answers: a. 1; b. −1
Example 17: Simplify: (5x 3 y 0 z 2 ) .

2

Solution: It is good practice to simplify within the parentheses first.
Answer: 25x 6 z 4
Example 18: Simplify: (− 8a12 b14 ) .

10 5 0
5c d
Solution:
Answer: 1
Try this! Simplify: 5x 0 and (5x) .

0
Answer: 5x 0 = 5 and (5x) = 1

0
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The rules of exponents allow you to simplify expressions involving

exponents.
• When multiplying two quantities with the same base, add exponents:
x m ⋅ x n = x m+n.
• When dividing two quantities with the same base, subtract exponents:
xm
xn = x m−n.
n
• When raising powers to powers, multiply exponents: (x m ) = x m⋅n .
• When a grouped quantity involving multiplication and division is raised
the denominator: (xy)

to a power, apply that power to all of the factors in the numerator and
= x n y n and ( xy ) =
n n
xn
yn .
• Any nonzero quantity raised to the 0 power is defined to be equal to 1:
x 0 = 1.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Product, Quotient, and Power Rule for Exponents
Write each expression using exponential form.
1. (2x) (2x) (2x) (2x) (2x)
2. (−3y) (−3y) (−3y)
3. −10 ⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
4. 12 ⋅x⋅x⋅y⋅y⋅y⋅y⋅y⋅y
5. −6 ⋅ (x − 1)(x − 1)(x − 1)
6. (9ab) (9ab) (9ab) (a − b) (a − b)

2 2
Simplify.
7
7. 2 ⋅ 25
9
8. 3 ⋅3
4
9. −2
4
10. (−2)
3
11. −3
4
12. (−3)
13
13. 10 ⋅ 10 5 ⋅ 10 4
8
14. 10 ⋅ 10 7 ⋅ 10
5 12
15.
52

10 7
16.
10
10 12
17.
10 9
18. (7 )
3 5
19. (4 )
8 4
⋅ (10 5 )
6 4
20. 10
Simplify.
6
21. (−x)
22. a5 ⋅ (−a)2
23. x 3 ⋅ x5 ⋅ x
24. y 5 ⋅ y4 ⋅ y2
25. (a5 ) ⋅ (a3 ) ⋅ a

2 4
+ 1) 4 (y 5 ) ⋅ y 2
4
26. (x
27. (x + 1) 5 (x + 1) 8
28. (2a − b) (2a − b)

12 9
(3x−1) 5
29.
(3x−1) 2
(a−5)
37
(a−5)
30. 13

31. xy 2 ⋅ x 2y
32. 3x 2 y 3 ⋅ 7xy 5
33. −8a2 b ⋅ 2ab

2 3
34. −3ab c ⋅ 9a4 b 5 c6
4
35. 2a2 b c (−3abc)
36. 5a2 (b ) c ⋅ (−2) a (b )

3 3 3 2 3 2 4
37. 2x 2 (x + y) ⋅ 3x 5 (x + y)
5 4
38. −5xy 6 (2x − 1) 6 ⋅ x 5 y(2x − 1) 3
39. x 2 y ⋅ xy 3 ⋅ x 5 y 5
40. −2x 10 y ⋅ 3x 2 y 12 ⋅ 5xy 3

2 4 2
41. 3 x y z ⋅ 3xy 4 z 4
42. (−x 2 ) (x ) (x )
3 3 4 2 3
a10 ⋅(a6 )
3
43.
a3
10x 9 (x 3 )
5
44.
2x 5
a6 b 3
45.
a2 b 2
m 10 n 7
46.
m3 n4
20x 5 y 12 z 3
47.
10x 2 y 10 z

−24a16 b 12 c3
48.
6a6 b 11 c
16 x 4 (x+2) 3
49.
4x(x+2)
50y 2 (x+y)
20
10y(x+y)
50. 17
Part B: Power Rules for Products and Quotients
Simplify.
5
51. (2x)
52. (−3y)
4
53. (−xy)
3
54. (5xy)
3
55. (−4abc)
2
56. (
2x )
7 2
(− )
3
5
57.
3y
58. ( c )
3ab 3
(− )
2xy 4
59.
3z
( x )
5y(2x−1) 3
60.

61. (3x 2 )
3
62. (−2x 3 )
2
63. (xy 5 )
7
64. (x 2 y 10 )
2
65. (3x 2 y)
3
66. (2x 2 y 3 z 4 )
5
67. (−7ab c )
4 2 2
[x y (x + y) ]
5 4 4 5
68.
69. [2y(x + 1) 5 ]
3
( b3 )
3
a
70.
( 3b )
4
5a2
71.
(− )
2
2x 3
72.
3y 2
(− )
3
x2
73.
y3
( 3c3 d 2 )
4
ab 2
74.

( )
6
2x 7 y(x−1) 3
75.
z5
76. (2x 4 ) ⋅ (x 5 )
3 2
77. (x 3 y) ⋅ (xy 4 )
2 3
78. (−2a2 b ) ⋅ (2a b)

3 2 5 4
79. (−a2 b) (3ab )

3 4 4
(2x (x + y) ) ⋅ (2x (x + y) )
4 5 2 3
3 4
80.
( xy 2 )
−3x 5 y 4 3
81.
( xy 2 )
−3x 5 y 4 2
82.
( 5x 5 y 10 )
−25x 10 y 15 3
83.
( 5xy 2 )
10x 3 y 5 2
84.
(− )
5
24ab 3
85.
6bc
( 16x 2 y )
−2x 3 y 2
86.
( 3abc )
3
30ab 3
87.
( 2s2 t )
3
3s3 t 2
88.

6xy 5 (x+y)
( 3y 2 z(x+y) 2 )
6 5
89.
(− )
4
64a5 b 12 c2 (2ab−1)14
90.
32a2 b 10 c2 (2ab−1)7
(2)
91. The probability of tossing a fair coin and obtaining n heads in a row is
n
given by the formula P = 1
. Determine the probability, as a percent, of
tossing 5 heads in a row.
same faces up in a row is given by the formula P = ( 16 ) . Determine the

92. The probability of rolling a single fair six-sided die and obtaining n of the
n
probability, as a percent, of obtaining the same face up two times in a row.
93. If each side of a square measures 2x 3 units, then determine the area in
terms of the variable x.
94. If each edge of a cube measures 5x 2 units, then determine the volume
in terms of the variable x.
Part C: Zero Exponents
Simplify. (Assume variables are nonzero.)
0
95. 7
0
96. (−7)
0
97. −10
0
98. −3 ⋅ (−7) 0
0
99. 8675309
2
100. 5 ⋅ 30 ⋅ 23
0
101. −3 ⋅ (−2) 2 ⋅ (−3) 0

102. 5x 0 y 2
2 2 0 5
103. (−3) x y z
(x ) y (z )
2 3 2 3 2 0
104. −3
105. 2x 3 y 0 z ⋅ 3x 0 y 3 z 5
c ⋅ 3a2 (b 3 c2 )
2 0 0
106. −3ab
107. (−8xy 2 )
0
( y3 )
0
2x 2
108.
9x 0 y 4
109.
3y 3
110. René Descartes (1637) established the usage of exponential form: a2 ,

a3 , and so on. Before this, how were exponents denoted?
111. Discuss the accomplishments accredited to Al-Karismi.
0
112. Why is 0 undefined?
4
113. Explain to a beginning student why 3 ⋅ 3 2 ≠ 9 6.

ANSWERS
5
1: (2x)
3: −10a7
5: −6(x − 1) 3
12
7: 2
9: −16
11: −27
22
13: 10
10
15: 5
3
17: 10
32
19: 4
21: x 6
23: x 9
25: a23
27: (x + 1) 13
29: (3x − 1) 3
31: x 3 y 3
2
33: −16a3 b
5 2
35: −6a3 b c

37: 6x 7 (x + y)
9
39: x 8 y 9
41: 27x 5 y 6 z 5
43: a25
45: a4 b
47: 2x 3 y 2 z 2
49: 4x 3 (x + 2) 2
51: 32x 5
53: −x 3 y 3
2 2
55: 16a2 b c
125
57: −
27y 3
16x 4 y 4
59:
81z 4
61: 27x 6
63: x 7 y 35
65: 27x 6 y 3
8 4
67: 49a2 b c
69: 8y 3 (x + 1) 15
625a8
71:
81b 4

x6
73: −
y9
64x 42 y 6 (x−1) 18
75:
z 30
77: x 9 y 14
19
79: −81a10 b
81: −27x 12 y 6
83: −125x 15 y 15
1024a5 b 10
85: −
c5
1000b 6
87:
c3
32x 5 y 15 (x+y)
20
89:
z5
91: 3 1
8
%
93: A = 4x 6
95: 1
97: −1
99: 1
101: −4
103: 9x 2 z 5
105: 6x 3 y 3 z 6
107: 1

109: 3y

5.2 Introduction to Polynomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify a polynomial and determine its degree.

2. Evaluate a polynomial for given values of the variables.
3. Evaluate a polynomial using function notation.
Definitions
A polynomial8 is a special algebraic expression with terms that consist of real

number coefficients and variable factors with whole number exponents.
Polynomials do not have variables in the denominator of any term.
8. An algebraic expression
consisting of terms with real The degree of a term9 in a polynomial is defined to be the exponent of the variable,
number coefficients and or if there is more than one variable in the term, the degree is the sum of their
variables with whole number
exponents. Recall that x 0 = 1; any constant term can be written as a product of x 0
exponents.
and itself. Hence the degree of a constant term is 0.
9. The exponent of the variable; if
there is more than one variable
in the term, the degree of the
term is the sum their
exponents.
775
Term Degree
3x 2 2
6x 2 y 2+1=3
7a2 b3 2+3=5
0
8
, since 8 = 8x 0
2x 1, since x = x1
The degree of a polynomial10 is the largest degree of all of its terms.
Polynomial Degree
4x 5 − 3x 3 + 2x − 1 5
10. The largest degree of all of its
terms.
5.2 Introduction to Polynomials 776

Polynomial Degree
6x 2 y − 5xy 3 + 7 4, because 5xy 3 has degree 4.
1 5
x+ 1, because x = x1
2 4
We classify polynomials by the number of terms and the degree as follows:
Expression Classification Degree
5x 7 Monomial11 (one term) 7
8x 6 − 1 Binomial12 (two terms) 6
−3x 2 + x − 1 Trinomial13 (three terms) 2
11. Polynomial with one term.
12. Polynomial with two terms.
13. Polynomial with three terms.

Expression Classification Degree
5x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x − 6 Polynomial14 (many terms) 3
In this text, we will call polynomials with four or more terms simply polynomials.
Example 1: Classify and state the degree: 7x 2 − 4x 5 − 1.
Solution: Here there are three terms. The highest variable exponent is 5. Therefore,
this is a trinomial of degree 5.
Answer: Trinomial; degree 5
Example 2: Classify and state the degree: 12a5 bc3 .
Solution: Since the expression consists of only multiplication, it is one term, a

monomial. The variable part can be written as a5 b1 c3 ; hence its degree is
5 + 1 + 3 = 9.
Answer: Monomial; degree 9
Example 3: Classify and state the degree: 4x 2 y − 6xy 4 + 5x 3 y 3 + 4.
Solution: The term 4x 2 y has degree 3; −6xy 4 has degree 5; 5x 3 y 3 has degree 6;
14. An algebraic expression and the constant term 4 has degree 0. Therefore, the polynomial has 4 terms with
consisting of terms with real
number coefficients and degree 6.
variables with whole number
exponents.

Answer: Polynomial; degree 6
Of particular interest are polynomials with one variable15, where each term is of
the form an x n . Here an is any real number and n is any whole number. Such
polynomials have the standard form
Typically, we arrange terms of polynomials in descending order based on the

degree of each term. The leading coefficient16 is the coefficient of the variable with
the highest power, in this case, an .
Example 4: Write in standard form: 3x − 4x 2 + 5x 3 + 7 − 2x 4 .
Solution: Since terms are separated by addition, write the following:
In this form, we can see that the subtraction in the original corresponds to negative
coefficients. Because addition is commutative, we can write the terms in descending
order based on the degree of each term as follows:
15. A polynomial where each term

has the form an x n , where an
is any real number and n is any
whole number. Answer: −2x 4 + 5x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x + 7
16. The coefficient of the term
with the largest degree.

We can further classify polynomials with one variable by their degree as follows:
Polynomial Name
5 Constant (degree 0)
2x + 1 Linear (degree 1)
3x 2 + 5x − 3 Quadratic (degree 2)
x3 + x2 + x + 1 Cubic (degree 3)
7x 4 + 3x 3 − 7x + 8 Fourth-degree polynomial
In this text, we call any polynomial of degree n ≥ 4 an nth-degree polynomial. In

other words, if the degree is 4, we call the polynomial a fourth-degree polynomial.
If the degree is 5, we call it a fifth-degree polynomial, and so on.

Evaluating Polynomials
Given the values for the variables in a polynomial, we can substitute and simplify
using the order of operations.
Example 5: Evaluate: 3x − 1 , where x = − 32 .
Solution: First, replace the variable with parentheses and then substitute the given
value.
Answer: −11/2
Example 6: Evaluate: 3x 2 + 2x − 1, where x = −1 .
Solution:
Answer: 0

Example 7: Evaluate: −2a2 b + ab2 − 7, where a = 3 and b = −2.
Solution:
Answer: 41
Example 8: The volume of a sphere in cubic units is given by the formula

V = 43 πr3, where r is the radius. Calculate the volume of a sphere with radius
r = 32 meters.
Solution:

Answer: 9
2
πcubic meters
Try this! Evaluate: x 3 − x 2 + 4x − 2, where x = −3 .
Answer: −50
Video Solution

Polynomial Functions
Polynomial functions with one variable are functions that can be written in the
form
where an is any real number and n is any whole number. Some examples of the
different classes of polynomial functions are listed below:

Polynomial function Name
f (x) = 5 Constant function17 (degree 0)
f (x) = −2x + 1 Linear function18 (degree 1)
f (x) = 5x 2 + 4x − 3 Quadratic function19 (degree 2)
f (x) = x 3 − 1 Cubic function20 (degree 3)
f (x) = 4x 5 + 3x 4 − 7 Polynomial function
Since there are no restrictions on the values for x, the domain of any polynomial
function consists of all real numbers.
17. A polynomial function with
degree 0.

degree 1.
Example 9: Calculate: f (5), given f (x) = −2x 2 + 5x + 10.
degree 2.
20. A polynomial function with Solution: Recall that the function notation f (5) indicates we should evaluate the
degree 3. function when x = 5 . Replace every instance of the variable x with the value 5.

Answer: f (5) = −15
Example 10: Calculate: f (−1), given f (x) = −x 3 + 2x 2 − 4x + 1.
Solution: Replace the variable x with −1.
Answer: f (−1) = 8
Try this! Given g (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − x − 4, calculate g(−1).
Answer: g (−1) = −6
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Polynomials are special algebraic expressions where the terms are the
products of real numbers and variables with whole number exponents.
• The degree of a polynomial with one variable is the largest exponent of
the variable found in any term.
• The terms of a polynomial are typically arranged in descending order
based on the degree of each term.
• When evaluating a polynomial, it is a good practice to replace all
variables with parentheses and then substitute the appropriate values.
• All polynomials are functions.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Definitions
Classify the given polynomial as linear, quadratic, or cubic.
1. 2x +1
2. x 2 + 7x + 2
3. 2 − 3x 2 + x
4. 4x
5. x 2 − x3 + x + 1
6. 5 − 10x 3
Classify the given polynomial as a monomial, binomial, or trinomial and state the
degree.
7. x 3 −1
8. x 2 y 2
9. x − x5 + 1
10. x 2 + 3x − 1
4
11. 5ab
1 1
12.
3
x− 2
13. −5x 3 + 2x + 1
14. 8x 2 −9
15. 4x 5 − 5x 3 + 6x

16. 8x 4 − x 5 + 2x − 3
17. 9x +7
18. x 5 + x4 + x3 + x2 − x + 1
19. 6x −1 + 5x 4 − 8
4
20. x − 3x 2 + 3
21. 7
22. x 2
23. 4x 2 y − 3x 3 y 3 + xy 3
2
24. a3 b − 6ab
3
25. a3 b
x2 y2
26. y − x
27. xy −3
28. a5 bc2 + 3a9 − 5a4 b 3 c
29. −3x 10 y 2 z − xy 12 z + 9x 13 + 30
30. 7x 0
Write the following polynomials in standard form.
31. 1 − 6x + 7x 2
32. x − 9x 2 − 8
33. 7 − x 3 + x 7 − x 2 + x − 5x 5

34. a3 − a9 + 6a5 − a + 3 − a4
Part B: Evaluating Polynomials
35. Fill in the following chart:
Evaluate.
37. 2x − 3 , where x = 3
38. x 2 − 3x + 5 , where x = −2
1 1 1
39. − x+ , where x =−
2 3 3
1
40. −x 2 + 5x − 1 , where x = − 2
41. −2x 2 + 3x − 5 , where x = 0

42. 8x 5 − 27x 3 + 81x − 17 , where x = 0
43. y 3 − 2y + 1 , where y = −2
44. y 4 + 2y 2 − 32, where y = 2
45. a3 + 2a2 + a − 3, where a = −3
46. x 3 − x 2, where x = 5
3 1 3 2
47.
4
x2 − 2
x+ 6
, where x =− 3
5 1 1
48.
8
x2 − 4
x+ 2
, where x =4
49. x 2 y + xy 2 , where x = 2 and y = −3
50. 2a5 b − ab 4 + a2 b 2, where a = −1 and b = −2
51. a2 − b 2, where a = 5 and b = −6

3 1
52. a2 − b 2, where a = 4
and b =− 4
53. a3 − b 3, where a = −2 and b = 3
54. a3 + b 3, where a = 5 and b = −5

2
For each problem, evaluate b − 4ac, given the following values.
55. a = −1, b = 2, and c = −1

1
56. a = 2, b = −2 , and c = 2
57. a = 3, b = −5 , c = 0
58. a = 1, b = 0, and c = −4

1
59. a = ,b = −4 , and c = 2
4
60. a = 1, b = 5, and c = 6
The volume of a sphere in cubic units is given by the formula V = 43 πr3 , where r
is the radius. For each problem, calculate the volume of a sphere given the following
radii.
61. r = 3 centimeters
62. r = 1 centimeter
63. r = 1/2 feet
64. r = 3/2 feet
65. r = 0.15 in
66. r = 1.3 inches
The height in feet of a projectile launched vertically from the ground with an initial
velocity v 0 in feet per second is given by the formula h = −16t 2 + v 0 t, where
t represents time in seconds. For each problem, calculate the height of the projectile
given the following initial velocity and times.
67. v 0 = 64 feet/second , at times t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 seconds
68. v 0 = 80 feet/second , at times t = 0, 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5 seconds
The stopping distance of a car, taking into account an average reaction time, can be
estimated with the formula d = 0.05v 2 + 1.5 , where d is in feet and v is the
speed in miles per hour. For each problem, calculate the stopping distance of a car
traveling at the given speeds.
69. 20 miles per hour

Part C: Polynomial Functions
2
Given the linear function f (x) = x + 6, evaluate each of the following.
3
73. f (−6)
74. f (−3)
75. f (0)
76. f (3)
77. Find x when f (x) = 10 .
78. Find x when f (x) = −4 .
Given the quadratic function f (x) = 2x 2 − 3x + 5 , evaluate each of the

following.
79. f (−2)
80. f (−1)
81. f (0)
82. f (2)
Given the cubic function g (x) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1, evaluate each of the

following.
83. g(−2)
84. g (−1)
85. g (0)
86. g (1)

The height in feet of a projectile launched vertically from the ground with an initial
velocity of 128 feet per second is given by the function h(t) = −16t 2 + 128t ,
where t is in seconds. Calculate and interpret the following.
87. h(0)
88. h ( 12 )
89. h(1)
90. h(3)
91. h(4)
92. h(5)
93. h(7)
94. h(8)
95. Find and share some graphs of polynomial functions.
96. Explain how to convert feet per second into miles per hour.
97. Find and share the names of fourth-degree, fifth-degree, and higher
polynomials.

ANSWERS
1: Linear
3: Quadratic
5: Cubic
7: Binomial; degree 3
9: Trinomial; degree 5
11: Monomial; degree 5
19: Not a polynomial
29: Polynomial; degree 14
31: 7x 2 − 6x + 1
33: x 7 − 5x 5 − x 3 − x 2 + x + 7
35:

37: 3
39: 1/2
41: −5
43: −3
45: −15
47: 7/6
49: 6
51: −11
53: −35
55: 0
57: 25
59: 14
61: 36π cubic centimeters
63: π/6 cubic feet
65: 0.014 cubic inches

67:
Time Height
t = 0 seconds h = 0 feet
t = 1 second h = 48 feet
69: 21.5 feet
71: 321.5 feet
73: 2
75: 6
77: x =6
79: 19
81: 5
83: −15
85: −1
87: The projectile is launched from the ground.
89: The projectile is 112 feet above the ground 1 second after launch.
91: The projectile is 256 feet above the ground 4 seconds after launch.
93: The projectile is 112 feet above the ground 7 seconds after launch.

5.3 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Add polynomials.
2. Subtract polynomials.
3. Add and subtract polynomial functions.
Adding Polynomials
Recall that we combine like terms, or terms with the same variable part, as a means
to simplify expressions. To do this, add the coefficients of the terms to obtain a
single term with the same variable part. For example,
Notice that the variable part, x 2 , does not change. This, in addition to the
commutative and associative properties of addition, allows us to add
polynomials21.
Example 1: Add: 3x + (4x − 5).
Solution: The property + (a + b) = a + b, which was derived using the

distributive property, allows us to remove the parentheses so that we can add like
terms.
21. The process of combining all

like terms of two or more Answer: 7x − 5
polynomials.
797
Example 2: Add: (3x 2 + 3x + 5) + (2x 2 − x − 2).
Solution: Remove the parentheses and then combine like terms.
Answer: 5x 2 + 2x + 3
Example 3: Add: (−5x 2 y − 2xy 2 + 7xy) + (4x 2 y + 7xy 2 − 3xy) .
Solution: Remember that the variable parts have to be exactly the same before we
can add the coefficients.
Answer: −x 2 y + 5xy 2 + 4xy
It is common practice to present the terms of the simplified polynomial expression

in descending order based on their degree. In other words, we typically present
polynomials in standard form, with terms in order from highest to lowest degree.
5.3 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials 798

Example 4: Add: (a − 4a3 + a5 − 8) + (−9a5 + a4 − 7a + 5 + a3 .)
Solution:
Answer: −8a5 + a4 − 3a3 − 6a − 3
Try this! Add: (6 − 5x 3 + x 2 − x) + (x 2 + x + 6x 3 − 1).
Answer: x 3 + 2x 2 + 5
Video Solution

Subtracting Polynomials
When subtracting polynomials22, we see that the parentheses become very

important. Recall that the distributive property allowed us to derive the following:
In other words, when subtracting an algebraic expression, we remove the

parentheses by subtracting each term.
Example 5: Subtract: 10x − (3x + 5).

22. The process of subtracting all
the terms of one polynomial
from another and combining
like terms.

Solution: Subtract each term within the parentheses and then combine like terms.
Answer: 7x − 5
Subtracting a quantity is equivalent to multiplying it by −1.
Example 6: Subtract: (3x 2 + 3x + 5) − (2x 2 − x − 2).
Solution: Distribute the −1, remove the parentheses, and then combine like terms.
Answer: x 2 + 4x + 7
Multiplying the terms of a polynomial by −1 changes all the signs.
Example 7: Subtract: (−5x 3 − 2x 2 + 7) − (4x 3 + 7x 2 − 3x + 2).
Solution: Distribute the −1, remove the parentheses, and then combine like terms.

Answer: −9x 3 − 9x 2 + 3x + 5
Example 8: Subtract 6x 2 − 3x − 1 from 2x 2 + 5x − 2.
difference correctly. First, write the quantity (2x 2 + 5x − 2); from this, subtract
Solution: Since subtraction is not commutative, we must take care to set up the
the quantity (6x 2 − 3x − 1).
Answer: −4x 2 + 8x − 1
Example 9: Simplify: (2x 2 − 3x + 5) − (x 2 − 3x + 1) + (5x 2 − 4x − 8).
Solution: Apply the distributive property, remove the parentheses, and then
combine like terms.

Answer: 6x 2 − 4x − 4
Try this! Subtract: (8x 2 y − 5xy 2 + 6) − (x 2 y + 2xy 2 − 1).
Answer: 7x 2 y − 7xy 2 + 7
Video Solution

Adding and Subtracting Polynomial Functions
We use function notation to indicate addition and subtraction of functions as

follows:
Addition of functions: (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x)
Subtraction of functions: (f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x)
When using function notation, be careful to group the entire function and add or
subtract accordingly.
Example 10: Calculate: (f + g)(x), given f (x) = −x 2 − 3x + 5 and

g (x) = 3x 2 + 2x + 1.
Solution: The notation (f + g)(x) indicates that you should add the functions
f (x) + g(x) and collect like terms.

Answer: (f + g)(x) = 2x 2 − x + 6
Example 11: Calculate: (f − g)(x), given f (x) = 2x − 3 and

g (x) = −2x 2 + 2x + 5.
Solution: The notation (f − g)(x) indicates that you should subtract the functions
f (x) − g(x):
Answer: (f − g)(x) = 2x 2 − 8
We may be asked to evaluate the sum or difference of two functions. We have the
option to first find the sum or difference and use the resulting function to evaluate
for the given variable, or to first evaluate each function and then find the sum or
difference.
Example 12: Calculate: (f − g)(5), given f (x) = x 2 + x − 7 and g (x) = 4x + 10.
Solution: First, find (f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x).

Therefore,
Next, substitute 5 for the variable x.
Answer: (f − g) (5) = −7
Alternate Solution: Since (f − g)(5) = f (5) − g(5), we can find f (5) and g(5) and
then subtract the results.
Therefore, we have
Answer: (f − g) (5) = −7

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When adding polynomials, remove the associated parentheses and then

combine like terms.
• When subtracting polynomials, distribute the −1 and subtract all the
• The notation (f + g) (x) indicates that you add the functions.

terms before removing the parentheses and combining like terms.
• The notation (f − g) (x) indicates that you subtract the functions.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Addition of Polynomials
Add.
1. (2x + 1) + (−x + 7)
2. (−6x + 5) + (3x − 1)
3. ( x + 12 ) + ( 13 x − 2)
2
3
4. ( x − 34 ) + ( 56 x + 18 )
1
3
5. (2x + 1) + (x − 3) + (5x − 2)
6. (2x − 8) + (−3x 2 + 7x − 5)
7. (x 2 − 3x + 7) + (3x 2 − 8x − 5)
8. (−5x 2 − 1 + x) + (−x + 7x 2 − 9)
9. ( x + 16 ) + (− x − 1)
1 1 3 2
2
x2 − 3 2
x2 + 3
10. (− x − 6) + (2x 2 − x + 52 )
3 1 3
5
x2 + 4 8
11. (x 2 + 5) + (3x 2 − 2x + 1) + (x 2 + x − 3)
12. (a3 − a2 + a − 8) + (a3 + a2 + 6a − 2)
13. (a3 − 8) + (−3a3 + 5a2 − 2)
14. (4a5 + 5a3 − a) + (3a4 − 2a2 + 7)
15. (2x 2 + 5x − 12) + (7x − 5)

16. (3x + 5) + (x 2 − x + 1) + (x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 6)
17. (6x 5 − 7x 3 + x 2 − 15) + (x 4 + 2x 3 − 6x + 12)
18. (1 + 7x − 5x 3 + 4x 4 ) + (−3x 3 + 5 − x 2 + x)
19. (x 2 y 2 − 7xy + 7) + (4x 2 y 2 − 3xy − 8)
20. (x 2 + xy − y 2 ) + (7x 2 − 5xy + 2y 2 )
21. (2x 2 + 3xy − 7y 2 ) + (−5x 2 − 3xy + 8y 2 )
22. (a2 b − 100) + (2a2 b 2 − 3ab + 20)

2
23. (ab − 3a2 b + ab − 3) + (−2a2 b + ab 2 − 7ab − 1)

2
24. (10a2 b − 7ab + 8ab 2 ) + (6a2 b − ab + 5ab 2 )
25. Find the sum of 2x +8 and 7x − 1.

1 1 1 1
26. Find the sum of
3
x− 5
and
6
x+ 10
.
27. Find the sum of x 2 − 10x + 8 and 5x 2 − 2x − 6 .
28. Find the sum of a2 − 5a + 10 and −9a2 + 7a − 11.
29. Find the sum of x 2 y 2 − xy + 6 and x 2 y 2 + xy − 7 .
30. Find the sum of x 2 − 9xy + 7y 2 and −3x 2 − 3xy + 7y 2 .
Part B: Subtraction of Polynomials
Subtract.
31. (5x − 3) − (2x − 1)

32. (−4x + 1) − (7x + 10)
33. ( x − 34 ) − ( 34 x + 18 )
1
4
34. (− x + 37 ) − ( 25 x − 32 )
3
5
35. (x 2 + 7x − 5) − (4x 2 − 5x + 1)
36. (−6x 2 + 3x − 12) − (−6x 2 + 3x − 12)
37. (−3x 3 + 4x − 8) − (−x 2 + 4x + 10)
38. ( x − 34 ) − ( 32 x 2 − x + 12 )
1 1 1
2
x2 + 3 6
39. ( x − 13 ) − ( 13 x 2 + x + 59 )
5 1 3
9
x2 + 5 10
40. (a3 − 4a2 + 3a − 7) − (7a3 − 2a2 − 6a + 9)
41. (3a3 + 5a2 − 2) − (a3 − a + 8)
42. (5x 5 + 4x 3 + x 2 − 6) − (4x 4 − 3x 3 − x + 3)
43. (3 − 5x − x 3 + 5x 4 ) − (−5x 3 + 2 − x 2 − 7x)
44. (x 5 − 6x 3 + 9x) − (4x 4 + 2x 2 − 5)
45. (2x 2 y 2 − 4xy + 9) − (3x 2 y 2 − 3xy − 5)
46. (x 2 + xy − y 2 ) − (x 2 + xy − y 2 )
47. (2x 2 + 3xy − 7y 2 ) − (−5x 2 − 3xy + 8y 2 )
48. (ab − 3a2 b + ab − 3) − (−2a2 b + ab 2 − 7ab − 1)

2

49. (10a2 b − 7ab + 8ab 2 ) − (6a2 b − ab + 5ab 2 )
50. (10a2 b + 5ab − 6) − (5a2 b 2 + 5ab − 6)

2
51. Subtract 3x +1 from 5x − 9.
52. Subtract x 2 − 5x + 10 from x 2 + 5x − 5 .
53. Find the difference of 3x −7 and 8x + 6.
54. Find the difference of 2x 2 + 3x − 5 and x 2 − 9.
55. The cost in dollars of producing customized coffee mugs with a company
logo is given by the formula C = 150 + 0.10x , where x is the number of
cups produced. The revenue from selling the cups in the company store is
given by R = 10x − 0.05x 2 , where x is the number of units sold.
a. Find a formula for the profit. (profit = revenue − cost)
b. Find the profit from producing and selling 100 mugs in the company
store.
56. The cost in dollars of producing sweat shirts is given by the formula
C = 10q + 1200 , where C is the cost and q represents the quantity
produced. The revenue generated by selling the sweat shirts for $37 each is
given by R = 37q , where q represents the quantity sold. Determine the
profit generated if 125 sweat shirts are produced and sold.
57. The outer radius of a washer is 3 times the radius of the hole.
a. Derive a formula for the area of the face of the washer.
b. What is the area of the washer if the hole has a diameter of 10

millimeters?

58. Derive a formula for the surface area of the following rectangular solid.
Part C: Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial
Simplify.
59. (2x + 3) − (5x − 8) + (x − 7)
60. (3x − 5) − (7x − 11) − (5x + 2)
61. (3x − 2) − (4x − 1) + (x + 7)
62. (5x − 3) − (2x + 1) − (x − 1)
63. (5x 2 − 3x + 2) − (x 2 + x − 4) + (7x 2 − 2x − 6)
64. (−2x 3 + x 2 − 8) − (3x 2 + x − 6) − (2x − 1)
65. (2x − 7) − (x 2 + 3x − 7) + (6x − 1)
66. (6x 2 − 10x + 13) + (4x 2 − 9) − (9 − x 2 )
67. (a2 − b 2 ) − (2a2 + 3ab − 4b 2 ) + (5ab − 1)
68. (a2 − 3ab + b 2 ) − (a2 + b 2 ) − (3ab − 5)
69. ( 12 x2 − 3
4
x + 14 ) − ( 32 x − 34 ) + ( 54 x − 12 )
70. ( 95 x2 − 1
3
x + 2) − ( 103 x 2 − 45 ) − (x + 52 )
Part D: Addition and Subtraction of Polynomial Functions

Find (f + g) (x) and (f − g) (x) , given the following functions.
71. f (x) = 4x − 1 and g (x) = −3x + 1
72. f (x) = −x + 5 and g (x) = 2x − 3
73. f (x) = 3x 2 − 5x + 7 and g (x) = −2x 2 + 5x − 1
74. f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 6x + 2 and g (x) = 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 1

1 1 1 3 1
75. f (x) = 2
x+ 3
and g (x) = 5
x2 − 2
x+ 6
1 2 1
76. f (x) = x 2 − 5x + 3
and g (x) = 3
x2 − x − 2
Given f (x) = 2x − 3 and g (x) = x 2 + 3x − 1 , find the following.
77. (f + g) (x)
78. (g + f ) (x)
79. (f − g) (x)
80. (g − f ) (x)
81. (g + g) (x)
82. (f + g) (3)
83. (f + g) (−2)
84. (f + g) (0)
85. (f − g) (0)
86. (f − g) (−2)

87. (g − f ) (−2)
88. (g − f ) ( 12 )
Given f (x) = 5x 2 − 3x + 2 and g (x) = 2x 2 + 6x − 4 , find the

following.
89. (f + g) (x)
90. (g + f ) (x)
91. (f − g) (x)
92. (g − f ) (x)
93. (f + g) (−2)
94. (f − g) (−2)
95. (f + g) (0)
96. (f − g) (0)

ANSWERS
1: x +8
3
3: x − 2
5: 8x −4
7: 4x 2 − 11x + 2
1 5
9: −x 2 + x−
3 6
11: 5x 2 −x+3
13: −2a3 + 5a2 − 10
15: 2x 2 + 12x − 17
17: 6x 5 + x 4 − 5x 3 + x 2 − 6x − 3
19: 5x 2 y 2 − 10xy − 1
21: −3x 2 + y2
23: −5a2 b + 2ab 2 − 6ab − 4
25: 9x +7
27: 6x 2 − 12x + 2
29: 2x 2 y 2 −1
31: 3x −2
1 7
33: − x−
2 8
35: −3x 2 + 12x − 6

37: −3x 3 + x 2 − 18
2 1 8
39:
9
x2 − 10
x− 9
41: 2a3 + 5a2 + a − 10
43: 5x 4 + 4x 3 + x 2 + 2x + 1
45: −x 2 y 2 − xy + 14
47: 7x 2 + 6xy − 15y 2
49: 4a2 b + 3ab 2 − 6ab
51: 2x − 10
53: −5x − 13
55: a. P = −0.05x 2 + 9.9x − 150 ; b. $340
57: a. A = 8πr2 ; b. 628.32 square millimeters
59: −2x +4
61: 6
63: 11x 2 − 6x
65: −x 2 + 5x − 1
67: −a2 + 2ab + 3b 2 − 1
69: 1
2
x2 − x + 1
2
71: (f + g) (x) = x and (f − g) (x) = 7x − 2
73: (f + g) (x) = x 2 + 6 and (f − g) (x) = 5x 2 − 10x + 8

75: (f
+ g) (x) = 15 x 2 − x + 12 and
(f − g) (x) = − 5 x + 2x + 6
1 2 1
77: (f + g) (x) = x 2 + 5x − 4
79: (f − g) (x) = −x 2 − x − 2
81: (g + g) (x) = 2x 2 + 6x − 2
83: (f + g) (−2) = −10
85: (f − g) (0) = −2
87: (g − f ) (−2) = 4
89: (f + g) (x) = 7x 2 + 3x − 2
91: (f − g) (x) = 3x 2 − 9x + 6
93: (f + g) (−2) = 20
95: (f + g) (0) = −2

5.4 Multiplying Polynomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Multiply a polynomial by a monomial.

2. Multiply a polynomial by a binomial.
3. Multiply a polynomial by any size polynomial.
4. Recognize and calculate special products.
5. Multiply polynomial functions.
Multiplying by a Monomial
Recall the product rule for exponents: if m and n are positive integers, then
In other words, when multiplying two expressions with the same base, add the
exponents. This rule applies when multiplying a monomial by a monomial. To find
the product of monomials, multiply the coefficients and add the exponents of
variable factors with the same base. For example,
To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, apply the distributive property and then

simplify each term.
Example 1: Multiply: −5x (4x − 2).
816
Solution: In this case, multiply the monomial, −5x , by the binomial, 4x − 2 . Apply
the distributive property and then simplify.
Answer: −20x 2 + 10x
Example 2: Multiply: 2x 2 (3x 2 − 5x + 1).
Solution: Apply the distributive property and then simplify.
Answer: 6x 4 − 10x 3 + 2x 2
Example 3: Multiply: −3ab2 (a2 b3 + 2a3 b − 6ab − 4).
Solution:
5.4 Multiplying Polynomials 817

Answer: −3a3 b5 − 6a4 b3 + 18a2 b3 + 12ab2
To summarize, multiplying a polynomial by a monomial involves the distributive

property and the product rule for exponents. Multiply all of the terms of the
polynomial by the monomial. For each term, multiply the coefficients and add
exponents of variables where the bases are the same.
Try this! Multiply: −5x 2 y (2xy 2 − 3xy + 6x 2 y − 1) .
Answer: −10x 3 y 3 + 15x 3 y 2 − 30x 4 y 2 + 5x 2 y
Video Solution

Multiplying by a Binomial
In the same way that we used the distributive property to find the product of a
monomial and a binomial, we will use it to to find the product of two binomials.
Here we apply the distributive property multiple times to produce the final result.
This same result is obtained in one step if we apply the distributive property to a
and b separately as follows:

This is often called the FOIL23 method. We add the products of the first terms of
each binomial ac, the outer terms ad, the inner terms bc, and finally the last terms
bd. This mnemonic device only works for products of binomials; hence it is best to
just remember that the distributive property applies.
Example 4: Multiply: (2x + 3) (5x − 2).
Solution: Distribute 2x and then distribute 3.
Simplify by combining like terms.
Answer: 10x 2 + 11x − 6
Example 5: Multiply: ( 12 x − 14 ) ( 12 x + 14. )
Solution: Distribute 1
2
x and then distribute − 14.
23. When multiplying binomials

we apply the distributive
property multiple times in
such a way as to multiply the
first terms, outer terms, inner
terms, and last terms.

Answer: 1
4
x2 − 1
16
Example 6: Multiply: (3y 2 − 1) (2y + 1).
Solution:
Answer: 6y 3 + 3y 2 − 2y − 1
After applying the distributive property, combine any like terms.
Example 7: Multiply: (x 2 − 5) (3x 2 − 2x + 2).
Solution: After multiplying each term of the trinomial by x 2 and −5, simplify.
Answer: 3x 4 − 2x 3 − 13x 2 + 10x − 10

Example 8: Multiply: (2x − 1)3 .
Solution: Perform one product at a time.
Answer: 8x 3 − 12x 2 + 6x − 1
At this point, it is worth pointing out a common mistake:
The confusion comes from the product to a power rule of exponents, where we
apply the power to all factors. Since there are two terms within the parentheses,
that rule does not apply. Care should be taken to understand what is different in the
following two examples:

Try this! Multiply: (2x − 3) (7x 2 − 5x + 4).
Answer: 14x 3 − 31x 2 + 23x − 12
Video Solution

Product of Polynomials
When multiplying polynomials, we apply the distributive property many times.

Multiply all of the terms of each polynomial and then combine like terms.
Example 9: Multiply: (2x 2 + x − 3) (x 2 − 2x + 5).
Solution: Multiply each term of the first trinomial by each term of the second
trinomial and then combine like terms.
Aligning like terms in columns, as we have here, aids in the simplification process.
Answer: 2x 4 − 3x 3 + 5x 2 + 11x − 15
Notice that when multiplying a trinomial by a trinomial, we obtain nine terms

before simplifying. In fact, when multiplying an n-term polynomial by an m-term
polynomial, we will obtain n × m terms.
In the previous example, we were asked to multiply and found that

Because it is easy to make a small calculation error, it is a good practice to trace

through the steps mentally to verify that the operations were performed correctly.
Alternatively, we can check by evaluating24 any value for x in both expressions to
verify that the results are the same. Here we choose x = 2:
Because the results could coincidentally be the same, a check by evaluating does not
necessarily prove that we have multiplied correctly. However, after verifying a few
values, we can be fairly confident that the product is correct.
Try this! Multiply: (x 2 − 2x − 3) .

2
Answer: x 4 − 4x 3 − 2x 2 + 12x + 9
Video Solution
24. We can be fairly certain that (click to see video)
we have multiplied the
polynomials correctly if we Special Products
check that a few values
evaluate to the same results in
In this section, the goal is to recognize certain special products that occur often in
the original expression and in
the answer. our study of algebra. We will develop three formulas that will be very useful as we

move along. The three should be memorized. We begin by considering the following
two calculations:
This leads us to two formulas that describe perfect square trinomials25:
We can use these formulas to quickly square a binomial.
Example 10: Multiply: (3x + 5) .

2
Solution: Here a = 3x and b = 5. Apply the formula:
Answer: 9x 2 + 30x + 25
25. The trinomials obtained by
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b
squaring the binomials
2 2 2
(a − b) = a − 2ab + b . This process should become routine enough to be performed mentally.

and
2 2 2

Example 11: Multiply: (x − 4)2 .
Solution: Here a = x and b = 4. Apply the appropriate formula as follows:
Answer: x 2 − 8x + 16
Our third special product follows:
This product is called difference of squares26:
The binomials (a + b) and (a − b) are called conjugate binomials27. Therefore,
26. a2 − b = (a + b) (a − b), product is itself a binomial.

when conjugate binomials are multiplied, the middle term eliminates, and the
2
where a and b represent

algebraic expressions.
27. The binomials (a + b) and

(a − b).

Example 12: Multiply: (7x + 4) (7x − 4).
Solution:
Answer: 49x 2 − 16
Try this! Multiply: (−5x + 2) .

2
Answer: 25x 2 − 20x + 4
Video Solution

Multiplying Polynomial Functions
We use function notation to indicate multiplication as follows:
Multiplication of functions: (f ⋅ g) (x) = f (x) ⋅ g (x)
Example 13: Calculate: (f ⋅ g) (x), given f (x) = 5x 2 and g (x) = −x 2 + 2x − 3.
Solution: Multiply all terms of the trinomial by the monomial function f (x).

Answer: (f ⋅ g) (x) = −5x 4 + 10x 3 − 15x 2
Example 14: Calculate: (f ⋅ g) (−1), given f (x) = −x + 3 and

g (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 6.
Solution: First, determine (f ⋅ g) (x).
We have
Next, substitute −1 for the variable x.

Answer: (f ⋅ g) (−1) = 52
Because (f ⋅ g) (−1) = f (−1) ⋅ g (−1), we could alternatively calculate f (−1) and
we were asked to evaluate multiple values for the function (f ⋅ g) (x), it would be
g(−1) separately and then multiply the results (try this as an exercise). However, if
best to first determine the general form, as we have in the previous example.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, apply the distributive property

and then simplify each of the resulting terms.
• To multiply polynomials, multiply each term in the first polynomial
with each term in the second polynomial. Then combine like terms.
• The product of an n-term polynomial and an m-term polynomial results
in an m × n term polynomial before like terms are combined.
• Check results by evaluating values in the original expression and in your
answer to verify that the results are the same.
• Use the formulas for special products to quickly multiply binomials that
occur often in algebra.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Product of a Monomial and a Polynomial
Multiply.
1. 5x (−3x 2 y)
2. (−2x 3 y 2 ) (−3xy )
4
1
3.
2
(4x − 3)
( 3 x − 6)
3 2
4. −
4
5. 3x(5x − 2)
6. −4x(2x − 1)
7. x 2 (3x + 2)
8. −6x 2 (5x + 3)
9. 2ab(4a − 2b)
10. 5a2 b (a2 − b2 )
11. 6x 2 y 3 (−3x y + xy )
3 2
(−5ab + 6a b)
3 3 2
12. 3ab
1
13. −
2
x 2 y(4xy − 10)
14. −3x 4 y 2 (3x y )

8 3
15. 2x 2 (−5x ) (3x )

3 4

16. 4ab (a2 b c) (a4 b 2 c4 )

3
17. −2 (5x 2 − 3x + 4)
(25x − 50xy + 5y )
4 2 2
18.
5
19. 3x (5x 2 − 2x + 3)
20. −x (x 2 + x − 1)
21. x 2 (3x − 5x − 7)
2
22. x 3 (−4x − 7x + 9)
2
23.
1
4
x 4 (8x 3 − 2x 2 + 1
2
x − 5)
24. −
1
3
x 3 ( 32 x 5 − 2
3
x3 + 9
2
x − 1)
25. a2 b (a2 − 3ab + b 2 )
26. 6a2 bc3 (2a − 3b + c )

2
27.
2
3
xy 2 (9x 3 y − 27xy + 3xy 3 )
28. −3x 2 y 2 (12x − 10xy − 6y )

2 2
29. Find the product of 3x and 2x 2 − 3x + 5 .

1
30. Find the product of −8y and y 2 − 2y + .
2
31. Find the product of −4x and x 4 − 3x 3 + 2x 2 − 7x + 8.
32. Find the product of 3xy 2 and −2x 2 y + 4xy − xy 2 .
Part B: Product of a Binomial and a Polynomial

Multiply.
33. (3x − 2) (x + 4)
34. (x + 2) (x − 3)
35. (x − 1) (x + 1)
36. (3x − 1) (3x + 1)
37. (2x − 5) (x + 3)
38. (5x − 2) (3x + 4)
39. (−3x + 1) (x − 1)
40. (x + 5) (−x + 1)
41. (y − 23 ) (y + 23 )
42. ( x + 13 ) ( 32 x − 23 )
1
2
43. ( x + 15 ) ( 14 x + 25 )
3
4
44. ( ) (5 x − 2)
1 3 3 5
5
x+ 10
45. (y 2 − 2) (y + 2)
46. (y 3 − 1) (y 2 + 2)
47. (a2 − b 2 ) (a2 + b 2 )
48. (a2 − 3b)

2
49. (x − 5) (2x 2 + 3x + 4)

50. (3x − 1) (x 2 − 4x + 7)
51. (2x − 3) (4x 2 + 6x + 9)
52. (5x + 1) (25x 2 − 5x + 1)
53. (x − 12 ) (3x 2 + 4x − 1)
54. ( x − 14 ) (3x 2 + 9x − 3)
1
3
55. (x + 3) 3
56. (x − 2) 3
57. (3x − 1) 3
58. (2x + y)
3
59. (5x − 2) (2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2)
60. (x 2 − 2) (x 3 − 2x 2 + x + 1)
Part C: Product of Polynomials
Multiply.
61. (x 2 − x + 1) (x 2 + 2x + 1)
62. (3x 2 − 2x − 1) (2x 2 + 3x − 4)
63. (2x 2 − 3x + 5) (x 2 + 5x − 1)
64. (a + b + c) (a − b − c)
65. (a + 2b − c)
2

66. (x + y + z)
2
67. (x − 3) 4
68. (x + y)
4
69. Find the volume of a rectangular solid with sides measuring x , x + 2,

and x + 4 units.
70. Find the volume of a cube where each side measures x − 5 units.
Part D: Special Products
Multiply.
71. (x + 2) 2
72. (x − 3) 2
73. (2x + 5)
2
74. (3x − 7) 2
75. (−x + 2) 2
76. (−9x + 1) 2
77. (a + 6)
2
78. (2a − 3b)

2
79. ( x + 34 )
2 2
3
80. ( x − 35 )
1 2
2

81. (x 2 + 2)
2
82. (x 2 + y2)
2
83. (x + 4) (x − 4)
84. (2x + 1) (2x − 1)
85. (5x + 3) (5x − 3)
86. ( x − 13 ) ( 15 x + 13 )
1
5
87. ( x + 25 ) ( 32 x − 25 )
3
2
88. (2x − 3y) (2x + 3y)
89. (4x − y) (4x + y)
90. (a3 − b 3 ) (a3 + b 3 )
91. A box is made by cutting out the corners and folding up the edges of a
square piece of cardboard. A template for a cardboard box with a height of 2
inches is given. Find a formula for the volume, if the initial piece of
cardboard is a square with sides measuring x inches.
92. A template for a cardboard box with a height of x inches is given. Find a
formula for the volume, if the initial piece of cardboard is a square with
sides measuring 12 inches.

Part E: Multiplying Polynomial Functions
For each problem, calculate (f ⋅ g) (x) , given the functions.
93. f (x) = 8x and g (x) = 3x − 5
94. f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = −5x + 1
95. f (x) = x − 7 and g (x) = 6x − 1
96. f (x) = 5x + 3 and g (x) = x 2 + 2x − 3
97. f (x) = x 2 + 6x − 3 and g (x) = 2x 2 − 3x + 5
98. f (x) = 3x 2 − x + 1 and g (x) = −x 2 + 2x − 1
Given f (x) = 2x − 3 and g (x) = 3x − 1 , find the following.
99. (f ⋅ g) (x)
100. (g ⋅ f ) (x)
101. (f ⋅ g) (0)
102. (f ⋅ g) (−1)
103. (f ⋅ g) (1)
104. (f ⋅ g) ( 12 )
Given f (x) = 5x − 1 and g (x) = 2x 2 − 4x + 5 , find the following.

105. (f ⋅ g) (x)
106. (g ⋅ f ) (x)
107. (f ⋅ g) (0)
108. (f ⋅ g) (−1)
109. (f ⋅ g) (1)
110. (f ⋅ g) ( 12 )
111. (f ⋅ f ) (x)
112. (g ⋅ g) (x)
113. Explain why (x + y) ≠ x 2 + y 2.

2
114. Explain how to quickly multiply a binomial with its conjugate. Give an
example.
115. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mnemonic
device FOIL?

ANSWERS
1: −15x 3 y
3
3: 2x − 2
5: 15x 2 − 6x
7: 3x 3 + 2x 2
9: 8a2 b − 4ab 2
11: −18x 5 y 4 + 6x 3 y 5
13: −2x 3 y 2 + 5x 2 y
15: −30x 9
17: −10x 2 + 6x − 8
19: 15x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x
21: 3x 4 − 5x 3 − 7x 2
1 1 5
23: 2x 7 − x6 + x5 − x4
2 8 4
25: a4 b − 3a3 b 2 + a2 b 3
27: 6x 4 y 3 − 18x 2 y 3 + 2x 2 y 5
29: 6x 3 − 9x 2 + 15x
31: −4x 5 + 12x 4 − 8x 3 + 28x 2 − 32x
33: 3x 2 + 10x − 8

35: x 2 −1
37: 2x 2 + x − 15
39: −3x 2 + 4x − 1
4
41: y 2 − 9
3 7 2
43:
16
x2 + 20
x+ 25
45: y 3 + 2y 2 − 2y − 4
47: a4 − b4
49: 2x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x − 20
51: 8x 3 − 27
5 1
53: 3x 3 + x 2 − 3x +
2 2
55: x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27
57: 27x 3 − 27x 2 + 9x − 1
59: 10x 4 − 24x 3 + 23x 2 − 16x + 4
61: x 4 + x3 + x + 1
63: 2x 4 + 7x 3 − 12x 2 + 28x − 5
65: a2 + 4ab − 2ac + 4b 2 − 4bc + c2
67: x 4 − 12x 3 + 54x 2 − 108x + 81
69: x 3 + 6x 2 + 8x

71: x 2 + 4x + 4
73: 4x 2 + 20x + 25
75: x 2 − 4x + 4
77: a2 + 12a + 36
4 9
79:
9
x2 + x + 16
81: x 4 + 4x 2 + 4
83: x 2 − 16
85: 25x 2 −9
9 4
87:
4
x2 − 25
89: 16x 2 − y2
91: V = 2x 2 − 16x + 32 cubic inches
93: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 24x 2 − 40x
95: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 6x 2 − 43x + 7
97: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 2x 4 + 9x 3 − 19x 2 + 39x − 15
99: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 6x 2 − 11x + 3
101: (f ⋅ g) (0) = 3
103: (f ⋅ g) (1) = −2
105: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 10x 3 − 22x 2 + 29x − 5

107: (f ⋅ g) (0) = −5
109: (f ⋅ g) (1) = 12
111: (f ⋅ f ) (x) = 25x 2 − 10x + 1

5.5 Dividing Polynomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Divide by a monomial.
2. Divide by a polynomial using the division algorithm.
3. Divide polynomial functions.
Dividing by a Monomial
Recall the quotient rule for exponents: if x is nonzero and m and n are positive
integers, then
In other words, when dividing two expressions with the same base, subtract the
exponents. This rule applies when dividing a monomial by a monomial. In this
section, we will assume that all variables in the denominator are nonzero.
28y 3
Example 1: Divide: 7y .
Solution: Divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents of the variable y.
Answer: 4y 2
841
24x 7 y 5
Example 2: Divide: .
8x 3 y 2
Solution: Divide the coefficients and apply the quotient rule by subtracting the
exponents of the like bases.
Answer: 3x 4 y 3
When dividing a polynomial by a monomial, we may treat the monomial as a

common denominator and break up the fraction using the following property:
Applying this property results in terms that can be treated as quotients of

monomials.
−5x 4 +25x 3 −15x 2

5x 2
Solution: Break up the fraction by dividing each term in the numerator by the
monomial in the denominator and then simplify each term.
5.5 Dividing Polynomials 842

Answer: −x 2 + 5x − 3
Check your division by multiplying the answer, the quotient28, by the monomial in
the denominator, the divisor29, to see if you obtain the original numerator, the
dividend30.
9a4 b−7a3 b2 +3a2 b

−3a2 b
Solution:
28. The result after dividing.
29. The denominator of a quotient.
30. The numerator of a quotient.

Answer: −3a2 + 7
3
ab − 1. The check is optional and is left to the reader.
Try this! Divide: (16x 5 − 8x 4 + 5x 3 + 2x 2 ) ÷ (2x 2 ).
Answer: 8x 3 − 4x 2 + 5
2
x+1
Video Solution

Dividing by a Polynomial
The same technique outlined for dividing by a monomial does not work for
polynomials with two or more terms in the denominator. In this section, we will
outline a process called polynomial long division31, which is based on the division
algorithm for real numbers. For the sake of clarity, we will assume that all
expressions in the denominator are nonzero.
x 3 +3x 2 −8x−4
Example 5: Divide: x−2
.
31. The process of dividing two

polynomials using the division Solution: Here x − 2 is the divisor and x 3 + 3x 2 − 8x − 4 is the dividend.
algorithm.

Step 1: To determine the first term of the quotient, divide the leading term of the
dividend by the leading term of the divisor.
Step 2: Multiply the first term of the quotient by the divisor, remembering to
distribute, and line up like terms with the dividend.
Step 3: Subtract the resulting quantity from the dividend. Take care to subtract
both terms.
Step 4: Bring down the remaining terms and repeat the process from step 1.

Notice that the leading term is eliminated and that the result has a degree that is
one less than the dividend. The complete process is illustrated below:
Polynomial long division ends when the degree of the remainder32 is less than the
degree of the divisor. Here the remainder is 0. Therefore, the binomial divides the
polynomial evenly and the answer is the quotient shown above the division line.
To check the answer, multiply the divisor by the quotient to see if you obtain the
dividend:
Next, we demonstrate the case where there is a nonzero remainder.
32. The expression that is left after

the division algorithm ends.

Just as with real numbers, the final answer adds the fraction where the remainder is
the numerator and the divisor is the denominator to the quotient. In general, when
dividing we have
If we multiply both sides by the divisor we obtain
6x 2 −5x+3
Example 6: Divide: 2x−1
.
Solution: Since the denominator is a binomial, begin by setting up polynomial long

division.
This is the quotient of the given leading terms: (6x 2 ) ÷ (2x) = 3x. Multiply 3x
To start, determine what monomial times 2x − 1 results in a leading term 6x 2 .
times the divisor 2x − 1 and line up the result with like terms of the dividend.

Subtract the result from the dividend and bring down the constant term +3.
Subtracting eliminates the leading term and −5x − (−3x) = −5x + 3x = −2x .
The quotient of −2x and 2x is −1. Multiply 2x − 1 by −1 and line up the result.
Subtract again and notice that we are left with a remainder.
The constant term 2 has degree 0, and thus the division ends. We may write

2
Answer: 3x − 1 + 2x−1 . To check that this result is correct, we multiply as follows:
Occasionally, some of the powers of the variables appear to be missing within a

polynomial. This can lead to errors when lining up like terms. Therefore, when first
learning how to divide polynomials using long division, fill in the missing terms
with zero coefficients, called placeholders33.
27x 3 +64
Example 7: Divide: 3x+4
.
Solution: Notice that the binomial in the numerator does not have terms with
degree 2 or 1. The division is simplified if we rewrite the expression with
placeholders:
Set up polynomial long division:
33. Terms with zero coefficients

used to fill in all missing
exponents within a polynomial.

We begin with 27x 3 ÷ 3x = 9x 2 and work the rest of the division algorithm.
Answer: 9x 2 − 12x + 16
3x 4 −2x 3 +6x 2 +23x−7

x 2 −2x+5
Solution:
Begin the process by dividing the leading terms to determine the leading term of
the quotient 3x 4 ÷ x 2 = 3x 2 . Take care to distribute and line up the like terms.
Continue the process until the remainder has a degree less than 2.

The remainder is x − 2 . Write the answer with the remainder:
x−2
Answer: 3x 2 + 4x − 1 +
x 2 −2x+5
Polynomial long division takes time and practice to master. Work lots of problems
and remember that you may check your answers by multiplying the quotient by the
divisor (and adding the remainder if present) to obtain the dividend.
20x 4 −32x 3 +7x 2 +8x−10

Try this! Divide: 5x−3
.
7
Answer: 4x 3 − 4x 2 − x + 1 − 5x−3
Video Solution

Dividing Polynomial Functions
We may use function notation to indicate division as follows:
(f /g) (x) =
f (x)
Division of functions:
g(x)
The quotient of two polynomial functions does not necessarily have a domain of all
real numbers. The values for x that make the function in the denominator 0 are
restricted from the domain. This will be discussed in more detail at a later time. For
now, assume all functions in the denominator are nonzero.
Example 9: Calculate: (f /g) (x) given f (x) = 6x 5 − 36x 4 + 12x 3 − 6x 2 and

g (x) = −6x 2 .
Solution: The notation indicates that we should divide:
Answer: (f /g) (x) = −x 3 + 6x 2 − 2x + 1
Example 10: Calculate: (f /g) (−1), given f (x) = −3x 3 + 7x 2 − 11x − 1 and
g (x) = 3x − 1.
Solution: First, determine (f /g) (x).

Therefore,
Substitute −1 for the variable x .
Answer: (f /g) (−1) = −4

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When dividing by a monomial, divide all terms in the numerator by the

monomial and then simplify each term. To simplify each term, divide
the coefficients and apply the quotient rule for exponents.
• When dividing a polynomial by another polynomial, apply the division
algorithm.
• To check the answer after dividing, multiply the divisor by the quotient
and add the remainder (if necessary) to obtain the dividend.
• It is a good practice to include placeholders when performing
polynomial long division.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Dividing by a Monomial
Divide.
81y 5
1.
9y 2
36y 9
2.
9y 3
52x 2 y
3.
4xy
24xy 5
4.
2xy 4
25x 2 y 5 z 3
5.
5xyz
77x 4 y 9 z
6. −
22x 3 y 3 z
125a3 b 2 c
7.
−10abc
36a2 b 3 c5
8.
−6a2 b 2 c3
9x 2 +27x−3
9.
3
10x 3 −5x 2 +40x−15

10.
5
20x 3 −10x 2 +30x

11.
2x
10x 4 +8x 2 −6x

12.
24x
−6x 5 −9x 3 +3x

13.
−3x

36a12 −6a9 +12a5

14.
−12a5
−12x 5 +18x 3 −6x 2

15.
−6x 2
−49a8 +7a5 −21a3

16.
7a3
9x 7 −6x 4 +12x 3 −x 2
17.
3x 2
8x 9 +16x 7 −24x 4 +8x 3

18.
−8x 3
16a7 −32a6 +20a5 −a4

19.
4a4
5a6 +2a5 +6a3 −12a2

20.
3a2
−4x 2 y 3 +16x 7 y 8 −8x 2 y 5

21.
−4x 2 y 3
100a10 b 30 c5 −50a20 b 5 c40 +20a5 b 20 c10

22.
10a5 b 5 c5
23. Find the quotient of −36x 9 y 7 and 2x 8 y 5 .
24. Find the quotient of 144x 3 y 10 z 2 and −12x 3 y 5 z .
25. Find the quotient of 3a4 − 18a3 + 27a2 and 3a2 .
26. Find the quotient of 64a2 bc3 − 16a5 bc7 and 4a2 bc3 .
Part B: Dividing by a Polynomial
Divide.
27. (2x 2 − 5x − 3) ÷ (x − 3)
28. (3x 2 + 5x − 2) ÷ (x + 2)

29. (6x 2 + 11x + 3) ÷ (3x + 1)
30. (8x 2 − 14x + 3) ÷ (2x − 3)
x 3 −x 2 −2x−12
31.
x−3
2x 3 +11x 2 +4x−5
32.
x+5
2x 3 −x 2 −4x+3
33.
2x+3
−15x 3 −14x 2 +23x−6

34.
5x−2
14x 4 −9x 3 +22x 2 +4x−1

35.
7x−1
8x 5 +16x 4 −8x 3 −5x 2 −21x+10

36.
2x+5
x 2 +8x+17
37.
x+5
2x 2 −5x+5
38.
x−2
6x 2 −13x+9
39.
−2x+1
−12x 2 +x+1
40.
3x+2
x 3 +9x 2 +19x+1
41.
x+4
2x 3 −13x 2 +17x−11
42.
x−5
9x 3 −12x 2 +16x−15
43.
3x−2
3x 4 −8x 3 +5x 2 −5x+9

44.
x−2

45. (6x 5 − 13x 4 + 4x 3 − 3x 2 + 13x − 2) ÷ (3x + 1)
46. (8x 5 − 22x 4 + 19x 3 − 20x 2 + 23x − 3) ÷ (2x − 3)
5x 5 +12x 4 +12x 3 −7x 2 −19x+3

47.
x 2 +2x+3
6x 5 −17x 4 +5x 3 +16x 2 −7x−3

48.
2x 2 −3x−1
x 5 +7 x 4 −x 3 −7 x 2 −49 x+9
49.
x 2 +7x−1
5x 6 −6x 4 −4x 2 +x+2

50.
5x 2 −1
x 3 −27
51.
x−3
8x 3 +125
52.
2x+5
53. (15x 5 − 9x 4 − 20x 3 + 12x 2 + 15x − 9) ÷ (5x − 3)
54. (2x 6 − 5x 5 − 4x 4 + 10x 3 + 6x 2 − 17x + 5) ÷ (2x − 5)
x 5 −2x 3 +3x−1
55.
x−1
x 4 −3x 2 +5x−13
56.
x+2
a2 −4
57.
a+2
a5 +1
58.
a5 +1
a6 −1
59.
a−1
x 5 −1
60.
x−1

x 5 +x 4 +6x 3 +12x 2 −4
61.
x 2 +x−1
50x 6 −30x 5 −5x 4 +15 x 3 −5x+1

62.
5x 2 −3x+2
5x 5 −15x 3 +25x 2 −5
63.
5x
−36x 6 +12x 4 −6x 2

64.
6x 2
150x 5 y 2 z 15 −10x 3 y 6 z 5 +4x 3 y 2 z 4

65.
10x 3 y 2 z 5
27m 6 +9m 4 −81m 2 +1

66.
9m 2
67. Divide 3x 6 − 2x 5 + 27x 4 − 18x 3 − 6x 2 + 7x − 10 by

3x − 2 .
68. Divide 8x 6 + 4x 5 − 14x 4 − 5x 3 + x 2 − 2x − 3 by 2x + 1 .
Part C: Dividing Polynomial Functions
Calculate (f /g) (x) , given the functions.
69. f (x) = 40x 8 and g (x) = 10x 5
70. f (x) = 54x 5 and g (x) = 9x 3
71. f (x) = 12x 2 + 24x − 15 and g (x) = 2x + 5
72. f (x) = −8x 2 + 30x − 7 and g (x) = 2x − 7
73. f (x) = 18x 2 − 36x + 5 and g (x) = 3x − 5
74. f (x) = −7x 2 + 29x − 6 and g (x) = 7x − 1
75. f (x) = 10x 3 − 9x 2 + 27x − 10 and g (x) = 5x − 2

76. f (x) = 15x 3 + 28x 2 − 11x + 56 and g (x) = 3x + 8
77. f(x) = 2x 4 + 5x 3 − 11x 2 − 19x + 20 and

g (x) = x 2 + x − 5
78. f(x) = 4x 4 − 12x 3 − 20x 2 + 26x − 3 and

g (x) = 2x 2 + 2x − 3
Given f (x) = 6x 3 + 4x 2 − 11x + 3 and g (x) = 3x − 1 , find the

following.
79. (f /g) (x)
80. (f /g) (−1)
81. (f /g) (0)
82. (f /g) (1)
Given f (x) = 5x 3 − 13x 2 + 7x + 3 and g (x) = x − 2 , find the

following.
83. (f /g) (x)
84. (f /g) (−3)
85. (f /g) (0)
86. (f /g) (7)
87. How do you use the distributive property when dividing a polynomial by
a monomial?
88. Compare long division of real numbers with polynomial long division.
Provide an example of each.

ANSWERS
1: 9y 3
3: 13x
5: 5xy 4 z 2
25
7: −
2
a2 b
9: 3x 2 + 9x − 1
11: 10x 2 − 5x + 15
13: 2x 4 + 3x 2 − 1
15: 2x 3 − 3x + 1
1
17: 3x 5 − 2x 2 + 4x − 3
1
19: 4a3 − 8a2 + 5a − 4
21: −4x 5 y 5 + 2y 2 + 1
23: −18xy 2
25: a2 − 6a + 9
27: 2x +1
29: 2x +3
31: x 2 + 2x + 4
33: x 2 − 2x + 1
35: 2x 3 − x 2 + 3x + 1

2
37: x +3+ x+5
4
39: −3x +5+ −2x+1
5
41: x 2 + 5x − 1 + x+4
7
43: 3x 2 − 2x + 4 − 3x−2
7
45: 2x 4 − 5x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x + 5 − 3x+1
47: 5x 3 + 2x 2 − 7x + 1
2
49: x 3 −7+ x 2 +7x−1
51: x 2 + 3x + 9
53: 3x 4 − 4x 2 + 3
1
55: x 4 + x3 − x2 − x + 2 + x−1
57: a −2
59: a5 + a4 + a3 + a2 + a + 1
2x+1
61: x 3 + 7x + 5 + x 2 +x−1
1
63: x 4 − 3x 2 + 5x − x
2
65: 15x 2 z 10 − y4 + 5z
8
67: x 5 + 9x 3 − 2x + 1 − 3x−2
69: (f /g) (x) = 4x 3

71: (f /g) (x) = 6x − 3
73: (f /g)
5
(x) = 6x − 2 − 3x−5
75: (f /g) (x) = 2x 2 − x + 5
77: (f /g) (x) = 2x 2 + 3x − 4
79: (f /g) (x) = 2x 2 + 2x − 3
81: (f /g) (0) = −3
83: (f /g)
5
(x) = 5x 2 − 3x + 1 + x−2
85: (f /g)
3
(0) = − 2

5.6 Negative Exponents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Simplify expressions with negative integer exponents.

2. Work with scientific notation.
Negative Exponents
In this section, we define what it means to have negative integer exponents. We

begin with the following equivalent fractions:
Notice that 4, 8, and 32 are all powers of 2. Hence we can write 4 = 22 , 8 = 23 , and
32 = 25 .
If the exponent of the term in the denominator is larger than the exponent of the
term in the numerator, then the application of the quotient rule for exponents
results in a negative exponent. In this case, we have the following:
We conclude that 2−3 = 13 . This is true in general and leads to the definition of
2
negative exponents34. Given any integer n and x ≠ 0 , then
1
34. x −n = x n ,given any integer
n, where x is nonzero.
864
Here x ≠ 0 because 10 is undefined. For clarity, in this section, assume all variables
are nonzero.
Simplifying expressions with negative exponents requires that we rewrite the

expression with positive exponents.
Example 1: Simplify: 10−2 .
Solution:
1
Answer: 100
Example 2: Simplify: (−3)−1 .
Solution:
Answer: − 1
3
5.6 Negative Exponents 865

Example 3: Simplify: 1−3 .

y
Solution:
Answer: y 3
At this point we highlight two very important examples,
If the grouped quantity is raised to a negative exponent, then apply the definition
and write the entire grouped quantity in the denominator. If there is no grouping,
then apply the definition only to the base preceding the exponent.
Example 4: Simplify: (2ab) .

−3
Solution: First, apply the definition of −3 as an exponent and then apply the power
of a product rule.

1
Answer:
8a3 b3
Example 5: Simplify: (−3xy 3 )

−2
.
Solution:
1
Answer:
9x 2 y 6
−3
Example 6: Simplify: x −4 .
y
Solution:

y4
Answer:
x3
The previous example suggests a property of quotients with negative

exponents35. If given any integers m and n, where x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0 , then
In other words, negative exponents in the numerator can be written as positive

exponents in the denominator, and negative exponents in the denominator can be
written as positive exponents in the numerator.
−2x −5y 3
z −2
Solution: Take care with the coefficient −2; recognize that this is the base and that
the exponent is actually +1: −2 = (−2)1 . Hence the rules of negative exponents do
not apply to this coefficient; leave it in the numerator.
x −n ym
35. y −m = x n , given any integers −2y 3 z 2
Answer:
m and n, where x ≠ 0 and x5
y ≠ 0.

(−3x )
−4 −3
y −2
Solution: Apply the power of a product rule before applying negative exponents.
x 12 y 2
Answer: − 27
(3x )
2 −4
(−2y −1z 3 )
Example 9: Simplify: −2
.
Solution:

4z 6
Answer:
81x 8 y 2
(5x y)
2 3

x −5y −3
Solution: First, apply the power of a product rule and then the quotient rule.
Answer: 125x 11 y 6
To summarize, we have the following rules for negative integer exponents with
nonzero bases:
1
Negative exponents: x −n =
xn

x −n ym
Quotients with negative exponents: = n
y −m x
(−5xy )
−3 −2
5x 4 y −4
y 10
Answer:
125x 6
Video Solution

Scientific Notation
Real numbers expressed in scientific notation36 have the form
where n is an integer and 1 ≤ a < 10. This form is particularly useful when the
numbers are very large or very small. For example,
It is cumbersome to write all the zeros in both of these cases. Scientific notation is
an alternative, compact representation of these numbers. The factor 10n indicates
the power of 10 to multiply the coefficient by to convert back to decimal form:
36. Real numbers expressed in the

n
form a × 10 , where n is an
integer and 1 ≤ a < 10.

This is equivalent to moving the decimal in the coefficient fifteen places to the
right. A negative exponent indicates that the number is very small:
This is equivalent to moving the decimal in the coefficient eleven places to the left.
Converting a decimal number to scientific notation involves moving the decimal as

well. Consider all of the equivalent forms of 0.00563 with factors of 10 that follow:
While all of these are equal, 5.63 × 10−3 is the only form considered to be
expressed in scientific notation. This is because the coefficient 5.63 is between 1 and
10 as required by the definition. Notice that we can convert 5.63 × 10−3 back to
decimal form, as a check, by moving the decimal to the left three places.
Example 11: Write 1,075,000,000,000 using scientific notation.
Solution: Here we count twelve decimal places to the left of the decimal point to
obtain the number 1.075.
Answer: 1.075 × 1012

Example 12: Write 0.000003045 using scientific notation.
Solution: Here we count six decimal places to the right to obtain 3.045.
Answer: 3.045 × 10−6
Often we will need to perform operations when using numbers in scientific

notation. All the rules of exponents developed so far also apply to numbers in
scientific notation.
Example 13: Multiply: (4.36 × 10−5 ) (5.3 × 1012 ).
Solution: Use the fact that multiplication is commutative and apply the product
rule for exponents.
Answer: 2.3108 × 108

Example 14: Divide: (3.24 × 108 ) ÷ (9.0 × 10 ).

−3
Solution:
Answer: 3.6 × 1010
Example 15: The speed of light is approximately 6.7 × 108 miles per hour. Express
this speed in miles per second.
Solution: A unit analysis indicates that we must divide the number by 3,600.

Answer: The speed of light is approximately 1.9 × 105 miles per second.
Example 16: By what factor is the radius of the sun larger than the radius of earth?
Solution: We want to find the number that when multiplied times the radius of
earth equals the radius of the sun.
Source: NASA and European

Space Agency, from
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/
multimedia/
display.cfm?IM_ID=188.
Therefore,

Answer: The radius of the sun is approximately 110 times that of earth.
Try this! Divide: (6.75 × 10−8 ) ÷ (9 × 10

−17
).
Answer: 7.5 × 108
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Expressions with negative exponents in the numerator can be rewritten

as expressions with positive exponents in the denominator.
• Expressions with negative exponents in the denominator can be
rewritten as expressions with positive exponents in the numerator.
• Take care to distinguish negative coefficients from negative exponents.
• Scientific notation is particularly useful when working with numbers
that are very large or very small.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Negative Exponents
Simplify. (Assume variables are nonzero.)
−1
1. 5
−2
2. 5
−1
3. (−7)
−1
4. −7
1
5.
2 −3
5
6.
3 −2
7. (
5)
3 −2
8. (
2)
1 −5
9. (−
3)
2 −4
10. (−
3)
1 −3
11. x −4
12. y −1
13. 3x −5
−5
14. (3x)

1
15.
y −3
5
16.
2x −1
x −1
17.
y −2
1
(x−y)
18. −4
x 2 y −3
19.
z −5
20. xy −3
21. (ab)
−1
1
22.
(ab)−1
23. −5x −3 y 2 z −4
−2 3 −5
24. 3 x y z
25. 3x −4 y 2 ⋅ 2x −1 y 3
3
26. −10a2 b ⋅ 2a−8 b −10
27. (2a−3 )
−2
28. (−3x 2 )
−1
29. (5a2 b c)
−3 −2
30. (7r3 s−5 t)

−3

31. (−2r2 s0 t −3 )
−1
32. (2xy −3 z 2 )
−3
33. (−5a2 b c )
−3 0 4
34. (−x −2 y 3 z −4 )
−7
( 2x −3 )
−5
1
35.
( y2 )
−2
2x
36.
( 2y −1 )
−4
x
37.
( c5 )
−5
−3a2 b
38.
( 5yz −1 )
20x −3 y 2 −1
39.
( 2r3 st 0 )
−3
4r5 s−3 t 4
40.
( y 2 z3 )
2xy 3 z −1 −3
41.
(− )
2
3a2 bc
42.
ab 0 c4
(− )
xyz −4
43.
x y −2 z 3
4
( )
0
125x −3 y 4 z −5
−
5x 2 y 4 (x+y)
44. 3

−2
45. (x n )
( yn )
−2
xn
46.
The value in dollars of a new MP3 player can be estimated by using the formula
V = 100(t + 1)−1 , where t is the number of years after purchase.
47. How much was the MP3 player worth new?
48. How much will the MP3 player be worth in 1 year?
49. How much will the MP3 player be worth in 4 years?
52. According to the formula, will the MP3 ever be worthless? Explain.
Part B: Scientific Notation
Convert to a decimal number.
53. 9.3 × 10 9
54. 1.004 × 10 4
55. 6.08 × 10 10
56. 3.042 × 10 7
57. 4.01 × 10 −7
58. 1.0 × 10 −10
59. 9.9 × 10 −3

60. 7.0011 × 10 −5
Rewrite using scientific notation.
61. 500,000,000
62. 407,300,000,000,000
63. 9,740,000
64. 100,230
65. 0.0000123
66. 0.000012
67. 0.000000010034
68. 0.99071
Perform the indicated operations.
69. (3 × 10 5 ) (9 × 10 4 )
70. (8 × 10 −22 ) (2 × 10 −12 )
71. (2.1 × 10 −19 ) (3.0 × 10 8 )
72. (4.32 × 10 7 ) (1.50 × 10 −18 )
9.12×10 −9
73.
3.2×10 10
1.15×10 9
74.
2.3×10 −11
1.004×10 −8
75.
2.008×10 −14

3.276×10 25
76.
5.2×10 15
77. 59,000,000,000,000 × 0.000032
78. 0.0000000000432 × 0.0000000000673
79. 1,030,000,000,000,000,000 ÷ 2,000,000
80. 6,045,000,000,000,000 ÷ 0.00000005
81. The population density of earth refers to the number of people per
× 10 7
square mile of land area. If the total land area on earth is 5.751
9
square miles and the population in 2007 was estimated to be 6.67 × 10
people, then calculate the population density of earth at that time.
82. In 2008 the population of New York City was estimated to be 8.364
million people. The total land area is 305 square miles. Calculate the
population density of New York City.
83. The mass of earth is 5.97 × 10 24 kilograms and the mass of the moon
22
is 7.35 × 10 kilograms. By what factor is the mass of earth greater than
the mass of the moon?
84. The mass of the sun is 1.99 × 10 30 kilograms and the mass of earth is
24
5.97 × 10 kilograms. By what factor is the mass of the sun greater than
the mass of earth? Express your answer in scientific notation.
× 10 5 miles and the average distance

85. The radius of the sun is 4.322
5
from earth to the moon is 2.392 × 10 miles. By what factor is the radius
of the sun larger than the average distance from earth to the moon?
15
86. One light year, 9.461 × 10 meters, is the distance that light travels
in a vacuum in one year. If the distance to the nearest star to our sun,
16
Proxima Centauri, is estimated to be 3.991 × 10 meters, then calculate
the number of years it would take light to travel that distance.
87. It is estimated that there are about 1 million ants per person on the
planet. If the world population was estimated to be 6.67 billion people in
2007, then estimate the world ant population at that time.

88. The sun moves around the center of the galaxy in a nearly circular orbit.
The distance from the center of our galaxy to the sun is approximately
26,000 light years. What is the circumference of the orbit of the sun around
the galaxy in meters?
89. Water weighs approximately 18 grams per mole. If one mole is about
6 × 10 23 molecules, then approximate the weight of each molecule of
water.
9 6
90. A gigabyte is 1 × 10 bytes and a megabyte is 1 × 10 bytes. If the
average song in the MP3 format consumes about 4.5 megabytes of storage,
then how many songs will fit on a 4-gigabyte memory card?

ANSWERS
1
1:
5
1
3: − 7
5: 8
25
7:
9
81
9:
16
1
11:
x4
3
13:
x5
15: y 3
y2
17: x
x 2 z5
19:
y3
1
21:
ab
−5y 2
23:
x 3 z4
6y 5
25:
x5
a6
27:
4
b6
29:
25a4 c2
t3
31: −
2r2

625a8
33:
b 12
32
35:
x 15
16
37:
x 4y4
x3
39:
4yz
z 12
41:
8x 3 y 3
x 12 z 8
43:
y 12
1
45:
x 2n
47: $100
49: $20
51: $1
53: 9,300,000,000
55: 60,800,000,000
57: 0.000000401
59: 0.0099
61: 5 × 10 8
63: 9.74 × 10 6
65: 1.23 × 10 −5
67: 1.0034 × 10 −8

69: 2.7 × 10 10
71: 6.3 × 10 −11
73: 2.85 × 10 −19
75: 5 × 10 5
77: 1.888 × 10 9
79: 5.15 × 10 11
81: About 116 people per square mile
83: 81.2
85: 1.807
87: 6.67 × 10 15 ants
89: 3 × 10 −23 grams

887
REVIEW EXERCISES
Rules of Exponents
Simplify.
3
1. 7 ⋅ 76
59
2.
56
3. y 5 ⋅ y2 ⋅ y3
4. x 3 y 2 ⋅ xy 3
2
5. −5a3 b c ⋅ 6a2 bc2
55x 2 yz 5
6.
5xyz 2
( 2c3 )
2
−3a2 b 4
7.
( 4c4 )
3
−2a3 b
8.
9. −5x 3 y 0 (z 2 ) ⋅ 2x 4 (y 3 ) z
3 2
10. (−25x 6 y 5 z)
0
11. Each side of a square measures 5x 2 units. Find the area of the square in
terms of x.
12. Each side of a cube measures 2x 3 units. Find the volume of the cube in
terms of x.
Introduction to Polynomials

Classify the given polynomial as a monomial, binomial, or trinomial and state the
degree.
13. 8a3 −1
14. 5y 2 −y+1
2
15. −12ab
16. 10
Write the following polynomials in standard form.
17. 7 − x 2 − 5x
18. 5x 2 − 1 − 3x + 2x 3
Evaluate.
19. 2x 2 − x + 1 , where x = −3
1 3 1
20.
2
x− 4
, where x = 3
2 1 3
21. b − 4ac, where a = − ,b = −3 , and c = −
2 2
1 1
22. a2 − b 2, where a = − 2
and b =− 3
23. a3 − b 3, where a = −2 and b = −1
24. xy 2 − 2x 2 y , where x = −3 and y = −1
25. Given f (x) = 3x 2 − 5x + 2 , find f (−2) .
26. Given g (x) = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1, find g (−1) .
27. The surface area of a rectangular solid is given by the formula

SA = 2lw + 2wh + 2lh , where l, w, and h represent the length, width,
and height, respectively. If the length of a rectangular solid measures 2

units, the width measures 3 units, and the height measures 5 units, then
calculate the surface area.
28. The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula SA = 4πr2 , where
r represents the radius of the sphere. If a sphere has a radius of 5 units, then
calculate the surface area.
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
29. (3x − 4) + (9x − 1)
30. ( x − 19 ) + ( 16 x + 12 )
1
3
31. (7x 2 − x + 9) + (x 2 − 5x + 6)
32. (6x 2 y − 5xy 2 − 3) + (−2x 2 y + 3xy 2 + 1)
33. (4y + 7) − (6y − 2) + (10y − 1)
34. (5y 2 − 3y + 1) − (8y 2 + 6y − 11)
35. (7x 2 y 2 − 3xy + 6) − (6x 2 y 2 + 2xy − 1)
36. (a3 − b 3 ) − (a3 + 1) − (b 3 − 1)
37. (x 5 − x 3 + x − 1) − (x 4 − x 2 + 5)
38. (5x 3 − 4x 2 + x − 3) − (5x 3 − 3) + (4x 2 − x)
39. Subtract 2x −1 from 9x + 8.
40. Subtract 3x 2 − 10x − 2 from 5x 2 + x − 5.
(f + g) (x) .
(x) = 3x 2 − x + 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find
41. Given f

(f − g) (x) .
(x) = 3x 2 − x + 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find
42. Given f
(f + g) (−2) .
(x) = 3x 2 − x + 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find
43. Given f
(f − g) (−2) .
(x) = 3x 2 − x + 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find
44. Given f
Multiplying Polynomials
Multiply.
45. 6x 2 (−5x )
4
(7a b)
2 2
46. 3ab
47. 2y (5y − 12)
48. −3x (3x 2 − x + 2)
49. x 2 y (2x 2 y − 5xy 2 + 2)
50. −4ab (a2 − 8ab + b 2 )
51. (x − 8) (x + 5)
52. (2y − 5) (2y + 5)
53. (3x − 1) 2
54. (3x − 1) 3
55. (2x − 1) (5x 2 − 3x + 1)

56. (x 2 + 3) (x 3 − 2x − 1)
57. (5y + 7)
2
58. (y 2 − 1)
2
59. Find the product of x 2 − 1 and x 2 + 1.

3
60. Find the product of
2
x 2 y and 10x − 30y + 2 .
61. Given f (x) = 7x − 2 and g (x) = x 2 − 3x + 1 , find (f ⋅ g) (x) .
62. Given f (x) = x − 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find (f ⋅ g) (x) .
(f ⋅ g) (−1).
63. Given f
(x) = 7x − 2 and g (x) = x 2 − 3x + 1 , find
64. Given f (x) = x − 5 and g (x) = x 2 − 9, find (f ⋅ g) (−1).
Dividing Polynomials
Divide.
7y 2 −14y+28
65. 7
12x 5 −30x 3 +6x

66.
6x
4a2 b−16ab 2 −4ab

67.
−4ab
6a6 −24a4 +5a2

68.
3a2
69. (10x 2 − 19x + 6) ÷ (2x − 3)
70. (2x 3 − 5x 2 + 5x − 6) ÷ (x − 2)

10x 4 −21x 3 −16x 2 +23x−20

71.
2x−5
x 5 −3x 4 −28x 3 +61x 2 −12x+36

72.
x−6
10x 3 −55x 2 +72x−4

73.
2x−7
3x 4 +19x 3 +3x 2 −16x−11

74.
3x+1
5x 4 +4x 3 −5x 2 +21x+21

75.
5x+4
x 4 −4
76.
x−4
2x 4 +10x 3 −23x 2 −15x+30

77.
2x 2 −3
7x 4 −17x 3 +17x 2 −11x+2

78.
x 2 −2x+1
79. Given f (x) = x 3 − 4x + 1 and g (x) = x − 1 , find (f /g) (x) .
80. Given f (x) = x 5 − 32 and g (x) = x − 2 , find (f /g) (x) .
81. Given f (x) = x 3 − 4x + 1 and g (x) = x − 1 , find (f /g) (2) .
82. Given f (x) = x 5 − 32 and g (x) = x − 2 , find (f /g) (0) .
Negative Exponents
Simplify.
−2
83. (−10)
−2
84. −10
85. 5x −3

86. (5x)
−3
1
87.
7y −3
3x −4
88.
y −2
−2a2 b −5
89.
c−8
90. (−5x 2 yz −1 )
−2
91. (−2x −3 y 0 z 2 )
−3
( 5ab2 c2 )
−1
−10a5 b 3 c2
92.
( 2a4 b−3 c )
−3
a2 b −4 c0
93.
The value in dollars of a new laptop computer can be estimated by using the formula
V = 1200(t + 1)−1 , where t represents the number of years after the
purchase.
94. Estimate the value of the laptop when it is 1½ years old.
95. What was the laptop worth new?
Rewrite using scientific notation.
96. 2,030,000,000
97. 0.00000004011
Perform the indicated operations.
98. (5.2 × 10 12 ) (1.8 × 10 −3 )

99. (9.2 × 10 −4 ) (6.3 × 10 22 )
4×10 16
100.
8×10 −7
9×10 −30
101.
4×10 −10
102. 5,000,000,000,000 × 0.0000023
103. 0.0003/120,000,000,000,000

SAMPLE EXAM
Simplify.
1. −5x 3 (2x y)
2
2. (x 2 )
4
⋅ x3 ⋅ x
(−2x y )
2 3 2
3.
x 2y
4. a. (−5) ; b. −5
0 0
Evaluate.
5. 2x 2 − x + 5 , where x = −5
6. a2 − b 2, where a = 4 and b = −3
7. (3x 2 − 4x + 5) + (−7x 2 + 9x − 2)
8. (8x 2 − 5x + 1) − (10x 2 + 2x − 1)
9. ( a − 12 ) − ( 23 a2 + a − 29 ) + ( 15 )
3 2 1 5
5 3
a− 18
10. 2x 2 (2x − 3x − 4x + 5)
3 2
11. (2x − 3) (x + 5)
12. (x − 1) 3
81x 5 y 2 z
13.
−3x 3 yz

10x 9 −15x 5 +5x 2

14.
−5x 2
x 3 −5x 2 +7x−2
15.
x−2
6x 4 −x 3 −13x 2 −2x−1
16.
2x−1
Simplify.
−3
17. 2
18. −5x −2
19. (2x 4 y −3 z)
−2
( ab−3 c2 )
−3
−2a3 b −5 c−2
20.
21. Subtract 5x 2 y − 4xy 2 + 1 from 10x 2 y − 6xy 2 + 2 .
22. If each side of a cube measures 4x 4 units, calculate the volume in terms
of x.
23. The height of a projectile in feet is given by the formula

h = −16t 2 + 96t + 10 , where t represents time in seconds. Calculate
the height of the projectile at 1½ seconds.
24. The cost in dollars of producing custom t-shirts is given by the formula
C = 120 + 3.50x , where x represents the number of t-shirts produced.
The revenue generated by selling the t-shirts for $6.50 each is given by the
formula R = 6.50x , where x represents the number of t-shirts sold.
a. Find a formula for the profit. (profit = revenue − cost)
b. Use the formula to calculate the profit from producing and selling 150 t-
shirts.

25. The total volume of water in earth’s oceans, seas, and bays is estimated
× 10 19 cubic feet. By what factor is the volume of the moon,
to be 4.73
7.76 × 10 20 cubic feet, larger than the volume of earth’s oceans? Round
to the nearest tenth.

9
1: 7
3: y 10
3 3
5: −30a5 b c
9a4 b 8
7:
4c6
9: −10x 7 y 6 z 7
11: A = 25x 4
17: −x 2 − 5x + 7
19: 22
21: 6
23: −7
25: f (−2) = 24
27: 62 square units
29: 12x −5
31: 8x 2 − 6x + 15
33: 8y +8
35: x 2 y 2 − 5xy + 7

37: x 5 − x4 − x3 + x2 + x − 6
39: 7x +9
41: (f + g) (x) = 4x 2 − x − 4
43: (f + g) (−2) = 14
45: −30x 6
47: 10y 2 − 24y
49: 2x 4 y 2 − 5x 3 y 3 + 2x 2 y
51: x 2 − 3x − 40
53: 9x 2 − 6x + 1
55: 10x 3 − 11x 2 + 5x − 1
57: 25y 2 + 70y + 49
59: x 4 −1
61: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 7x 3 − 23x 2 + 13x − 2
63: (f ⋅ g) (−1) = −45
65: y 2 − 2y + 4
67: −a + 4b + 1
69: 5x −2
71: 5x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 4
3
73: 5x 2 − 10x + 1 + 2x−7

1
75: x 3 −x+5+ 5x+4
77: x 2 + 5x − 10
79: (f /g)
2
(x) = x 2 + x − 3 − x−1
81: (f /g) (2) = 1
1
83:
100
5
85:
x3
y3
87: 7
−2a2 c8
89:
b5
x9
91: −
8z 6
3 3
93: 8a6 b c
95: $1,200
97: 4.011 × 10 −8
99: 5.796 × 10 19
101: 2.25 × 10 −20
103: 2.5 × 10 −18

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: −10x 5 y
3: 4x 2 y 5
5: 60
7: −4x 2 + 5x + 3
2 5
9: −
3
a2 − 9
11: 2x 2 + 7x − 15
13: −27x 2 y
15: x 2 − 3x + 1
1
17:
8
y6
19:
4x 8 z 2
21: 5x 2 y − 2xy 2 + 1
23: 118 feet
25: 16.4

Chapter 6
Factoring and Solving by Factoring
903
Chapter 6 Factoring and Solving by Factoring
6.1 Introduction to Factoring
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Determine the greatest common factor (GCF) of natural numbers.

2. Determine the GCF of monomials.
3. Factor out the GCF of a polynomial.
4. Factor a four-term polynomial by grouping.
GCF of Natural Numbers
The process of writing a number or expression as a product is called factoring1. If

we write 60 = 5 ⋅ 12, we say that the product 5 ⋅ 12 is a factorization2 of 60 and that
5 and 12 are factors3. Typically, there are many ways to factor a number. For
example,
Recall that a prime number is defined as a natural number with exactly two natural
number factors, 1 and itself. The first ten prime numbers follow:
1. The process of writing a

number or expression as a
product.
Any natural number greater than 1 can be uniquely written as a product of prime
2. Any combination of factors, numbers. This product is called the prime factorization4. The prime factorization
multiplied together, resulting of 60 can be determined by continuing to factor until only a product of prime
in the product.
numbers remains.
expressions that form a
product.
4. The unique factorization of a

natural number written as a
product of primes.
904
Since the prime factorization is unique, it does not matter how we choose to
initially factor the number; the end result will be the same. The prime factorization
of 60 follows:
Recall that the greatest common factor (GCF)5 of any two natural numbers is the
product of all the common prime factors.
Example 1: Find the GCF of 60 and 140.
Solution: First, determine the prime factorizations of both integers.
The product of the common prime factors is 22 ⋅ 5; hence the

GCF(60, 140) = 22 ⋅ 5 = 20. To see that it is the greatest common factor, we can
write the following:
5. The product of all the common

prime factors.
6.1 Introduction to Factoring 905

Answer: The greatest common factor of 60 and 140 is 20.
Example 2: Find the GCF of 504 and 1,080.
Solution: First, determine the prime factorizations of both integers.
The product of the common prime factors is 23 ⋅ 32 . The

GCF(504, 1080) = 23 ⋅ 32 = 72. Note that we multiplied the common prime
factors with the smallest exponent.
The numbers 7 and 15 share no common natural number factor other than 1; we say
that they are relatively prime6.
Answer: The greatest common factor of 504 and 1,080 is 72.
GCF of Monomials
We next consider factorizations of monomials. For example, 6x and x 4 are factors

of 6x 5 because 6x 5 = 6x ⋅ x 4 . Typically, there are many ways to factor a
monomial. Some factorizations of 6x 5 follow:
6. Expressions that share no

common factors other than 1.

Given two or more monomials, it will be useful to find the greatest common
monomial factor of each. For example, consider 6x 5 y 3 z and 8x 2 y 3 z 2 . The variable
part of these two monomials look very much like the prime factorization of natural
numbers and, in fact, can be treated the same way. Steps for finding the GCF of
monomials7 are outlined in the following example.
Example 3: Find the GCF of 6x 5 y 3 z and 8x 2 y 3 z 2 .
Solution:
Step 1: Find the GCF of the coefficients.
In this case, the GCF(6, 8) = 2.
Step 2: Determine the common variable factors with smallest exponents.
In this case, the common variables with the smallest exponents are x 2 , y 3 , and z 1 .
Step 3: The GCF of the monomials is the product of the common variable factors
and the GCF of the coefficients. Therefore,
7. The product of the GCF of the
coefficients and all common
variable factors.

Answer: 2x 2 y 3 z
It is worth pointing out that the GCF in the previous example divides both
expressions evenly:
Furthermore, we can write the following:
The factors 3x 3 and 4z share no common monomial factors other than 1; they are
relatively prime.
Example 4: Determine the GCF of the following expressions: 30x 6 y and 18x 4 y 2 z .
Solution: The prime factorizations of the coefficients are
Thus the GCF(30, 18) = 2 ⋅ 3 = 6. Next, consider the variable part:

The variable factors in common are x 4 and y. The factor z is not in common and we
have
Answer: 6x 4 y
Example 5: Determine the GCF of the following three expressions: 12a5 b2 (a + b) ,

5
60a4 b3 c(a + b) , and 24a2 b7 c3 (a + b) .

3 2
Solution: First, determine the GCF of the coefficients.
The GCF (12, 60, 24) = 22 ⋅ 3 = 12. Next, determine the common factors of the
variable part:
The variable factors in common are a2 , b2 , and (a + b) . Therefore,

2

Answer: 12a2 b2 (a + b) . Note that the variable c is not common to all three
2
expressions and thus is not included in the GCF.
Try this! Determine the GCF of the following: 60x 4 y 3 (x + 2y) ,

7
45x 2 y 5 (x + 2y) , and 30x 7 y 7 (x + 2y) .

4 3
Answer: 15x 2 y 3 (x + 2y)

3
Video Solution

Factoring out the GCF
We have seen that application of the distributive property is the key to multiplying
polynomials. The process of factoring a polynomial8 involves using the
distributive property in reverse to write each polynomial as a product of
polynomial factors.
To demonstrate this idea, we multiply and factor side by side. Factoring utilizes the
GCF of the terms.
8. The process of rewriting a

polynomial as a product of
polynomial factors.

polynomial 6x 5 + 8x 2 as a product of the two factors 2x 2 and (3x 3 + 4). Note

In the previous example, we see that the distributive property allows us to write the
that in this case, 2x 2 is the GCF of the terms of the polynomial:
Factoring out the GCF9 involves rewriting a polynomial as a product where a factor
is the GCF of all of its terms:
The steps for factoring out the GCF of a polynomial10 are outlined in the following
example.
Example 6: Factor out the GCF: 7x 4 + 21x 3 − 14x 2 .
Solution:
Step 1: Identify the GCF of all the terms. In this case, the GCF(7, 21, 14) = 7, and the
common variable factor with the smallest exponent is x 2 . The GCF of the
polynomial is 7x 2 .
Step 2: Determine the terms of the missing factor by dividing each term of the
original expression by the GCF. (This step is usually performed mentally.)
polynomial as a product using
the GCF of all of its terms.
10. The greatest common factor of

all the terms of the polynomial.

Step 3: Apply the distributive property (in reverse) using the terms found in the
previous step.
Step 4: As a check, multiply using the distributive property to verify that the
product equals the original expression. (This step is optional and can be performed
mentally.)
Answer: 7x 2 (x 2 + 3x − 2)
Example 7: Factor out the GCF: 48a − 16b + 4c.
Solution: There are no variable factors in common and the GCF(48, 16, 4) = 4.
Answer: 4 (12a − 4b + c)

Example 8: Factor out the GCF: 25x 3 + 15x 2 + 5x.
Solution: The GCF(25, 15, 5) = 5, and the common variable factor with smallest
exponents is x 1 . The GCF of all the terms is 5x .
Answer: 5x (5x 2 + 3x + 1)
If the GCF is the same as one of the terms, then, after the GCF is factored out, a
constant term 1 will remain. In the previous example, we can see that 5x 5x
= 1. The
importance of remembering the constant term becomes clear when performing the
check using the distributive property:
The constant term 1 allows us to obtain the same original expression after we
distribute.
Example 9: Factor out the GCF: 15x 6 y 4 + 10x 5 y 3 z 2 − 20xy 6 z 3.
Solution: The GCF(10, 15, 20) = 5, and the common variables with smallest
exponent are x 1 and y 3 . Therefore, the GCF of the terms is 5xy 3 . The first term
does not have a variable factor of z and thus cannot be a part of the greatest
common factor. If we divide each term by 5xy 3 , we obtain

and can write
Answer: 5xy 3 (3x 5 y + 2x 4 z 2 − 4y 3 z 3 )
Example 10: Factor out the GCF: 24a6 b2 c5 + 8a7 b5 c.
Solution: The GCF(24, 8) = 8, and the variable factors with smallest exponents are
a6 , b2 , and c. Therefore, the GCF of all the terms is 8a6 b2 c.
Answer: 8a6 b2 c (3c4 + ab3 )
Of course, not all polynomials with integer coefficients can be factored as a product
of polynomials with integer coefficients other than 1 and itself. If this is the case,
then we say that it is a prime polynomial11.
11. A polynomial with integer

coefficients that cannot be
factored as a product of
polynomials with integer
coefficients other than 1 and Example 11: Factor: 3x − 5 .
itself.

Solution: Prime: there are no polynomial factors other than 1 and itself.
Answer: Prime
Try this! Factor out the GCF: 16x 4 y 3 − 8x 2 y 5 − 4x 2 y.
Answer: 4x 2 y (4x 2 y 2 − 2y 4 − 1)
Video Solution

Factor by Grouping
In this section, we outline a technique for factoring polynomials with four terms.
First, review some preliminary examples where the terms have a common binomial
factor.
Example 12: Factor: 5x (x − 3) + 2 (x − 3).
Solution: This expression is a binomial with terms 5x (x − 3) and 2 (x − 3). In this

case, (x − 3) is a common factor. Begin by factoring this common factor out:
To determine the terms of the remaining factor, divide each term by (x − 3):
This step is typically performed mentally. We have

Answer: (x − 3) (5x + 2)
Recall that 1 is always a common factor. If the GCF is the same as a term, then the
factor 1 remains after we factor out that GCF.
Example 13: Factor: 3x (4x + 1) − (4x + 1).
Solution: Rewrite the second term −(4x + 1) as −1(4x + 1) and then factor out
the common binomial factor (4x + 1).
Answer: (4x + 1) (3x − 1)
Remember that the goal for this section is to develop a technique that enables us to
factor polynomials with four terms into a product of binomials. The intermediate
step of this process looks like the previous two examples. For example, we wish to
factor

Begin by grouping the first two terms and the last two terms. Then factor out the
GCF of each grouping:
In this form, it is a binomial with a common binomial factor, (x − 3).
The steps that follow outline a technique for factoring four-term polynomials called
factor by grouping12.
Example 14: Factor: 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 3x + 6.
Solution: Group terms in such a way as to obtain a binomial with common factors.
Step 1: Group the first two and last two terms and then factor out the GCF of each.
The GCF of the first two terms is 2x 2 , and the GCF of the second two terms is 3.
12. A technique for factoring

polynomials with four terms.

Step 2: At this point, the polynomial is a binomial. Factor out any factors common
to both terms. Here (x + 2) is a common factor.
Step 3: Optional check: multiply to verify that we obtain the original expression.
Answer: (x + 2) (2x 2 + 3)
Example 15: Factor: 2a3 − 3a2 + 2a − 3.
Solution: The GCF of the first two terms is a2 and the GCF of the second two terms
is 1.

Answer: (2a − 3) (a2 + 1). The check is left to the reader.
Example 16: Factor: 6x 4 − 24x 3 − 5x + 20.
Solution: The GCF for the first group is 6x 3 . We have to choose 5 or −5 to factor out
of the second group.
Factoring out a +5 does not result in a common binomial factor. If we choose to

factor out −5, then we obtain a common binomial factor and can proceed. Note that
when factoring out a negative number, we change the signs of the factored terms.

Answer: (x − 4) (6x 3 − 5). The check is left to the reader.
Tip
The sign of the leading coefficient in the second grouping usually indicates
whether or not to factor out a negative factor. If that coefficient is positive,
factor out a positive factor. If it is negative, factor out a negative factor.
When all the terms of a polynomial have a GCF other than 1, it is a best practice to
factor that out before factoring by grouping.
Example 17: Factor: 3y 4 + 9y 2 − 6y 3 − 18y.
Solution: Here we notice that the greatest common factor of all the terms is 3y .
Begin by factoring out the GCF and then factor the result by grouping.

Answer: 3y (y 2 + 3) (y − 2)
Sometimes we must first rearrange the terms in order to obtain a common factor.
Example 18: Factor: ab − 2a2 b + a3 − 2b3.
Solution: Simply factoring the GCF out of the first group and last group does not
yield a common binomial factor.
We must rearrange the terms, searching for a grouping that produces a common
factor. In this example, we have a workable grouping if we switch the terms a3 and
ab.

Answer: (a − 2b) (a2 + b)
Not all factorable four-term polynomials can be factored with this technique. For
example,
This four-term polynomial cannot be grouped in any way as to produce a common

binomial factor. Despite this, the polynomial is not prime and can be written as a
product of polynomials. It can be factored as follows:
Factoring such polynomials is something that we will learn to do as we move

further along in our study of algebra. For now, we will limit our attempt to factor
four-term polynomials to using the factor by grouping technique.
Try this! Factor: x 3 − x 2 y − xy + y 2 .
Answer: (x − y) (x 2 − y)
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• To find the greatest common factor (GCF) of any collection of natural

numbers, first find the prime factorization of each. The GCF is the
product of all the common prime factors.
• The GCF of two or more monomials is the product of the GCF of the
coefficients and the common variable factors with the smallest power.
• If the terms of a polynomial have a greatest common factor, then factor
out that GCF using the distributive property. Divide each term of the
polynomial by the GCF to determine the terms of the remaining factor.
• Some four-term polynomials can be factored by grouping the first two
terms and the last two terms. Factor out the GCF of each group and then
factor out the common binomial factor.
• When factoring by grouping, you sometimes have to rearrange the
terms to find a common binomial factor. After factoring out the GCF, the
remaining binomial factors must be the same for the technique to work.
• Not all polynomials can be factored as the product of polynomials with
integer coefficients. In this case, we call it a prime polynomial.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: GCF of Natural Numbers
Give the prime factorization of each number and determine the GCF.
1. 18, 24
2. 45, 75
3. 72, 60
4. 168, 175
5. 144, 245
6. 15, 50, 60
7. 14, 63, 70
8. 12, 48, 125
9. 60, 72, 900
10. 252, 336, 360
Part B: GCF of Variable Expressions
Determine the GCF of all the terms.
11. 15x, 30
12. 14x, 21
13. 45x 4 , 8x 3
14. 36x 5 , 35y 2
15. 6x, 27x, 36x

16. 12x 3 , 4x 2 , 6x
17. 12x 2 y, 60xy 3

2
18. 7ab , 2a2 b, 3a3 b 3
2
19. 6a2 b , 18a3 b 2 , 9ab 2
20. 15x (x + 2) , 9 (x + 2)
21. 20x (2x − 1) , 16 (2x − 1)
22. 20x 3 (x + y) , 10x 5 (x + y)

5 2
Part C: Factoring out the GCF
Given the GCF, determine the missing factor.
23. 25x 2 + 10x = 5x ( ? )
24. 12y 5 + 7y 2 = y 2 ( ? )
25. 22x 4 − 121x 2 + 11x = 11x ( ? )
26. 30y 3 − 45y 2 − 3y = 3y ( ? )
27. 36a5 b
7
− 60a6 b 5 = 12a5 b 5 ( ? )
28. 24x 2 y + 48xy 2 − 12xy = 12xy ( ? )
Factor out the GCF.
29. 4x −8
30. 27x −9
31. 3x − 18

32. 5x − 10
33. 25x − 16
34. 72x − 35
35. 15x 2 + 30x
36. 14a2 − 7a
37. 30a5 − 10a2
38. 8x 4 − 16x 2
39. 5x 6 + x3
40. 3x 7 − 9x 5
41. 18a2 + 30a − 6
42. 24a2 − 36a − 12
43. 27x 3 − 6x 2 + 3x
44. 8x 3 − 12x 2 + 2x
45. 9x 4 + 18x 3 − 3x 2
46. 12y 4 − 16y 3 + 20y 2
47. 7x 5 − 21x 3 − 14x 2 + 28x
48. 36y 10 + 12y 8 − 18y 4 − 6y 3
49. 12x 5 y 2 − 8x 3 y
4 3
50. 125a8 b c − 25a2 b 3 c3

51. 6x 4 y 3 − 4x 3 y 2 + 8x 2 y
52. 15x 4 y 2 − 30x 3 y 3 + 15x 2 y 4
53. 81x 7 y 6 z 2 − 18x 2 y 8 z 4 + 9x 2 y 5 z 2
54. 4x 5 y 4 z 9 + 26x 5 y 3 z 4 − 14x 6 y 8 z 5
55. 2x (x − 3) + 5 (x − 3)
56. 3x (2x + 1) − 4 (2x + 1)
57. 5x (5x + 2) − (5x + 2)
58. 2x (3x + 4) + (3x + 4)
59. x 2 (4x − 7) − 5 (4x − 7)
60. (x + 6) − 3x 2 (x + 6)
61. (a + b) − 3a(a + b)
2 2
62. (ab + 2) + 3ab(ab + 2)

3 3
63. 7x(x + 7) 5 + 14x 2 (x + 7) 5
64. 36x 5 (3x + 2) 4 − 12x 3 (3x + 2) 4
Are the following factored correctly? Check by multiplying.
65. 4x 2 − 16x = 4x (x − 4)
66. 3a3 − 3a = 3a (a2 )
67. 3x 3 − 5x 6 = x 3 (3 − x 2 )

68. 5x 3 − 10x 4 + 15x 5 = 5x 3 (1 − 2x + 3x 2 )
69. x 3 − x 2 + x = x (x 2 − x)
70. 12x 4 y 3 − 16x 5 y 2 + 8x 6 y 7 = 4x 4 y 2 (3y − 4x + 2x 2 y 5 )
Use polynomial long division to show that the given factor divides the polynomial
evenly.
71. Show that (x − 1) is a factor of (2x 3 − 5x 2 + 4x − 1) .
72. Show that (x + 3) is a factor of (3x 3 + 7x 2 − 4x + 6) .
73. Show that (3x − 2) is a factor of (3x 3 + 4x 2 − 7x + 2) .
74. Show that (2x + 1) is a factor of (2x 3 − 5x 2 + x + 2) .
75. The height in feet of an object tossed into the air is given by the function
h (t) = −16t 2 + 32t, where t is the time in seconds after it is tossed.
Write the function in factored form.
76. The height in feet of an object dropped from a 16‑foot ladder is given by
the function h (t) = −16t 2 + 16 , where t is the time in seconds after it
is tossed. Write the function in factored form.
77. The surface area of a cylinder is given by the formula

SA = 2πr2 + 2πrh , where r represents the radius of the base and h is
the height of the cylinder. Express this formula in factored form.
78. The surface area of a cone is given by the formula SA = πr2 + πrs,
where r represents the radius of the base and s represents the slant height.
Express this formula in factored form.

Part D: Factor by Grouping
Factor by grouping.
79. x 2 − 10x + 2x − 20
80. x 2 − 6x − 3x + 18
81. x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x + 4
82. x 3 − 3x 2 + 5x − 15
83. x 3 + 7x 2 − 2x − 14
84. 2x 3 + 2x 2 − x − 1
85. x 3 − 5x 2 + 4x − 20
86. 6x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 1
87. 9x 3 − 6x 2 − 3x + 2
88. 2x 4 − x 3 − 6x + 3
89. x 5 + x 3 + 2x 2 + 2
90. 6x 5 − 4x 3 − 9x 2 + 6
91. 3a3 b + 3ab 2 + 2a2 + 2b
92. 2a3 + 2ab 3 − 3a2 b − 3b 4

93. 2a3 − a2 b 2 − 2ab + b 3
94. a4 − 3a3 b 2 + ab 2 − 3b 4
4
95. 3a2 b − 6b 3 − a2 b + 2
96. 3x 3 + 2y 3 + x 3 y 3 + 6
97. −3x 3 − 5y 3 + x 3 y 3 + 15
98. 2x 3 y 3 + 2 − y 3 − 4x 3
99. 3x 2 − y 3 + xy 2 − 3xy
100. 2x 2 + y 3 − 2xy − xy 2
Factor out the GCF first and then factor by grouping.
101. 5x 2 − 35x − 15x + 105
102. 12x 2 − 30x − 12x + 30
103. 2x 3 + 6x 2 − 10x − 30
104. 6x 3 − 3x 2 − 42x + 21
105. 4x 4 + 4x 3 − 12x 2 − 12x
106. −9x 4 + 6x 3 − 45x 2 + 30x
107. −12x 5 + 4x 4 + 6x 3 − 2x 2
108. 24x 5 − 36x 4 + 8x 3 − 12x 2

2
109. 24a3 b − 60a3 b + 40ab 2 − 100ab
2
110. a4 b − 2a3 b 3 + a2 b 3 − 2ab 4

111. Research the Euclidean algorithm for finding the GCF of two natural
numbers. Give an example that illustrates the steps.
112. Research and discuss the contributions of Euclid of Alexandria.
113. Explain what factoring is and give an example.
114. Is 5x(x + 2) − 3(x + 2) fully factored? Explain.
115. Make up a factoring problem of your own and provide the answer. Post
the problem and the solution on the discussion board.

ANSWERS
1: 18 = 2 ⋅ 3 2 , 24 = 2 3 ⋅ 3, GCF = 6
3: 72 = 2 3 ⋅ 3 2, 60 = 2 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5, GCF = 12
5: 144 = 2 4 ⋅ 3 2 , 245 = 5 ⋅ 7 2 , GCF = 1
7: 14 = 2 ⋅ 7, 63 = 3 2 ⋅ 7, 70 = 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7, GCF = 7
9: 60 = 2 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5, 72 = 2 3 ⋅ 3 2, 900 = 2 2 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 5 2, GCF = 12
11: 15
13: x 3
15: 3x
17: 12xy
2
19: 3ab
21: 4(2x − 1)
23: (5x + 2)
25: (2x 3 − 11x + 1)
27: (3b − 5a)

2
29: 4 (x − 2)
31: 3(x − 6)
33: Prime
35: 15x (x + 2)

37: 10a2 (3a − 1)

3
39: x 3 (5x + 1)
3
41: 6 (3a2 + 5a − 1)
43: 3x (9x 2 − 2x + 1)
45: 3x 2 (3x + 6x − 1)
2
(x − 3x − 2x + 4)
4 2
47: 7x
49: 4x 3 y (3x 2 y − 2)
51: 2x 2 y (3x 2 y 2 − 2xy + 4)
53: 9x 2 y 5 z 2 (9x y − 2y z + 1)
5 3 2
55: (x − 3)(2x + 5)
57: (5x + 2)(5x − 1)
59: (4x − 7)(x 2 − 5)
61: (a + b)2 (1 − 3a)
63: 7x(x + 7) 5 (1 + 2x)
65: Yes
67: No
69: No
75: h(t) = −16t(t − 2)

77: SA = 2πr (r + h)
79: (x − 10) (x + 2)
81: (x + 2) (x 2 + 2)
83: (x + 7) (x 2 − 2)
85: (x − 5) (x 2 + 4)
87: (3x − 2) (3x 2 − 1)
89: (x 2 + 1) (x 3 + 2)
91: (a2 + b) (3ab + 2)
93: (a2 − b) (2a − b 2 )
95: (3b − 1) (a2 b − 2)

3
97: (x 3 − 5) (y 3 − 3)
99: (x − y) (3x + y 2 )
101: 5 (x − 7) (x − 3)
103: 2 (x + 3) (x 2 − 5)
105: 4x (x + 1) (x 2 − 3)
107: −2x 2 (3x − 1) (2x 2 − 1)
109: 4ab (3a2 + 5) (2b − 5)

6.2 Factoring Trinomials of the Form x^2 + bx + c
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Factor trinomials of the form x 2 + bx + c.

2. Factor trinomials using the AC method.
Factoring Trinomials of the Form x^2 + bx + c
Some trinomials of the form x 2 + bx + c can be factored as a product of binomials.

For example,
We can verify this factorization by multiplying:
Factoring trinomials requires that we work the distributive process in reverse.

Notice that the product of the first terms of each binomial is equal to the first term
of the trinomial.
The middle term of the trinomial, 7x, is the sum of the products of the outer and
inner terms of the binomials:
935
And the product of the last terms of each binomial is equal to the last term of the
trinomial.
This can be visually interpreted as follows:
If a trinomial of this type factors, then these relationships will be true:
This gives us
13. Describes the method of In short, if the leading coefficient of a factorable trinomial is one, then the factors
factoring a trinomial by of the last term must add up to the coefficient of the middle term. This observation
systematically checking factors is the key to factoring trinomials using the technique known as trial and error13
to see if their product is the
(or guess and check14). The steps are outlined in the following example.
original trinomial.
14. Used when referring to the

trial and error method for
factoring trinomials.
6.2 Factoring Trinomials of the Form x^2 + bx + c 936

Example 1: Factor: x 2 + 7x + 12.
Solution: Note that the polynomial to be factored has three terms; it is a trinomial
with a leading coefficient of 1. Use trial and error to factor as follows:
Step 1: Write two sets of blank parentheses. If a trinomial of this form factors, then
it will factor into two linear binomial factors.
Step 2: Write the factors of the first term in the first space of each set of
parentheses. In this case, factor x 2 = x ⋅ x .
Step 3: Determine the factors of the last term whose sum equals the coefficient of
the middle term. To do this, list all of the factorizations of 12 and search for factors
whose sum equals the coefficient of the middle term, 7.
Choose 12 = 3 ⋅ 4 because 3 + 4 = 7.
Step 4: Write in the last term of each binomial using the factors determined in the
previous step.
Step 5: Check by multiplying the two binomials.

Answer: (x + 3) (x + 4)
Since multiplication is commutative, the order of the factors does not matter.
If the last term of the trinomial is positive, then either both of the constant factors
must be negative or both must be positive. Therefore, when looking at the list of
factorizations of the last term, we are searching for sums that are equal to the
coefficient of the middle term.
Example 2: Factor: x 2 − 9x + 20.
Solution: First, factor x 2 = x ⋅ x .
Next, determine which factors of 20 add up to −9:

In this case, choose −4 and −5 because (−4) (−5) = +20and −4 + (−5) = −9.
Check.
Answer: (x − 4) (x − 5)
If the last term of the trinomial is negative, then one of its factors must be negative.
In this case, search the list of factorizations of the last term for differences that
equal the coefficient of the middle term.
Example 3: Factor: x 2 − 4x − 12.
Solution: Begin by factoring the first term x 2 = x ⋅ x .
The factors of 12 are listed below. In this example, we are looking for factors whose
difference is −4.

obtained if we add 2 + (−6).

Here choose the factors 2 and −6 because the coefficient of the middle term, −4, is
Multiply to check.
Answer: (x + 2) (x − 6)
Often our first guess will not produce a correct factorization. This process may
require repeated trials. For this reason, the check is very important and is not
optional.
Example 4: Factor: x 2 + 5x − 6.
Solution: The first term of this trinomial x 2 factors as x ⋅ x .
Consider the factors of 6:

Suppose we choose the factors 2 and 3 because 2 + 3 = 5, the coefficient of the middle
term. Then we have the following incorrect factorization:
When we multiply to check, we find the error.
In this case, the middle term is correct but the last term is not. Since the last term
in the original expression is negative, we need to choose factors that are opposite in
sign. Therefore, we must try again. This time we choose the factors −1 and 6 because
−1 + 6 = 5.
Now the check shows that this factorization is correct.
Answer: (x − 1) (x + 6)
If we choose the factors wisely, then we can reduce much of the guesswork in this
process. However, if a guess is not correct, do not get discouraged; just try a
different set of factors.

Example 5: Factor: x 2 + 3x + 20.
Solution:
Here there are no factors of 20 whose sum is 3. Therefore, the original trinomial
cannot be factored as a product of two binomials. This trinomial is prime.
Answer: Prime
Try this! Factor: x 2 − 13x − 30.
Answer: (x + 2) (x − 15)
Video Solution
The techniques described can also be used to factor trinomials with more than one
variable.
Example 6: Factor: x 2 − 14xy − 72y 2 .
Solution: The first term x 2 factors as x ⋅ x .

Next, look for factors of the coefficient of the last term, 72, whose sum is −14.
Therefore, the coefficient of the last term can be factored −72 = 4 (−18), where
4y (−18y) and try the following factorization:

4 + (−18) = −14. Because the last term has a variable factor of y 2 , factor 72y 2 as
Multiply to check.
Visually, we have the following:

Answer: (x + 4y) (x − 18y)
Try this! Factor: x 2 y 2 + 9xy − 10 .
Answer: (xy − 1) (xy + 10)
Video Solution

Factoring Using the AC Method
An alternate technique for factoring trinomials, called the AC method15, makes use
of the grouping method for factoring four-term polynomials. If a trinomial in the
form ax 2 + bx + c can be factored, then the middle term, bx, can be replaced with
two terms with coefficients whose sum is b and product ac. This substitution results
in an equivalent expression with four terms that can be factored by grouping. The
steps are outlined in the following example.
Example 7: Factor using the AC method: x 2 − x − 30.
15. Method for factoring Solution: In this example a = 1, b = −1, and c = −30.
trinomials by replacing the
middle term with two terms
that allow us to factor the Step 1: Determine the product ac.
resulting four-term polynomial
by grouping.

Step 2: Find factors of ac whose sum equals the coefficient of the middle term, b.
We can see that the sum of the factors 5 and −6 is equal to the coefficient of the
middle term, −1.
Step 3: Use the factors as coefficients for the terms that replace the middle term.
Here −x = −6x + 5x . Write
Step 4: Factor the equivalent expression by grouping.
Answer: (x − 6) (x + 5)
Notice that the AC method is consistent with the trial and error method. Both
methods require that b = m + n, where c = mn. In the example above,

−30 = (−6) (5)and −1 = (−6) + 5. The only difference between the

methods, when the leading coefficient is 1, is in the process used to obtain the final
factorization.
Example 8: Factor: y 2 − 14x + 48.
Solution: Here ac = 48 and we search for factors whose sum is −14.
Therefore, −14x = −6x − 8x . Substitute the new terms and factor by grouping.
Answer: (x − 6) (x − 8). The check is left to the reader.
At this point, it is recommended that the reader stop and factor as many trinomials
of the form x 2 + bx + c as time allows before moving on to the next section.
Factoring trinomials is one of the more important skills that we learn in this course
and should be mastered.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Factor a trinomial by systematically guessing what factors give two

binomials whose product is the original trinomial.
• If a trinomial of the form x 2 + bx + c factors into the product of two
binomials, then the coefficient of the middle term is the sum of factors
of the last term.
• Not all trinomials can be factored as the product of binomials with
integer coefficients. In this case, we call it a prime trinomial.
• Factoring is one of the more important skills required in algebra. For
this reason, you should practice working as many problems as it takes to
become proficient.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Factoring Trinomials with Leading Coefficient 1
1. x 2 + 5x − 6 = (x + 2) (x + 3)
2. x 2 + 6x + 16 = (x + 8) (x − 2)
3. y 2 + 2y − 8 = (y + 4) (y − 2)
4. y 2 − 10y + 21 = (y − 3) (y − 7)
− 10a + 25 = (a − 5)
2
5. a2
6. a2 + 6a + 9 = (a − 3)2
7. x 2 + 10x − 25 = (x + 5) (x − 5)
8. x 2 + 5x + 14 = (x − 2) (x + 7)
9. y 2 + 50y − 600 = (y + 60) (y − 10)
10. y 2 − 3y + 2 = (y − 2) (y − 1)
Factor.
11. x 2 + 6x + 8
12. x 2 + 4x + 3
13. x 2 + 3x + 2
14. x 2 +x−2

15. x 2 + 3x − 10
16. x 2 − 2x − 35
17. x 2 − 13x + 12
18. x 2 − 15x + 36
19. x 2 − 12x + 36
20. x 2 + 18x + 81
21. x 2 − 2x + 1
22. x 2 − 18x + 81
23. x 2 + 5x + 5
24. x 2 − 4x + 6
25. x 2 − 20x + 91
26. x 2 + 20x + 91
27. x 2 − 2x − 48
28. x 2 + 16x + 48
29. x 2 + 22x + 48
30. x 2 + 22x − 48
31. y 2 + 7y + 12
32. y 2 + 8y − 20
33. y 2 − 16y + 60

34. y 2 − 31y − 32
35. a2 − 11a − 42
36. a2 − 14a − 51
37. a2 + 26a + 25
38. a2 − 22a + 120
39. a2 + 4a − 1
40. a2 − 6a + 2
41. y 2 − 14x + 40
42. y 2 − 4y − 96
43. x 2 − 2xy + y 2
44. x 2 + 2xy + y 2
45. x 2 − 16xy + 15y 2
46. x 2 − 4xy − 32y 2
47. x 2 + 2xy − 15y 2
48. x 2 − 12xy + 32y 2
49. x 2 y 2 − 6xy + 9
50. x 2 y 2 + 25xy − 26
51. a2 + 4ab + 4b 2
52. a2 − 19ab − 20b 2

53. a2 − ab − 12b 2
54. a2 − 10ab − 56b 2

2
55. a2 b − 2ab − 15
2
56. a2 b − 10ab + 24
57. The area of a square is given by the function

A(x) = x 2 − 14x + 49 , where x is measured in meters. Rewrite this
function in factored form.
58. The area of a square is given by the function

A(x) = x 2 + 16x + 64 , where x is measured in meters. Rewrite this
Part B: Factor Using the AC Method
Factor using the AC method.
59. x 2 + 5x − 14
60. x 2 + 2x − 48
61. x 2 − 9x + 8
62. x 2 − 14x + 24
63. x 2 − x − 72
64. x 2 − x − 90
65. y 2 − 8y + 16
66. y 2 + 16y + 64
67. x 2 + 4x + 12

68. x 2 + 5x − 8
69. x 2 + 3xy − 18y 2
70. x 2 − 15xy + 50y 2
71. Create your own trinomial of the form x 2 + bx + c that factors. Share
it along with the solution on the discussion board.
72. Write out your own list of steps for factoring a trinomial of the form
x 2 + bx + c and share your steps on the discussion board.
73. Create a trinomial that does not factor and share it along with an
explanation of why it does not factor.

ANSWERS
1: No
3: Yes
5: Yes
7: No
9: Yes
11: (x + 2) (x + 4)
13: (x + 1) (x + 2)
15: (x − 2) (x + 5)
17: (x − 1) (x − 12)
19: (x − 6)
2
21: (x − 1) 2
23: Prime
25: (x − 7) (x − 13)
27: (x + 6) (x − 8)
29: Prime
31: (y + 3) (y + 4)
33: (y − 6) (y − 10)
35: (a + 3) (a − 14)

37: (a + 1) (a + 25)
39: Prime
41: (y − 10) (y − 4)
43: (x − y)
2
45: (x − 15y) (x − y)
47: (x + 5y) (x − 3y)
49: (xy − 3)
2
51: (a + 2b)
2
53: (a + 3b) (a − 4b)
55: (ab + 3) (ab − 5)
57: A(x) = (x − 7) 2
59: (x + 7) (x − 2)
61: (x − 8) (x − 1)
63: (x − 9) (x + 8)
65: (y − 4)
2
67: Prime
69: (x + 6y) (x − 3y)

6.3 Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax^2 + bx + c
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Factor trinomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c.

2. Factor trinomials with a common factor.
Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax^2 + bx + c
Factoring trinomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c can be challenging because the

middle term is affected by the factors of both a and c. To illustrate this, consider the
following factored trinomial:
We can multiply to verify that this is the correct factorization.
As we have seen before, the product of the first terms of each binomial is equal to
the first term of the trinomial. The middle term of the trinomial is the sum of the
products of the outer and inner terms of the binomials. The product of the last
terms of each binomial is equal to the last term of the trinomial. Visually, we have
the following:
955
In general,
This gives us,
In short, when the leading coefficient of a trinomial is something other than 1,

there will be more to consider when determining the factors using the trial and
obtained. Multiply (2x + 5) (3x + 7) and carefully follow the formation of the
error method. The key lies in the understanding of how the middle term is
middle term.
If we think of the FOIL method for multiplying binomials, then the middle term
results from the sum of the inner product and the outer product. In this case,
14x + 15x = 29x , as illustrated below:
6.3 Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax^2 + bx + c 956

For this reason, we need to look for products of the factors of the first and last
terms whose sum is equal to the coefficient of the middle term. For example, to
factor 6x 2 + 29x + 35, look at the factors of 6 and 35.
The combination that produces the coefficient of the middle term is

2 ⋅ 7 + 3 ⋅ 5 = 14 + 15 = 29. Make sure that the outer terms have coefficients 2
and 7, and that the inner terms have coefficients 5 and 3. Use this information to
factor the trinomial:
Example 1: Factor: 3x 2 + 7x + 2.
Solution: Since the leading coefficient and the last term are both prime, there is
only one way to factor each.
Begin by writing the factors of the first term, 3x 2 , as follows:

The middle and last term are both positive; therefore, the factors of 2 are chosen as
positive numbers. In this case, the only choice is in which grouping to place these
factors.
Determine which grouping is correct by multiplying each expression.
Notice that these products differ only in their middle terms. Also, notice that the
middle term is the sum of the inner and outer product, as illustrated below:
Answer: (x + 2) (3x + 1)

Example 2: Factor: 12x 2 + 38x + 20.
Solution: First, consider the factors of the first and last terms.
We search for products of factors whose sum equals the coefficient of the middle
term, 38. For brevity, the thought process is illustrated starting with the factors 2
and 6. Factoring begins at this point with the first term.
We search for factors of 20 that along with the factors of 12 produce a middle term
of 38x.
Here the last combination produces a middle term of 38x.

Answer: (2x + 5) (6x + 4)
Example 3: Factor: 10x 2 − 23x + 6.
Solution: First, consider the factors of the first and last terms.
We are searching for products of factors whose sum equals the coefficient of the
middle term, −23. Factoring begins at this point with two sets of blank parentheses:
Since the last term is positive and the middle term is negative, we know that both
factors of the last term must be negative. Here we list all possible combinations
with the factors of 10x 2 = 2x ⋅ 5x .
There is no combination that produces a middle term of −23x . We then move on to

the factors of 10x 2 = 10x ⋅ x and list all possible combinations:

And we can write
Answer: (10x − 3) (x − 2). The complete check is left to the reader.
We can reduce much of the guesswork involved in factoring trinomials if we

consider all of the factors of the first and last terms and their products.
Example 4: Factor: 5x 2 + 38x − 16.
Solution: We begin with the factors of 5 and 16.
Since the leading coefficient is prime, we can begin with the following:

We look for products of the factors of 5 and 16 that could possibly add to 38.
Since the last term is negative, we must look for factors with opposite signs. Here
we can see that the products 2 and 40 add up to 38 if they have opposite signs:
Therefore, use −2 and 8 as the factors of 16, making sure that the inner and outer
products are −2x and 40x :
Answer: (x + 8 ) (5x − 2). The complete check is left to the reader.
After lots of practice, the process described in the previous example can be
performed mentally.

Try this! Factor: 12x 2 − 31x − 30.
Answer: (3x − 10) (4x + 3)
Video Solution
When given trinomials with multiple variables, the process is similar.
Example 5: Factor: 9x 2 + 30xy + 25y 2 .
Solution: Search for factors of the first and last terms such that the sum of the
inner and outer products equals the middle term.
Add the following products to obtain the middle term: 3x ⋅ 5y + 3x ⋅ 5y = 30xy .
In this example, we have a perfect square trinomial. Check.

Answer: (3x + 5y)

2
Try this! Factor: 16x 2 − 24xy + 9y 2 .
Answer: (4x − 3y)

2
Video Solution

Factoring Trinomials with Common Factors
It is a good practice to first factor out the GCF, if there is one. Doing this produces a
trinomial factor with smaller coefficients. As we have seen, trinomials with smaller
coefficients require much less effort to factor. This commonly overlooked step is
worth identifying early.
Example 6: Factor: 12x 2 − 27x + 6.
Solution: Begin by factoring out the GCF.
After factoring out 3, the coefficients of the resulting trinomial are smaller and
have fewer factors.
After some thought, we can see that the combination that gives the coefficient of
the middle term is 4 (−2) + 1 (−1) = −8 − 1 = −9.

Check.
The factor 3 is part of the factored form of the original expression; be sure to
include it in the answer.
Answer: 3 (4x − 1) (x − 2)
It is a good practice to consistently work with trinomials where the leading

coefficient is positive.
Example 7: Factor: −x 2 + 2x + 15.
Solution: In this example, the leading coefficient is −1. Before beginning the
factoring process, factor out the −1:
At this point, factor the remaining trinomial as usual, remembering to write the −1
as a factor in your final answer. Because 3 + (−5) = −2, use 3 and 5 as the factors of 15.

Answer: −1 (x + 3) (x − 5). The check is left to the reader.
Example 8: Factor: −60a2 − 5a + 30.
Solution: The GCF of all the terms is 5. However, in this case factor out −5 because
this produces a trinomial factor where the leading coefficient is positive.
Focus on the factors of 12 and 6 that combine to give the middle coefficient, 1.
After much thought, we find that 3 ⋅ 3 − 4 ⋅ 2 = 9 − 8 = 1. Factor the remaining

trinomial.
Answer: −5 (4a + 3) (3a − 2). The check is left to the reader.

Try this! Factor: 24 + 2x − x 2 .
Answer: −1 (x − 6) (x + 4)
Video Solution

Factoring Using the AC Method
In this section, we factor trinomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c using the AC method

described previously.
Example 9: Factor using the AC method: 18x 2 − 21x + 5.
Solution: Here a = 18, b = −21, and c = 5.
Factor 90 and search for factors whose sum is −21.
In this case, the sum of the factors −6 and −15 equals the middle coefficient, −21.
Therefore, −21x = −6x − 15x , and we can write

Factor the equivalent expression by grouping.
Answer: (3x − 1) (6x − 5)
Example 10: Factor using the AC method: 9x 2 − 61x − 14.
Solution: Here a = 9, b = −61, and c = −14.
We factor −126 as follows:
The sum of factors 2 and −63 equals the middle coefficient, −61. Replace −61x with
2x − 63x :

Answer: (x − 7) (9x + 2). The check is left to the reader.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• If a trinomial of the form ax 2 + bx + c factors into the product of

two binomials, then the coefficient of the middle term will be the sum of
certain products of factors of the first and last terms.
• If the trinomial has a greatest common factor, then it is a best practice
to first factor out the GCF before attempting to factor it into a product of
binomials.
• If the leading coefficient of a trinomial is negative, then it is a best
practice to factor that negative factor out before attempting to factor
the trinomial.
• Factoring trinomials of the form ax 2 + bx + c takes lots of practice
and patience. It is extremely important to take the time to become
proficient by working lots of exercises.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Factoring Trinomials
Factor.
1. 3x 2 − 14x − 5
2. 5x 2 + 7x + 2
3. 2x 2 + 5x − 3
4. 2x 2 + 13x − 7
5. 2x 2 + 9x − 5
6. 7x 2 + 20x − 3
7. 7x 2 − 46x − 21
8. 3x 2 +x−2
9. 5x 2 + 34x − 7
10. 5x 2 − 28x − 12
11. 9x 2 − 12x + 4
12. 4x 2 − 20x + 25
13. 49x 2 + 14x + 1
14. 25x 2 − 10x + 1
15. 2x 2 + 7x + 16
16. 6x 2 − 19x − 10

17. 27x 2 + 66x − 16
18. 12x 2 − 88x − 15
19. 12y 2 − 8y + 1
20. 16y 2 − 66y − 27
21. 9x 2 − 12xy + 4y 2
22. 25x 2 + 40x + 16
23. 15x 2 − 26xy + 8y 2
24. 12a2 − 4ab − 5b 2
25. 4x 2 y 2 + 16xy − 9
26. 20x 2 y 2 + 4xy − 7
27. The area of a rectangle is given by the function

A(x) = 3x 2 − 10x + 3 , where x is measured in meters. Rewrite this
28. The area of a rectangle is given by the function

A(x) = 10x 2 − 59x − 6 , where x is measured in meters. Rewrite this
Part B: Factoring Trinomials with Common Factors
Factor.
29. 6x 2 − 20x − 16
30. 45x 2 + 27x − 18
31. 20x 2 − 20x + 5

32. 3x 2 + 39x − 90
33. 16x 2 + 26x − 10
34. 54x 2 − 15x + 6
35. 45x 2 − 45x − 20
36. 90x 2 + 300x + 250
37. 40x 2 − 36xy + 8y 2

2
38. 24a2 b + 18ab − 81
39. 6x 2 y 2 + 46xy + 28
40. 2x 5 + 44x 4 + 144x 3
41. 5x 3 − 65x 2 + 60x

2
42. 15a4 b − 25a3 b − 10a2
43. 6a4 b + 2a3 b 2 − 4a2 b 3

2
44. 20a3 b − 60a2 b 3 + 45ab 4
Factor out −1 and then factor further.
45. −x 2 − 4x + 21
46. −x 2 + x + 12
47. −x 2 + 15x − 56
48. −x 2 + x + 72
49. −y 2 + 10y − 25

50. −y 2 − 16y − 64
51. 36 − 9a − a2
52. 72 − 6a − a2
53. 32 + 4x − x 2
54. 200 + 10x − x 2
Factor out a negative common factor first and then factor further if possible.
55. −8x 2 + 6x + 9
56. −4x 2 + 28x − 49
57. −18x 2 − 6x + 4
58. 2 + 4x − 30x 2
59. 15 + 39x − 18x 2
60. 90 + 45x − 10x 2
61. −2x 2 + 26x + 28
62. −18x 3 − 51x 2 + 9x
63. −3x 2 y 2 + 18xy 2 − 24y 2
64. −16a4 + 16a3 b − 4a2 b 2
65. The height in feet of a projectile launched from a tower is given by the
function h(t) = −16t 2 + 64t + 80 , where t represents the number of
seconds after launch. Rewrite the given function in factored form.

66. The height in feet of a projectile launched from a tower is given by the
function h(t) = −16t 2 + 64t + 192 , where t represents the number of
seconds after launch. Rewrite the given function in factored form.
Part C: Factoring Using the AC Method
Factor using the AC method.
67. 2x 2 + 5x − 7
68. 3x 2 + 7x − 10
69. 4x 2 − 25x + 6
70. 16x 2 − 38x − 5
71. 6x 2 + 23x − 18
72. 8x 2 + 10x − 25
73. 4x 2 + 28x + 40
74. −6x 2 − 3x + 30
75. 12x 2 − 56xy + 60y 2
76. 20x 2 + 80xy + 35y 2
77. Create your own trinomial of the form ax 2 + bx + c that factors.

Share it, along with the solution, on the discussion board.
78. Write out your own list of steps for factoring a trinomial of the form
ax 2 + bx + c and share it on the discussion board.
79. Create a trinomial of the form ax 2 + bx + c that does not factor and
share it along with the reason why it does not factor.

ANSWERS
1: (x − 5) (3x + 1)
3: (x + 3) (2x − 1)
5: (x + 5) (2x − 1)
7: (x − 7) (7x + 3)
9: (x + 7) (5x − 1)
11: (3x − 2) 2
13: (7x + 1) 2
15: Prime
17: (3x + 8) (9x − 2)
19: (6y − 1) (2y − 1)
21: (3x − 2y)

2
23: (3x − 4y) (5x − 2y)
25: (2xy − 1) (2xy + 9)
27: A(x) = (3x − 1)(x − 3)
29: 2 (x − 4) (3x + 2)
31: 5(2x − 1) 2
33: 2 (8x 2 + 13x − 5)

35: 5 (3x − 4) (3x + 1)
37: 4 (5x − 2y) (2x − y)
39: 2 (xy + 7) (3xy + 2)
41: 5x (x − 12) (x − 1)
43: 2a2 b (3a − 2b) (a + b)
45: −1 (x − 3) (x + 7)
47: −1 (x − 7) (x − 8)
49: −1(y − 5)
2
51: −1 (a − 3) (a + 12)
53: −1 (x − 8) (x + 4)
55: − (2x − 3) (4x + 3)
57: −2 (3x − 1) (3x + 2)
59: −3 (2x − 5) (3x + 1)
61: −2 (x − 14) (x + 1)
63: −3y 2 (x − 4) (x − 2)
65: h(t) = −16(t + 1)(t − 5)
67: (x − 1) (2x + 7)
69: (x − 6) (4x − 1)
71: (2x + 9) (3x − 2)

73: 4 (x + 2) (x + 5)
75: 4 (x − 3y) (3x − 5y)

6.4 Factoring Special Binomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Factor binomials that are differences of squares.

2. Factor binomials that are sums and differences of cubes.
Difference of Squares
A binomial is a polynomial with two terms. We begin with our first special binomial
called difference of squares16:
To verify the above formula, multiply:
We use this formula to factor certain special binomials.
Example 1: Factor: x 2 − 16.
Solution:
Step 1: Identify the binomial as difference of squares and determine the square
16. a2 − b = (a + b) (a − b) ,
factors of each term.
2

978
Here we can write
The terms are squares of x and 4. Hence a = x and b = 4.
Step 2: Substitute into the difference of squares formula.
Step 3: Multiply to check. This step is optional.
Answer: (x + 4) (x − 4)
It is worth taking some extra time at this point to review all of the squares of
integers from 1 to 12.
6.4 Factoring Special Binomials 979

Recognizing these perfect square integers helps speed the factoring process.
Example 2: Factor: 9x 2 − 121.
Solution: The subtraction indicates that this is a difference. Furthermore, we

recognize that the terms are squares.
In this case, a = 3x and b = 11. Substitute into the formula for difference of
squares.
Answer: (3x + 11) (3x − 11)
It may be the case that the terms of the binomial have a common factor. If so, it will
be difficult to identify the perfect squares until we first factor out the GCF.

Example 3: Factor: 12y 2 − 75.
Solution: The terms are not perfect squares. However, notice that they do have a
common factor. First, factor out the GCF, 3.
The resulting binomial factor is a difference of squares with a = 2y and b = 5.
Answer: 3 (2y + 5) (2y − 5)
Example 4: Factor: 49x 2 − 100y 2 .
Solution: Here we have a binomial with two variables and recognize that it is a
difference of squares.
Therefore, a = 7x and b = 10y . Substitute into the formula for difference of

squares.
Answer: (7x + 10y) (7x − 10y)

Try this! Factor: 36x 2 − 1.
Answer: (6x + 1) (6x − 1)
Video Solution
Given any real number b, a polynomial of the form x 2 + b2 is prime. Furthermore,

the sum of squares17 a2 + b2 does not have a general factored equivalent. Care
should be taken not to confuse this with a perfect square trinomial:
Therefore,
When the degree of the special binomial is greater than two, we may need to apply
the difference of squares formula multiple times. A polynomial is completely
factored when none of the factors can be factored any further.
Example 5: Factor completely: x 4 − 16.
Solution: First, identify what is being squared:
2
17. a2 + b does not have a
general factored equivalent.

To do this, recall the power rule for exponents, (x m )n = x mn . When exponents are
raised to a power, multiply them. With this in mind, determine that (x 2 ) = x 4
2
and write
Therefore, a = x 2 and b = 4. Substitute into the formula for difference of squares.
At this point, notice that the factor (x 2 − 4) is itself a difference of two squares
and thus can be further factored using a = x and b = 2. The factor (x 2 + 4) is a
sum of squares, which cannot be factored using real numbers.
Answer: (x 2 + 4) (x + 2) (x − 2)
Try this! Factor completely: 81x 4 − 1.
Answer: (9x 2 + 1) (3x + 1) (3x − 1)
Video Solution
18. a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2 ),
algebraic expressions. Sum and Difference of Cubes
19. a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2 ),
Two other special binomials of interest are the sum18 and difference of cubes19:

We can verify these formulas by multiplying:
The process for factoring the sum and difference of cubes is very similar to that for
the difference of squares. We first identify a and b and then substitute into the
appropriate formula. The separate formulas for sum and difference of cubes allow
us to always choose a and b to be positive.
Example 6: Factor: x 3 + 8.
Solution: The plus sign and the fact that the terms are cubes indicate to us that this
is a sum of cubes.
Next, identify what is being cubed.

In this case, a = x and b = 2. Substitute into the sum of cubes formula.
The resulting trinomial is prime and the factoring is complete. We can check this
factorization by multiplying.
Answer: (x + 2) (x 2 − 2x + 4)
It is helpful to review the perfect cubes of integers from 1 to 12. This will aid you in
identifying sums and differences of cubes.

Example 7: Factor: y 3 − 125.
Solution: In this case, we have a difference of cubes.
We can write
Substitute a = y and b = 5 into the formula for difference of cubes.
Answer: (y − 5) (y 2 + 5y + 25)
Always look for common factors when factoring. If the terms of the binomial have a
GCF other than 1, then factor that out first.
Example 8: Factor: 54x 4 + 128x.
Solution: Begin by factoring out the GCF 2x .

The resulting binomial factor is a sum of cubes, where a = 3x and b = 4.
Answer: 2x (3x + 4) (9x 2 − 12x + 16)
Example 9: Factor: x 3 y 3 − 1.
Solution: This binomial is a difference of cubes with two variables. Identify what is
being cubed.
Here a = xy and b = 1. Substitute into the appropriate formula and simplify.
Answer: (xy − 1) (x 2 y 2 + xy + 1)

Try this! Factor: 8x 3 + 343.
Answer: (2x + 7) (4x 2 − 14x + 49)
Video Solution
When factoring, always look for resulting factors to factor further.
Example 10: Factor completely: x 6 − 64.
Solution: When confronted with a binomial that is both a difference of squares and
cubes, as this is, make it a rule to factor using difference of squares first.
Therefore, a = x 3 and b = 8. Substitute into the difference of squares formula.
The resulting two binomial factors are a sum and a difference of cubes. Each can be
factored further.
Therefore, we have

The trinomial factors are prime and the expression is completely factored.
Answer: (x + 2) (x 2 − 2x + 4) (x − 2) (x 2 + 2x + 4)
As an exercise, factor the previous example as a difference of cubes first and then
compare the results. Why do you think we make it a rule to factor using difference
of squares first?
Try this! Factor: x 6 − y 6 .
Answer: (x + y) (x 2 − xy + y 2 ) (x − y) (x 2 + xy + y 2 )
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When factoring special binomials, the first step is to identify it as a sum

or difference. Once we identify the binomial, we then determine the
values of a and b and substitute into the appropriate formula.
• The formulas for all of the special binomials should be memorized. In
addition, to help facilitate the identification of special binomials,
memorize the squares and cubes of integers up to at least 12.
• If a binomial is both a difference of squares and cubes, then first factor it
as a difference of squares.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Difference of Squares
Factor completely.
1. x 2 −9
2. x 2 − 100
3. y 2 − 36
4. y 2 − 144
5. x 2 +4
6. x 2 −5
7. m 2 − 81
8. m 2 − 64
9. 16x 2 −9
10. 25x 2 −4
11. 144x 2 −1
12. 9x 2 − 121
13. 4y 2 − 81
14. 100y 2 − 49
15. 9 − 4x 2
16. 100 − x2

17. 1 − y2
18. 25 − 9y 2
19. −3x 2 + 75
20. −16x 2 + 25
21. 2x 2 − 72
22. 20x 3 − 45x
23. −48x + 27x 3
24. 36x 2 − 100
25. x 2 − y2
26. 25x 2 − 9y 2
27. a2 − 4b 2
2
28. a2 b − 36
29. 4x 2 y 2 −1
30. x 2 y 2 − 25
31. 2a3 − 8ab 2

4
32. 3a3 b − 75ab 2
33. −100xy 3 + 4x 3 y
34. −18x 3 y 3 + 32xy
35. (x + 1) 2 − y 2

− (y − 2)
2
36. x 2
− 3) 2 − (y + 3)
2
37. (x
38. (x 2 + 2) − (x − 1) 2
2
39. (x 2 − 1) − (2x + 3) 2
2
40. x 4 −1
41. x 4 − y4
42. 16x 4 − 81
4
43. a4 b − 16
44. a4 − 16b 4
45. x 8 −1
46. 25x 8 −1
47. a8 − b2
48. a4 −9
49. x 8 − y8
50. 81x 8 −1
51. The height of a projectile dropped from a 64-foot tower is given by the
function h(t) = −16t 2 + 64 , where t represents the time in seconds
after it is dropped. Rewrite this function in factored form. (Hint: Factor out
−16 first.)

52. The height of a projectile dropped from a 36-foot tower is given by the
function h(t) = −16t 2 + 36 , where t represents the time in seconds
after it is dropped. Rewrite this function in factored form.
Part B: Sum and Difference of Cubes
Factor completely.
53. x 3 −1
54. x 3 +1
55. y 3 − 27
56. y 3 −8
57. 8y 3 +1
58. 27y 3 −1
59. 64a3 − 125
60. 8a3 + 27
61. a3 + 216
62. a3 − 125
63. x 3 − 1000
64. 343m 3 −1
65. 512n 3 +1
66. 8x 3 + 343
67. 40y 3 − 135

68. 27y 3 + 729
69. 27y 3 − 64
70. x 3 +3
71. 5x 3 +1
72. 1 − y3
73. 27 − 1,000y 3
74. 343 + 125a3
75. x 3 − y3
76. x 3 + y3
77. x 3 y 3 + 125
78. 8x 3 y 3 − 27
79. 27a3 − 8b 3
80. 16x 3 − 250y 3
81. 128x 3 + 2y 3
82. 54x 3 − 2y 3
83. 3a4 b − 24ab 4

3 3
84. a3 b c −1
85. (x + 1) 3 − 8
− (x − 5)
3
86. 8x 3

87. (x − 2) 3 + (x + 2) 3
+ 3)3 + (b − 3)
3
88. (a
89. x 6 −1
90. x 6 +1
91. 64a6 −1
92. a6 − 81b 6
93. x 6 − y6
94. x 6 + y6
95. If a binomial falls into both categories, difference of squares and

difference of cubes, which would be best to factor it as, and why? Create an
example that illustrates this situation and factor it using both formulas.
96. What can be said about the degrees of the factors of a polynomial? Give
an example.
97. Make up your own difference of squares factoring exercise and provide
the answer. Explain how you solved it.
98. Make up your own sum or difference of cubes factoring exercise and
provide the answer. Explain how you solved it.

ANSWERS
1: (x + 3) (x − 3)
3: (y + 6) (y − 6)
5: Prime
7: (m + 9) (m − 9)
9: (4x + 3) (4x − 3)
11: (12x + 1) (12x − 1)
13: (2y + 9) (2y − 9)
15: (3 + 2x) (3 − 2x)
17: (1 + y) (1 − y)
19: −3 (x + 5) (x − 5)
21: 2 (x + 6) (x − 6)
23: 3x (3x + 4) (3x − 4)
25: (x + y) (x − y)
27: (a + 2b) (a − 2b)
29: (2xy + 1) (2xy − 1)
31: 2a (a + 2b) (a − 2b)
33: 4xy (x + 5y) (x − 5y)

35: (x + 1 + y) (x + 1 − y)
37: (x + y) (x − y − 6)
39: (x 2 + 2x + 2) (x 2 − 2x − 4)
41: (x 2 + y 2 ) (x + y) (x − y)
43: (a2 b + 4) (ab + 2) (ab − 2)

2
45: (x 4 + 1) (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x − 1)
47: (a4 + b) (a4 − b)
49: (x 4 + y 4 ) (x 2 + y 2 ) (x + y) (x − y)
51: h(t) = −16(t + 2)(t − 2)
53: (x − 1) (x 2 + x + 1)
55: (y − 3) (y 2 + 3y + 9)
57: (2y + 1) (4y 2 − 2y + 1)
59: (4a − 5) (16a2 + 20a + 25)
61: (a + 6) (a2 − 6a + 36)
63: (x − 10) (x 2 + 10x + 100)
65: (8n + 1) (64n 2 − 8n + 1)
67: 5 (2y − 3) (4y 2 + 6y + 9)
69: (3y − 4) (9y 2 + 12y + 16)

71: Prime
73: (3 − 10y) (9 + 30y + 100y 2 )
75: (x − y) (x 2 + xy + y 2 )
77: (xy + 5) (x 2 y 2 − 5xy + 25)
79: (3a − 2b) (9a2 + 6ab + 4b 2 )
81: 2 (4x + y) (16x 2 − 4xy + y 2 )
83: 3ab (a − 2b) (a2 + 2ab + 4b 2 )
85: (x − 1) (x 2 + 4x + 7)
87: 2x (x 2 + 12)
89: (x + 1) (x 2 − x + 1) (x − 1) (x 2 + x + 1)
91: (2a + 1) (4a2 − 2a + 1) (2a − 1) (4a2 + 2a + 1)
93: (x + y) (x 2 − xy + y 2 ) (x − y) (x 2 + xy + y 2 )

6.5 General Guidelines for Factoring Polynomials
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Develop a general strategy for factoring polynomials.
General Factoring Strategy
We have learned various techniques for factoring polynomials with up to four

terms. The challenge is to identify the type of polynomial and then decide which
method to apply. The following outlines a general guideline for factoring
polynomials:
1. Check for common factors. If the terms have common factors, then
factor out the greatest common factor (GCF) and look at the resulting
polynomial factors to factor further.
2. Determine the number of terms in the polynomial.
a. Factor four-term polynomials by grouping.
b. Factor trinomials (three terms) using “trial and error” or the AC

method.
c. Factor binomials (two terms) using the following special products:
a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b)
Difference of
squares:
Sum of squares: a2 + b2 no general formula
a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2 )
Difference of
cubes:
Sum of cubes: a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2 )
3. Look for factors that can be factored further.

4. Check by multiplying.
999
Note
• If a binomial is both a difference of squares and a difference of cubes, then

first factor it as difference of squares and then as a sum and difference of
cubes to obtain a more complete factorization.
• Not all polynomials with integer coefficients factor. When this is the case,
we say that the polynomial is prime.
If an expression has a GCF, then factor this out first. Doing so is often overlooked
and typically results in factors that are easier to work with. Also, look for the
resulting factors to factor further; many factoring problems require more than one
step. A polynomial is completely factored when none of the factors can be factored
further.
Example 1: Factor: 6x 4 − 3x 3 − 24x 2 + 12x.
Solution: This four-term polynomial has a GCF of 3x . Factor this out first.
Now factor the resulting four-term polynomial by grouping.
The factor (x 2 − 4) is a difference of squares and can be factored further.
6.5 General Guidelines for Factoring Polynomials 1000

Answer: 3x (2x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 2)
Example 2: Factor: 18x 3 y − 60x 2 y + 50xy .
Solution: This trinomial has a GCF of 2xy . Factor this out first.
the factors 9 = 3 ⋅ 3 and 25 = (−5) ⋅ (−5). These combine to generate the

The trinomial factor can be factored further using the trial and error method. Use
correct coefficient for the middle term: 3 (−5) + 3 (−5) = −15 − 15 = −30.
Check.

Answer: 2xy(3x − 5)
2
Example 3: Factor: 5a3 b4 + 10a2 b3 − 75ab2.
Solution: This trinomial has a GCF of 5ab2. Factor this out first.
The resulting trinomial factor can be factored as follows:
Answer: 5ab2 (ab + 5) (ab − 3)
Try this! Factor: 3x 3 y − 12x 2 y 2 + 12xy 3 .
Answer: 3xy(x − 2y)

2
Video Solution
Example 4: Factor: 16y 4 − 1.

Solution: This binomial does not have a GCF. Therefore, begin factoring by
identifying it as a difference of squares.
Here a = 4y 2 and b = 1. Substitute into the formula for difference of squares.
The factor (4y 2 + 1) is a sum of squares and is prime. However, (4y 2 − 1) is a

difference of squares and can be factored further.
Answer: (4y 2 + 1) (2y + 1) (2y − 1)
Example 5: Factor: x 6 − 64y 6 .
Solution: This binomial is a difference of squares and a difference of cubes. When

this is the case, first factor it as a difference of squares.
We can write

Each factor can be further factored either as a sum or difference of cubes,

respectively.
Therefore,
Answer: (x + 2y) (x 2 − 2xy + 4y 2 ) (x − 2y) (x 2 + 2xy + 4y 2 )
Example 6: Factor: x 2 − (2x − 1)2 .
Solution: First, identify this expression as a difference of squares.
Here use a = x and b = 2x − 1 in the formula for a difference of squares.

Answer: (3x − 1) (−x + 1)
Try this! Factor: x 4 + 2x 3 + 27x + 54.
Answer: (x + 2) (x + 3) (x 2 − 3x + 9)
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Use the polynomial type to determine the method used to factor it.
• It is a best practice to look for and factor out the greatest common factor
(GCF) first. This will facilitate further factoring and simplify the process.
Be sure to include the GCF as a factor in the final answer.
• Look for resulting factors to factor further. It is often the case that
factoring requires more than one step.
• If a binomial can be considered as both a difference of squares and a
difference of cubes, then first factor it as a difference of squares. This
results in a more complete factorization.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Mixed Factoring
Factor completely.
1. 2x 5 y 2 − 12x 4 y 3
2. 18x 5 y 3 − 6x 4 y 5
3. 5x 2 + 20x − 25
4. 4x 2 + 10x − 6
5. 24x 3 − 30x 2 − 9x
6. 30x 3 − 65x 2 + 10x
7. 6x 3 + 27x 2 − 9x
8. 21x 3 + 49x 2 − 28x
9. 5x 3 − 30x 2 − 15x + 90
10. 6x 4 + 24x 3 − 2x 2 − 8x
11. x 4 − 6x 3 + 8x − 48
12. x 4 − 5x 3 + 27x − 135
13. 4x 3 − 4x 2 − 9x + 9
14. 50x 3 + 25x 2 − 32x − 16
15. 2x 3 + 250
16. 3x 5 − 81x 2

17. 2x 5 − 162x 3
18. 4x 4 − 36
19. x 4 + 16
20. x 3 +9
21. 72 − 2x 2
22. 5x 4 − 25x 2
23. 7x 3 − 14x
24. 36x 2 − 12x + 1
25. 25x 2 + 10x + 1
26. 250x 3 + 200x 4 + 40x 5
27. −7x 2 + 19x + 6
28. −8x 4 + 40x 3 − 50x 2
29. a4 − 16
30. 16a4 − 81b 4
31. y 5 + y4 − y − 1
32. 4y 5 + 2y 4 − 4y 2 − 2y
33. 3x 8 − 192x 2
34. 4x 7 + 4x
35. 4x 2 − 19xy + 12y 2

36. 16x 2 − 66xy − 27y 2
37. 5x 5 − 3x 4 − 5x 3 + 3x 2
2
38. 4a2 b − 4a2 − 9b 2 + 9
39. 15a2 − 4ab − 4b 2
40. 6a2 − 25ab + 4b 2
41. 6x 2 + 5xy + 6y 2
42. 9x 2 + 5xy − 12y 2
43. (3x − 1) 2 − 64
44. (x − 5) − (x − 2) 2
2
45. (x + 1) 3 + 8
46. (x − 4) 3 − 27
47. (2x − 1) 2 − (2x − 1) − 12
48. (x − 4) 2 + 5 (x − 4) + 6
49. a3 b − 10a2 b 2 + 25ab 3

2
50. 2a3 b − 12a2 b + 18a
2
51. 15a2 b − 57ab − 12
52. −60x 3 + 4x 2 + 24x
53. −24x 5 + 78x 3 − 54x

54. 9y 6 − 13y 4 + 4y 2
55. 36 − 15a − 6a2

2
56. 60ab + 5a2 b 2 − 5a3 b 2
57. x 4 −1
58. 16x 4 − 64
59. x 8 −1
60. 81x 8 −1
61. x 16 −1
62. x 12 −1
63. 54x 6 − 216x 4 − 2x 3 + 8x
64. 4a4 − 4a2 b 2 − a2 + b 2
65. 32y 3 + 32y 2 − 18y − 18
66. 3a3 + a2 b − 12ab − 4b 2
67. 18m 2 − 21mn − 9n 2
68. 5m 2 n 2 + 10mn − 15
69. The volume of a certain rectangular solid is given by the function

V(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x . Write the function in its factored form.
70. The volume of a certain right circular cylinder is given by the function
V(x) = 4πx 3 − 4πx 2 + πx . Write the function in its factored form.
Part B: Discussion Board

71. First, factor the trinomial 24x 2 − 28x − 40 . Then factor out the
GCF. Discuss the significance of factoring out the GCF first. Do you obtain the
same result?
72. Discuss a plan for factoring polynomial expressions on an exam. What

should you be looking for and what should you be expecting?

ANSWERS
1: 2x 4 y 2 (x − 6y)
3: 5 (x − 1) (x + 5)
5: 3x (2x − 3) (4x + 1)
7: 3x (2x 2 + 9x − 3)
9: 5 (x − 6) (x 2 − 3)
11: (x − 6) (x + 2) (x 2 − 2x + 4)
13: (x − 1) (2x − 3) (2x + 3)
15: 2 (x + 5) (x 2 − 5x + 25)
17: 2x 3 (x + 9) (x − 9)
19: Prime
21: 2 (6 + x) (6 − x)
23: 7x (x 2 − 2)
25: (5x + 1)
2
27: − (x − 3) (7x + 2)
29: (a2 + 4) (a + 2) (a − 2)
31: (y 2 + 1) (y − 1) (y + 1)
2
33: 3x 2 (x + 2) (x 2 − 2x + 4) (x − 2) (x 2 + 2x + 4)

35: (x − 4y) (4x − 3y)
37: x 2 (5x − 3) (x + 1) (x − 1)
39: (3a − 2b) (5a + 2b)
41: Prime
43: 3 (x − 3) (3x + 7)
45: (x + 3) (x 2 + 3)
47: 2 (x + 1) (2x − 5)
49: ab(a − 5b)2
51: 3 (ab − 4) (5ab + 1)
53: −6x (x + 1) (x − 1) (2x + 3) (2x − 3)
55: −3 (a + 4) (2a − 3)
57: (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x − 1)
59: (x 4 + 1) (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x − 1)
61: (x 8 + 1) (x 4 + 1) (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x − 1)
63: 2x (x + 2) (x − 2) (3x − 1) (9x 2 + 3x + 1)
65: 2 (y + 1) (4y − 3) (4y + 3)
67: 3 (2m − 3n) (3m + n)
69: V(x) = x (x + 1) (x − 3)

6.6 Solving Equations by Factoring
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Verify solutions to quadratic equations.

2. Solve quadratic equations by factoring.
3. Determine a quadratic equation with given solutions.
4. Solve polynomial equations by factoring.
Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Learning how to solve equations is one of our main goals in algebra. Up to this
point, we have solved linear equations, which are of degree 1. In this section, we
will learn a technique that can be used to solve certain equations of degree 2. A
quadratic equation20 is any equation that can be written in the standard form21
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. The following are some examples of
quadratic equations, all of which will be solved in this section:
A solution of a quadratic equation in standard form is called a root22. Quadratic

equations can have two real solutions, one real solution, or no real solution. The
20. A polynomial equation with quadratic equation x 2 + x − 6 = 0 has two solutions, namely, x = −3 and x = 2 .
one variable of degree 2.
21. A quadratic equation written in

the form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Example 1: Verify that x = −3 and x = 2 are solutions to x 2 + x − 6 = 0.
22. A solution to a quadratic
equation in standard form.
1013
Solution: To verify solutions, substitute the values for x and then simplify to see if a
true statement results.
Answer: Both values produce true statements. Therefore, they are both solutions to
the equation.
Our goal is to develop algebraic techniques for finding solutions to quadratic

equations. The first technique requires the zero-product property23:
In other words, if any product is equal to zero, then one or both of the variable
factors must be equal to zero.
Example 2: Solve: (x − 8) (x + 7) = 0.
Solution: This equation consists of a product of two quantities equal to zero;

therefore, the zero-product property applies. One or both of the quantities must be
zero.
23. Any product is equal to zero if

and only if at least one of the
factors is zero.
6.6 Solving Equations by Factoring 1014

To verify that these are solutions, substitute them for the variable x.
Notice that each solution produces a factor that is equal to zero.
Answer: The solutions are 8 and −7.
The quadratic equation may not be given in its factored form.
Example 3: Solve: x 2 + 3x − 10 = 0.
Solution: The goal is to produce a product that is equal to zero. We can do that by
factoring the trinomial on the left side of the equation.

Next, apply the zero-product property and set each factor equal to zero.
This leaves us with two linear equations, each of which can be solved for x .
Check the solutions by substituting into the original equation to verify that we
obtain true statements.
Answer: The solutions are −5 and 2.
Using the zero-product property after factoring a quadratic equation in standard

form is the key to this technique. However, the quadratic equation may not be
given in standard form, and so there may be some preliminary steps before
factoring. The steps required to solve by factoring24 are outlined in the following
example.
24. The process of solving an

equation that is equal to zero
by factoring it and then setting
each variable factor equal to
Example 4: Solve: 2x 2 + 10x + 20 = −3x + 5.
zero.

Solution:
Step 1: Express the quadratic equation in standard form. For the zero-product
property to apply, the quadratic expression must be equal to zero. Use the addition
and subtraction properties of equality to combine opposite-side like terms and
obtain zero on one side of the equation.
In this example, add 3x to and subtract 5 from both sides.
Step 2: Factor the quadratic expression.
Step 3: Apply the zero-product property and set each variable factor equal to zero.
Step 4: Solve the resulting linear equations.

Answer: The solutions are −5 and −3/2. The check is optional.
Example 5: Solve: 9x 2 + 1 = 6x.
Solution: Write this in standard form by subtracting 6x from both sides.
Once the equation is in standard form, equal to zero, factor.
This is a perfect square trinomial. Hence setting each factor equal to zero results in
a repeated solution.
A repeated solution is called a double root25 and does not have to be written twice.
Answer: The solution is 1/3.
Try this! Solve: x 2 − 3x = 28.
25. A root that is repeated twice. Answer: x = −4 or x = 7

Video Solution
Not all quadratic equations in standard form are trinomials. We often encounter
binomials.
Example 6: Solve: x 2 − 9 = 0.
Solution: This quadratic equation is given in standard form, where the binomial on
the left side is a difference of squares. Factor as follows:
Next, set each factor equal to zero and solve.
Answer: The solutions are 3 and −3, which can also be written as ±3.
Example 7: Solve: 5x 2 = 15x.
Solution: By inspection, we see that x = 0 is a solution to this quadratic equation.

Since dividing by zero is undefined, we want to avoid dividing both sides of this
equation by x. In general, we wish to avoid dividing both sides of any equation by a
variable or an expression containing a variable. We will discuss this in more detail
later. The first step is to rewrite this equation in standard form with zero on one
side.

Next, factor the expression. Notice that the binomial on the left has a GCF of 5x .
Set each factor to equal to zero.
Answer: The solutions are 0 and 3.
Example 8: Solve: (2x + 1) (x + 5) = 11.
Solution: This quadratic equation appears to be factored; hence it might be

tempting to set each factor equal to 11. However, this would lead to incorrect
results. We must rewrite the equation in standard form, equal to zero, so that we
can apply the zero-product property.

Once it is in standard form, we can factor and then set each factor equal to zero.
Answer: The solutions are 1/2 and −6.
Example 9: Solve: 15x 2 − 25x + 10 = 0.
Solution: We begin by factoring out the GCF of 5. Then factor the resulting
trinomial.
Next, we set each variable factor equal to zero and solve for x.
Notice that the factor 5 is not a variable factor and thus did not contribute to the
solution set.
Answer: The solutions are 2/3 and 1.

Example 10: Factor: 52 x 2 + 76 x − 13 = .0
Solution: Clear the fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD,
which is equal to 6.
At this point, we have an equivalent equation with integer coefficients and can
factor as usual. Begin with the factors of 15 and 2.
The coefficient of the middle term is 7 = 3 (−1) + 5 (2). Factor as follows:
Set each factor equal to zero and solve.

Answer: The solutions are −2/3 and 1/5.
Try this! Solve: 4x 2 − 9 = 0.
Answer: −3/2 and 3/2
Video Solution

Finding Equations with Given Solutions
The zero-product property states,
And, in fact, the converse is true as well:
When this is the case, we can write the following:
We use this property to find equations, given the solutions. To do this, the steps for
solving by factoring are performed in reverse.
Example 11: Find a quadratic equation with solutions −7 and 2.

Solution: Given the solutions, we can determine two linear factors.
The product of these linear factors is equal to zero when x = −7 or x = 2 :
Multiply the binomials and present the equation in standard form.
Answer: x 2 + 5x − 14 = 0. We may check our equation by substituting the given

answers to see if we obtain a true statement. Also, the equation found above is not
unique and so the check becomes essential when our equation looks different from
someone else’s. This is left as an exercise.
Example 12: Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients, given solutions 1/
2 and −3/4.
Solution: To avoid fractional coefficients, we first clear the fractions by multiplying

both sides by the denominator.

Apply the zero-product property and multiply.
Answer: 8x 2 + 2x − 3 = 0
Try this! Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients, given solutions −1 and
2/3.
Answer: 3x 2 + x − 2 = 0
Video Solution

Solving Polynomial Equations by Factoring
The zero-product property is true for any number of factors that make up an
equation. If an expression is equal to zero and can be factored into linear factors,
then we will be able to set each factor equal to zero and solve for each equation.
Example 13: Solve: 3x (x − 5) (3x − 2) = 0.

Solution: Set each variable factor equal to zero and solve.
Answer: The solutions are 0, 5, and 2/3.
Of course, we cannot expect the equation to be given in factored form.
Example 14: Solve: x 3 + 2x 2 − 9x − 18 = 0.
Solution: Begin by factoring the left side completely.
Set each factor equal to zero and solve.
Answer: The solutions are −2, −3, and 3.

Notice that the degree of the polynomial is 3 and we obtained three solutions. In
general, for any polynomial equation with one variable of degree n, the
fundamental theorem of algebra26 guarantees n real solutions or fewer. We have
seen that many polynomials do not factor. This does not imply that equations
involving these unfactorable polynomials do not have real solutions. In fact, many
polynomial equations that do not factor do have real solutions. We will learn how to
solve these types of equations as we continue in our study of algebra.
Try this! Solve: −10x 3 − 18x 2 + 4x = 0.
Answer: −2, 0, 1/5
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• A polynomial can have at most a number of solutions equal to its degree.

Therefore, quadratic equations can have up to two real solutions.
• To solve a quadratic equation, first write it in standard form. Once the
quadratic expression is equal to zero, factor it and then set each variable
factor equal to zero. The solutions to the resulting linear equations are
the solutions to the quadratic equation.
• Not all quadratic equations can be solved by factoring. We will learn how
to solve quadratic equations that do not factor later in the course.
• To find a quadratic equation with given solutions, perform the process
of solving by factoring in reverse.
• If any polynomial is factored into linear factors and is set to zero, then
we can determine the solutions by setting each variable factor equal to
zero and solving each individually.
26. Guarantees that there will be

as many (or fewer) real
solutions to a polynomial with
one variable as its degree.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solutions to Quadratic Equations
Determine whether the given set of values are solutions to the quadratic equation.
1. {−3, 5}; x 2 − 2x − 15 = 0
2. {7, −1}; x 2 − 6x − 7 = 0
1
3. {−1/2, 1/2}; x 2 − =0
4
9
4. {−3/4, 3/4}; x 2 − =0
16
5. {−3, 2}; x 2 −x−6=0
6. {−5, 1}; x 2 − 4x − 5 = 0
Solve.
7. (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
8. (x + 5) (x + 1) = 0
9. (2x − 1) (x − 4) = 0
10. (3x + 1) (3x − 1) = 0
11. (x − 2) 2 = 0
12. (5x + 3) = 0
2
13. 7x (x − 5) = 0
14. −2x (2x − 3) = 0
15. (x − 12 ) (x + 34 ) = 0

16. (x + 58 ) (x − 38 ) = 0
17. ( x + 12 ) ( 16 x − 23 ) = 0
1
4
18. ( x − 3) = 0
1 2
5
19. −5 (x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
20. 12 (x − 7) (x − 6) = 0
21. (x + 5) (x − 1) = 0
22. (x + 5) (x + 1) = 0
23. −2 (3x − 2) (2x + 5) = 0
24. 5(7x − 8) 2 = 0
Part B: Solve by Factoring
Solve.
25. x 2 −x−6=0
26. x 2 + 3x − 10 = 0
27. y 2 − 10y + 24 = 0
28. y 2 + 6y − 27 = 0
29. x 2 − 14x + 40 = 0
30. x 2 + 14x + 49 = 0
31. x 2 − 10x + 25 = 0

32. 3x 2 + 2x − 1 = 0
33. 5x 2 − 9x − 2 = 0
34. 7y 2 + 20y − 3 = 0
35. 9x 2 − 42x + 49 = 0
36. 25x 2 + 30x + 9 = 0
37. 2y 2 +y−3=0
38. 7x 2 − 11x − 6 = 0
39. 2x 2 = −15x + 8
40. 8x − 5 = 3x 2
41. x 2 − 36 = 0
42. x 2 − 100 = 0
43. 4x 2 − 81 = 0
44. 49x 2 −4=0
45. x 2 =4
46. 9y 2 =1
47. 16y 2 = 25
48. 36x 2 = 25
49. 4x 2 − 36 = 0
50. 2x 2 − 18 = 0

51. 10x 2 + 20x = 0
52. −3x 2 + 6x = 0
53. 25x 2 = 50x
54. x 2 =0
55. (x + 1) 2 − 25 = 0
56. (x − 2) 2 − 36 = 0
57. 5x (x − 4) = −4 + x
58. (x − 1) (x − 10) = 22
59. (x − 3) (x − 5) = 24
60. −2x (x − 9) = x + 21
61. (x + 1) (6x + 1) = 2x
62. (x − 2) (x + 12) = 15x
63. (x + 1) (x + 2) = 2(x + 16)
64. (x − 9) (2x + 3) = 2(x − 9)
Clear the fractions by first multiplying both sides by the LCD and then solve.
65. 1
15
x2 + 1
3
x+ 2
5
=0
66. 1
14
x2 − 1
2
x+ 3
7
=0
67. 3
2
x2 − 2
3
=0
68. 5
2
x2 − 1
10
=0

69. 3
14
x2 − 21
2
=0
70. 1
3
x2 − 1
5
x=0
71. 1
32
x2 − 1
2
x+2=0
72. 1
3
x2 + 5
6
x− 1
2
=0
73. The sides of a square measure x + 3 units. If the area is 25 square units,
then find x.
74. The height of a triangle is 2 units more than its base. If the area is 40
square units, then find the length of the base.
75. The sides of a right triangle have measures that are consecutive integers.
Find the length of the hypotenuse. (Hint: The hypotenuse is the longest side.
Apply the Pythagorean theorem.)
76. The profit in dollars generated by producing and selling x custom lamps
is given by the function P(x) = −10x 2 + 800x − 12000 . How many
lamps must be sold and produced to break even? (Hint: We break even when
the profit is zero.)
Assuming dry road conditions and average reaction times, the safe stopping
distance, d in feet of an average car is given using the formula d = 201 v 2 + v,
where v represents the speed of the car in miles per hour. For each problem below,
given the stopping distance, determine the safe speed.
77. 15 feet
78. 40 feet
79. 75 feet
80. 120 feet
Part C: Finding Equations with Given Solutions
Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients, given the following solutions.

81. −3, 1
82. −5, 3
83. −10, −3
84. −7, −4
85. −1, 0
86. 0, 3/5
87. −2, 2
88. −1/2, 1/2
89. −4, 1/3
90. 2/3, 2/5
91. −1/5, −2/3
92. −3/2, 3/4
93. 3, double root
94. −5, double root
Part D: Solving Polynomial Equations
Solve.
95. 7x (x + 5) (x − 9) = 0
96. (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) = 0
97. −2x (x − 10) (x − 1) = 0
98. 8x(x − 4) 2 = 0

99. 4 (x + 3) (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0
100. −2 (3x + 1) (3x − 1) (x − 1) (x + 1) = 0
101. x 3 − x 2 − 2x = 0
102. 2x 3 + 5x 2 − 3x = 0
103. 5x 3 − 15x 2 + 10x = 0
104. −2x 3 + 2x 2 + 12x = 0
105. 3x 3 − 27x = 0
106. −2x 3 + 8x = 0
107. x 3 + x2 − x − 1 = 0
108. x 3 + 2x 2 − 16x − 32 = 0
109. 8x 3 − 4x 2 − 18x + 9 = 0
110. 12x 3 = 27x
111. Explain why 2 (x

+ 5) (x − 5) = 0 has two solutions and
2x (x + 5) (x − 5) = 0 has three solutions.
112. Make up your own quadratic equation and post it and the solutions on
the discussion board.
113. Explain, in your own words, how to solve a quadratic equation in

standard form.

ANSWERS
1: Yes
3: Yes
5: No
7: −2, 3
9: 1/2, 4
11: 2
13: 0, 5
15: −3/4, 1/2
17: −2, 4
19: −1, 2
21: −5, 1
23: −5/2, 2/3
25: −2, 3
27: 4, 6
29: 4, 10
31: 5
33: −1/5, 2
35: 7/3
37: −3/2, 1

39: −8, ½
41: −6, 6
43: −9/2, 9/2
45: −2, 2
47: −5/4, 5/4
49: −3, 3
51: −2, 0
53: 0, 2
55: −6, 4
57: 1/5, 4
59: −1, 9
61: −1/2, −1/3
63: −6, 5
65: −3, −2
67: −2/3, 2/3
69: ±7
71: 8
73: 2 units
75: 5 units
77: 10 miles per hour

81: x 2 + 2x − 3 = 0
83: x 2 + 13x + 30 = 0
85: x 2 +x=0
87: x 2 −4=0
89: 3x 2 + 11x − 4 = 0
91: 15x 2 + 13x + 2 = 0
93: x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0
95: −5, 0, 9
97: 0, 1, 10
99: −3, −1, 2
101: −1, 0, 2
103: 0, 1, 2
105: −3, 0, 3
107: −1, 1
109: −3/2, 1/2, 3/2

6.7 Applications Involving Quadratic Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Set up and solve applications involving relationships between real

numbers.
2. Set up and solve applications involving geometric relationships
involving area and the Pythagorean theorem.
3. Set up and solve applications involving the height of projectiles.
Number Problems
The algebraic setups of the word problems that we have previously encountered led
to linear equations. When we translate the applications to algebraic setups in this
section, the setups lead to quadratic equations. Just as before, we want to avoid
relying on the “guess and check” method for solving applications. Using algebra to
solve problems simplifies the process and is more reliable.
Example 1: One integer is 4 less than twice another integer, and their product is 96.
Set up an algebraic equation and solve it to find the two integers.
Solution: First, identify the variables. Avoid two variables by using the relationship
between the two unknowns.
The key phrase, “their product is 96,” indicates that we should multiply and set the
product equal to 96.
1038
Once we have the problem translated to a mathematical equation, we then solve. In

this case, we can solve by factoring. The first step is to write the equation in
standard form:
Next, factor completely and set each variable factor equal to zero.
The problem calls for two integers whose product is +96. The product of two
positive numbers is positive and the product of two negative numbers is positive.
Hence we can have two sets of solutions. Use 2n − 4 to determine the other
integers.
Answer: Two sets of integers solve this problem: {8, 12} and {−6, −16}. Notice that
(8)(12) = 96 and (−6)(−16) = 96; our solutions check out.
6.7 Applications Involving Quadratic Equations 1039

With quadratic equations, we often obtain two solutions for the identified
unknown. Although it may be the case that both are solutions to the equation, they
may not be solutions to the problem. If a solution does not solve the original
application, then we disregard it.
Recall that consecutive odd and even integers both are separated by two units.
Example 2: The product of two consecutive positive odd integers is 99. Find the
integers.
Solution:
The key phase, “product…is 99,” indicates that we should multiply and set the
Rewrite the quadratic equation in standard form and solve by factoring.

Because the problem asks for positive integers, n = 9 is the only solution. Back
substitute to determine the next odd integer.
Answer: The consecutive positive odd integers are 9 and 11.
Example 3: Given two consecutive positive odd integers, the product of the larger
and twice the smaller is equal to 70. Find the integers.
Solution:
The key phrase “twice the smaller” can be translated to 2n. The phrase “product…is
70” indicates that we should multiply this by the larger odd integer and set the

Solve by factoring.
Because the problem asks for positive integers, n = 5 is the only solution. Back
substitute into n + 2 to determine the next odd integer.
Answer: The positive odd integers are 5 and 7.
Try this! The product of two consecutive positive even integers is 168. Find the
integers.
Answer: The positive even integers are 12 and 14.
Video Solution

Geometry Problems
When working with geometry problems, it is helpful to draw a picture. Below are
some area formulas that you are expected to know. (Recall that π ≈ 3.14.)

Area of a rectangle27: A = l ⋅ w
Area of a square28: A = s2
Area of a triangle29: A= 1
2
bh
Area of a circle30: A = πr2
Example 4: The floor of a rectangular room has a length that is 4 feet more than
twice its width. If the total area of the floor is 240 square feet, then find the
dimensions of the floor.
27. A = lw , where l represents
the length and w represents Solution:
the width.
28. A = s2 , where s represents

the length of each side.
29. A = 12 bh, where b

represents the length of the
base and h represents the
height.
30. A = πr2 , where r represents

the radius and the constant
π ≈ 3.14.

Use the formula A = l ⋅ w and the fact that the area is 240 square feet to set up an
algebraic equation.
Solve by factoring.
At this point we have two possibilities for the width of the rectangle. However,
since a negative width is not defined, choose the positive solution, w = 10 . Back
substitute to find the length.
Answer: The width is 10 feet and the length is 24 feet.

It is important to include the correct units in the final presentation of the answer.
In the previous example, it would not make much sense to say the width is 10. Make
sure to indicate that the width is 10 feet.
Example 5: The height of a triangle is 3 inches less than twice the length of its base.
If the total area of the triangle is 7 square inches, then find the lengths of the base
and height.
Solution:
Use the formula A = 1

2
bh and the fact that the area is 7 square inches to set up an
algebraic equation.
To avoid fractional coefficients, multiply both sides by 2 and then rewrite the
quadratic equation in standard form.

Factor and then set each factor equal to zero.
In this case, disregard the negative answer; the length of the base is 7/2 inches long.
Use 2b − 3 to determine the height of the triangle.
Answer: The base measures 7/2 = 3½ inches and the height is 4 inches.
Try this! The base of a triangle is 5 units less than twice the height. If the area is 75
square units, then what is the length of the base and height?
Answer: The height is 10 units and the base is 15 units.

Video Solution
Recall that a right triangle is a triangle where one of the angles measures 90°. The
side opposite of the right angle is the longest side of the triangle and is called the
hypotenuse. The Pythagorean theorem31 gives us a relationship between the legs
and hypotenuse of any right triangle, where a and b are the lengths of the legs and c
is the length of the hypotenuse:
Given certain relationships, we use this theorem when determining the lengths of
sides of right triangles.
Example 6: The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 inches. If the short leg is 2

inches less than the long leg, then find the lengths of the legs.
Solution:
31. Given any right triangle with

Given that the hypotenuse measures 10 inches, substitute its value into the
legs measuring a and b units
and hypotenuse measuring c Pythagorean theorem and obtain a quadratic equation in terms of x.
units, then a2 + b2 = c2.

Multiply and rewrite the equation in standard form.
Once it is in standard form, factor and set each variable factor equal to zero.
Because lengths cannot be negative, disregard the negative answer. In this case, the
long leg measures 8 inches. Use x − 2 to determine the length of the short leg.
Answer: The short leg measures 6 inches and the long leg measures 8 inches.

Example 7: One leg of a right triangle measures 3 centimeters. The hypotenuse of

the right triangle measures 3 centimeters less than twice the length of the unknown
leg. Find the measure of all the sides of the triangle.
Solution:
To set up an algebraic equation, we use the Pythagorean theorem.
Solve by factoring.
Disregard 0. The length of the unknown leg is 4 centimeters. Use 2x − 3 to

determine the length of the hypotenuse.

Answer: The sides of the triangle measure 3 centimeters, 4 centimeters, and 5

centimeters.
Try this! The hypotenuse of a right triangle measures 13 units. If one leg is 2 units
more than twice that of the other, then find the length of each leg.
Answer: The two legs measure 5 units and 12 units.
Video Solution

Projectile Problems
The height of an object launched upward, ignoring the effects of air resistance, can
be modeled with the following formula:
Using function notation, which is more appropriate, we have
With this formula, the height can be calculated at any given time t after the object is
launched. The coefficients represent the following:

1
− g The letter g represents the acceleration due to gravity.
2
v0 “v-naught” represents the initial velocity of the object.
“s-naught” represents the initial height from which the

s0
object is launched.
We consider only problems where the acceleration due to gravity can be expressed
as g = 32 ft/sec2. Therefore, in this section time will be measured in seconds and
the height in feet. Certainly though, the formula is valid using units other than
these.
Example 8: The height of a projectile launched upward at a speed of 32 feet/second

from a height of 128 feet is given by the function h (t) = −16t2 + 32t + 128. How
long does it take to hit the ground?
Solution: An inefficient method for finding the time to hit the ground is to simply
start guessing at times and evaluating. To do this, construct a chart.

Use the table to sketch the height of the projectile over time.
We see that at 4 seconds, the projectile hits the ground. Note that when this occurs,
the height is equal to 0. Now we need to solve this problem algebraically. To find
the solution algebraically, use the fact that the height is 0 when the object hits the
ground. We need to find the time, t, when h (t) = 0.

Solve the equation by factoring.
Now set each variable factor to zero.
As expected, the projectile hits the ground at t = 4 seconds. Disregard −2 as a

solution because negative time is not defined.
Answer: The projectile hits the ground 4 seconds after it is launched.
Example 9: The height of a certain book dropped from the top of a 144-foot
building is given by h (t) = −16t2 + 144. How long does it take to hit the ground?
Solution: Find the time t when the height h (t) = 0.
Answer: The book takes 3 seconds to hit the ground when dropped from the top of a
144-foot building.

Try this! The height of a projectile, shot straight up into the air from the ground, is
given by h (t) = −16t2 + 80t. How long does it take to come back down to the
ground?
Answer: It will take 5 seconds to come back down to the ground.
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• It is best to translate a word problem to a mathematical setup and then

solve using algebra. Avoid using the “guess and check” method of
solving applications in this section.
• When solving applications, check that your solutions make sense in the
context of the question. For example, if you wish to find the length of
the base of a triangle, then you would disregard any negative solutions.
• It is important to identify each variable and state in a sentence what
each variable represents. It is often helpful to draw a picture.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Number Problems
1. One integer is five times another. If the product of the two integers is 80,
2. One integer is four times another. If the product of the two integers is 36,
3. An integer is one more than four times another. If the product of the two
integers is 39, then find the integers.
4. An integer is 3 more than another. If the product of the two integers is

130, then find the integers.
5. An integer is 2 less than twice another. If the product of the two integers
is 220, then find the integers.
6. An integer is 3 more than twice another. If the product of the two integers
7. One integer is 2 units more than another. If the product of the two
integers is equal to five times the larger, then find the two integers.
8. A positive integer is 1 less than twice another. If the product of the two
integers is equal to fifteen times the smaller, then find the two integers.
9. A positive integer is 3 more than twice a smaller positive integer. If the

product of the two integers is equal to six times the larger, then find the
integers.
10. One positive integer is 3 more than another. If the product of the two
integers is equal to twelve times the smaller, then find the integers.
equal to 2 more than four times their sum, then find the integers.

equal to 2 more than twice their sum, then find the integers.
13. The product of two consecutive positive even integers is 120. Find the
integers.
14. The product of two consecutive positive odd integers is 99. Find the
integers.
15. The product of two consecutive positive integers is 110. Find the
integers.
16. The product of two consecutive positive integers is 42. Find the integers.
17. The product of two consecutive positive odd integers is equal to 1 less
than seven times the sum of the integers. Find the integers.
18. The product of two consecutive positive even integers is equal to 22 more
than eleven times the sum of the integers. Find the integers.
19. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive odd integers is 74.
Find the integers.
20. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive even integers is 100.
Find the integers.
21. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive integers is 265. Find
the integers.
22. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive integers is 181. Find
the integers.
23. For two consecutive positive odd integers, the product of twice the
smaller and the larger is 126. Find the integers.
24. For two consecutive positive even integers, the product of the smaller
and twice the larger is 160. Find the integers.
Part B: Geometry Problems

25. The width of a rectangle is 7 feet less than its length. If the area of the
rectangle is 170 square feet, then find the length and width.
26. The length of a rectangle is 2 feet more than its width. If the area of the
rectangle is 48 square feet, then find the length and width.
27. The width of a rectangle is 3 units less than the length. If the area is 70
square units, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
28. The width of a rectangle measures one half of the length. If the area is 72
square feet, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
29. The length of a rectangle is twice that of its width. If the area of the
rectangle is 72 square inches, then find the length and width.
30. The length of a rectangle is three times that of its width. If the area of
the rectangle is 75 square centimeters, then find the length and width.
31. The length of a rectangle is 2 inches more than its width. The area of the
rectangle is equal to 12 inches more than three times the perimeter. Find
the length and width of the rectangle.
32. The length of a rectangle is 3 meters more than twice the width. The area
of the rectangle is equal to 10 meters less than three times the perimeter.
Find the length and width of the rectangle.
33. A uniform border is to be placed around an 8-inch-by-10-inch picture. If

the total area including the border must be 224 square inches, then how
wide should the border be?
34. A 2-foot brick border is constructed around a square cement slab. If the
total area, including the border, is 121 square feet, then what are the
dimensions of the slab?

35. The area of a picture frame including a 2-inch wide border is 99 square
inches. If the width of the inner area is 2 inches more than its length, then
find the dimensions of the inner area.
36. A box can be made by cutting out the corners and folding up the edges of
a square sheet of cardboard. A template for a cardboard box with a height of
2 inches is given. What is the length of each side of the cardboard sheet if
the volume of the box is to be 50 cubic inches?
37. The height of a triangle is 3 inches more than the length of its base. If the
area of the triangle is 44 square inches, then find the length of its base and
height.
38. The height of a triangle is 4 units less than the length of the base. If the
area of the triangle is 48 square units, then find the length of its base and
height.
39. The base of a triangle is twice that of its height. If the area is 36 square
centimeters, then find the length of its base and height.
40. The height of a triangle is three times the length of its base. If the area is
73½ square feet, then find the length of the base and height.
41. The height of a triangle is 1 unit more than the length of its base. If the
area is 5 units more than four times the height, then find the length of the
base and height of the triangle.
42. The base of a triangle is 4 times that of its height. If the area is 3 units
more than five times the height, then find the length of the base and height
of the triangle.

43. The diagonal of a rectangle measures 5 inches. If the length is 1 inch

more than its width, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
44. The diagonal of a rectangle measures 10 inches. If the width is 2 inches

less than the length, then find the area of the rectangle.
45. If the sides of a right triangle are consecutive even integers, then what
are their measures?
46. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 13 units. If the length of one leg is 2
more than twice the other, then what are their lengths?
47. The shortest leg of a right triangle measures 9 centimeters and the
hypotenuse measures 3 centimeters more than the longer leg. Find the
48. The long leg of a right triangle measures 24 centimeters and the
hypotenuse measures 4 centimeters more three times the short leg. Find the
Part C: Projectile Problems
49. The height of a projectile launched upward at a speed of 32 feet/second

from a height of 48 feet is given by the function
h (t) = −16t 2 + 32t + 48. How long will it take the projectile to hit
the ground?

h (t) = −16t 2 + 16t + 192 . How long will it take to hit the ground?
51. An object launched upward at a speed of 64 feet/second from a height of

80 feet. How long will it take the projectile to hit the ground?
52. An object launched upward at a speed of 128 feet/second from a height

of 144 feet. How long will it take the projectile to hit the ground?

53. The height of an object dropped from the top of a 64-foot building is
given by h (t) = −16t 2 + 64. How long will it take the object to hit the
ground?
54. The height of an object dropped from an airplane at 1,600 feet is given by
h (t) = −16t 2 + 1,600 . How long will it take the object to hit the
ground?
55. An object is dropped from a ladder at a height of 16 feet. How long will it
take to hit the ground?
56. An object is dropped from a 144-foot building. How long will it take to hit
the ground?
57. The height of a projectile, shot straight up into the air from the ground
at 128 feet/second, is given by h (t) = −16t 2 + 128t . How long does it
take to come back down to the ground?
58. A baseball, tossed up into the air from the ground at 32 feet/second, is
given by h (t) = −16t 2 + 32t. How long does it take to come back down
to the ground?
59. How long will it take a baseball thrown into the air at 48 feet/second to
come back down to the ground?
60. A football is kicked up into the air at 80 feet/second. Calculate how long
will it hang in the air.
61. Research and discuss the life of Pythagoras.
62. If the sides of a square are doubled, then by what factor is the area
increased? Why?
63. Design your own geometry problem involving the area of a rectangle or
triangle. Post the question and a complete solution on the discussion board.
64. Write down your strategy for setting up and solving word problems.
Share your strategy on the discussion board.

ANSWERS
1: {4, 20} or {−4, −20}
3: 3, 13
5: {11, 20} or {−22, −10}
7: {5, 7} or {−2, 0}
9: 6, 15
11: {7, 10} or {−2, 1}
13: 10, 12
15: 10, 11
17: 13, 15
19: 5, 7
21: 11, 12
23: 7, 9
25: Length: 17 feet; width: 10 feet
27: Length: 10 units; width: 7 units
29: Length: 12 inches; width: 6 inches
33: 3 inches
35: 5 inches by 7 inches
37: Base: 8 inches; height: 11 inches

39: Base: 12 centimeters; height: 6 centimeters
41: Base: 9 units; height: 10 units
43: 3 inches by 4 inches
45: 6 units, 8 units, and 10 units
47: 15 centimeters
49: 3 seconds
51: 5 seconds
53: 2 seconds
55: 1 second
57: 8 seconds
59: 3 seconds

1063
REVIEW EXERCISES
Introduction to Factoring
Determine the missing factor.
1. 12x 3 − 24x 2 + 4x = 4x ( ? )
2. 10y 4 − 35y 3 − 5y 2 = 5y 2 ( ? )
3. −18a5 + 9a4 − 27a3 = −9a3 ( ? )
4. −21x 2 y + 7xy 2 − 49xy = −7xy ( ? )
Factor out the GCF.
5. 22x 2 + 11x
6. 15y 4 − 5y 3
7. 18a3 − 12a2 + 30a
8. 12a5 + 20a3 − 4a
9. 9x 3 y 2 − 18x 2 y 2 + 27xy 2
5
10. 16a5 b c − 8a3 b 6 + 24a3 b 2 c
Factor by grouping.
11. x 2 + 2x − 5x − 10
12. 2x 2 − 2x − 3x + 3
13. x 3 + 5x 2 − 3x − 15
14. x 3 − 6x 2 + x − 6

15. x 3 − x 2 y − 2x + 2y
2
16. a2 b − 2a3 + 6ab − 3b 3
Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c
17. x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 6) (x − 1)
18. x 2 + 3x − 10 = (x + 5) (x − 2)
19. x 2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3) 2
20. x 2 − 6x − 9 = (x − 3) (x + 3)
Factor.
21. x 2 − 13x − 14
22. x 2 + 13x + 12
23. y 2 + 10y + 25
24. y 2 − 20y + 100
25. a2 − 8a − 48
2
26. b − 18b + 45
27. x 2 + 2x + 24
28. x 2 − 10x − 16
29. a2 + ab − 2b 2
2
30. a2 b + 5ab − 50

Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax2 + bx + c
Factor.
31. 5x 2 − 27x − 18
32. 3x 2 − 14x + 8
33. 4x 2 − 28x + 49
34. 9x 2 + 48x + 64
35. 6x 2 − 29x − 9
36. 8x 2 + 6x + 9
37. 60x 2 − 65x + 15
38. 16x 2 − 40x + 16
39. 6x 3 − 10x 2 y + 4xy 2
40. 10x 3 y − 82x 2 y 2 + 16xy 3
41. −y 2 + 9y + 36
42. −a2 − 7a + 98
43. 16 + 142x − 18x 2
44. 45 − 132x − 60x 2
Factoring Special Binomials
Factor completely.
45. x 2 − 81

46. 25x 2 − 36
47. 4x 2 − 49
48. 81x 2 −1
49. x 2 − 64y 2
50. 100x 2 y 2 −1
51. 16x 4 − y4
52. x 4 − 81y 4
53. 8x 3 − 125
54. 27 + y3
55. 54x 4 y − 2xy 4
56. 3x 4 y 2 + 24xy 5
57. 64x 6 − y6
58. x 6 +1
General Guidelines for Factoring Polynomials
Factor completely.
59. 8x 3 − 4x 2 + 20x
4
60. 50a4 b c + 5a3 b 5 c2
61. x 3 − 12x 2 − x + 12
62. a3 − 2a2 − 3ab + 6b

63. −y 2 − 15y + 16
64. x 2 − 18x + 72
65. 144x 2 − 25
66. 3x 4 − 48
67. 20x 2 − 41x − 9
68. 24x 2 + 14x − 20
69. a4 b − 343ab 4
70. 32x 7 y 2 + 4xy 8
Solving Equations by Factoring
Solve.
71. (x − 9) (x + 10) = 0
72. −3x (x + 8) = 0
73. 6 (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0
74. (x − 12) (x + 4) (2x − 1) = 0
75. x 2 + 5x − 50 = 0
76. 3x 2 − 13x + 4 = 0
77. 3x 2 − 12 = 0
78. 16x 2 −9=0
79. (x − 2) (x + 6) = 20

80. 2 (x − 2) (x + 3) = 7x − 9
81. 5
2
x2 − 20
3
x=0
82. 2
3
x2 − 5
12
x+ 1
24
=0
Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients, given the following solutions.
83. −7, 6
84. 0, −10
85. −1/9, 1/2
86. ±3/2
Applications Involving Quadratic Equations
Set up an algebraic equation and then solve the following.
88. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive even integers is 52.
Find the integers.
89. A 20-foot ladder leaning against a wall reaches a height that is 4 feet
more than the distance from the wall to the base of the ladder. How high
does the ladder reach?
given by h(t) = −16t 2 + 196 , where t represents the number of
seconds after the object has been released. How long will it take the object to
hit the ground?
91. The length of a rectangle is 1 centimeter less than three times the width.
If the area is 70 square centimeters, then find the dimensions of the
rectangle.

92. The base of a triangle is 4 centimeters more than twice the height. If the
area of the triangle is 80 square centimeters, then find the measure of the
base.

SAMPLE EXAM
2
1. Determine the GCF of the terms 25a2 b c , 50ab 4 , and 35a3 b 3 c2 .
24x 2 y 3 − 16x 3 y 2 + 8x 2 y = 8x 2 y ( )
2. Determine the missing factor:
? .
Factor.
3. 12x 5 − 15x 4 + 3x 2
4. x 3 − 4x 2 − 2x + 8
5. x 2 − 7x + 12
6. 9x 2 − 12x + 4
7. x 2 − 81
8. x 3 + 27y 3
Factor completely.
9. x 3 + 2x 2 − 4x − 8
10. x 4 −1
11. −6x 3 + 20x 2 − 6x
12. x 6 −1
Solve.
13. (2x + 1) (x − 7) = 0
14. 3x (4x − 3) (x + 1) = 0
15. x 2 − 64 = 0

16. x 2 + 4x − 12 = 0
17. 2
3
x2 + 8
9
x− 1
6
=0
18. (x − 5) (x − 3) = −1
19. 3x (x + 3) = 14x + 2
20. (3x + 1) (3x + 2) = 9x + 3
For each problem, set up an algebraic equation and then solve.
22. The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive odd integers is 130.
Find the integers.
23. The length of a rectangle is 4 feet more than twice its width. If the area is
160 square feet, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
24. The height of a triangle is 6 centimeters less than four times the length
of its base. If the area measures 27 square centimeters, then what is the
height of the triangle?

h (t) = −16t 2 + 64t + 36. How long will it take the projectile to hit
the ground?

1: (3x 2 − 6x + 1)
3: (2a2 − a + 3)
5: 11x (2x + 1)
7: 6a (3a2 − 2a + 5)
9: 9xy 2 (x − 2x + 3)
2
11: (x + 2) (x − 5)
13: (x + 5) (x 2 − 3)
15: (x − y) (x 2 − 2)
17: No
19: Yes
21: (x − 14) (x + 1)
23: (y + 5)
2
25: (a − 12) (a + 4)
27: Prime
29: (a − b) (a + 2b)
31: (5x + 3) (x − 6)
33: (2x − 7) 2

35: Prime
37: 5 (3x − 1) (4x − 3)
39: 2x (3x − 2y) (x − y)
41: −1 (y − 12) (y + 3)
43: −2 (9x + 1) (x − 8)
45: (x + 9) (x − 9)
47: (2x + 7) (2x − 7)
49: (x + 8y) (x − 8y)
51: (4x 2 + y 2 ) (2x + y) (2x − y)
53: (2x − 5) (4x 2 + 10x + 25)
55: 2xy (3x − y) (9x 2 + 3xy + y 2 )
57: (2x + y) (4x 2 − 2xy + y 2 ) (2x − y) (4x 2 + 2xy + y 2 )
59: 4x (2x 2 − x + 5)
61: (x − 12) (x + 1) (x − 1)
63: −1 (y + 16) (y − 1)
65: (12x + 5) (12x − 5)
67: (4x − 9) (5x + 1)
69: ab (a − 7b) (a2 + 7ab + 49b 2 )

71: 9, −10
73: −1, 1
75: −10, 5
77: ±2
79: −8, 4
81: 0, 8/3
83: x 2 + x − 42 = 0
85: 18x 2 − 7x − 1 = 0
87: {8, 12} or {−6, −16}
89: 16 feet
91: Length: 14 centimeters; width: 5 centimeters

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
2
1: 5ab
3: 3x 2 (4x − 5x + 1)
3 2
5: (x − 4) (x − 3)
7: (x + 9) (x − 9)
9: (x + 2) 2 (x − 2)
11: −2x (3x − 1) (x − 3)
13: −1/2, 7
15: ±8
17: −3/2, 1/6
19: −1/3, 2
21: {7, 10} or {−14, −5}
25: 4½ sec

Chapter 7
Rational Expressions and Equations
1077
Chapter 7 Rational Expressions and Equations
7.1 Simplifying Rational Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Determine the restrictions to the domain of a rational expression.

2. Simplify rational expressions.
3. Simplify expressions with opposite binomial factors.
4. Simplify and evaluate rational functions.
Rational Expressions, Evaluating, and Restrictions
A rational number, or fraction ab, is a real number defined as a quotient of two

integers a and b, where b ≠ 0. Similarly, we define a rational expression1, or
algebraic fraction2 QP, as the quotient of two polynomials P and Q, where Q ≠ 0.
Some examples of rational expressions follow:
x+3
The example x−5 consists of linear expressions in both the numerator and
denominator. Because the denominator contains a variable, this expression is not
defined for all values of x.
x+3
Example 1: Evaluate x−5 for the set of x-values {−3, 4, 5}.
Solution: Substitute the values in for x.
1. The quotient QP of two

polynomials P and Q, where Q ≠
0.
2. Term used when referring to a

rational expression.
1078
Answer: When x = −3 , the value of the rational expression is 0; when x = 4 , the

value of the rational expression is −7; and when x = 5 , the value of the rational
expression is undefined.
This example illustrates that variables are restricted to values that do not make the
denominator equal to 0. The domain of a rational expression3 is the set of real
numbers for which it is defined, and restrictions4 are the real numbers for which
the expression is not defined. We often express the domain of a rational expression
in terms of its restrictions.
x+7
Example 2: Find the domain of the following: .
2x 2 +x−6
Solution: In this example, the numerator x + 7 is a linear expression and the

denominator 2x 2 + x − 6 is a quadratic expression. If we factor the denominator,
then we will obtain an equivalent expression.
3. The set of real numbers for Because rational expressions are undefined when the denominator is 0, we wish to
which the rational expression
is defined.
find the values for x that make it 0. To do this, apply the zero-product property. Set
each factor in the denominator equal to 0 and solve.
4. The set of real numbers for
which a rational expression is
not defined.
7.1 Simplifying Rational Expressions 1079

We conclude that the original expression is defined for any real number except 3/2
and −2. These two values are the restrictions to the domain.
It is important to note that −7 is not a restriction to the domain because the

expression is defined as 0 when the numerator is 0.
Answer: The domain consists of any real number x, where x ≠ 3

2
and x ≠ −2 .
We can express the domain of the previous example using notation as follows:
The restrictions to the domain of a rational expression are determined by the

denominator. Ignore the numerator when finding those restrictions.

x 4 +x 3 −2x 2 −x
Example 3: Determine the domain: .
x 2 −1
Solution: To find the restrictions to the domain, set the denominator equal to 0 and
solve:
These two values cause the denominator to be 0. Hence they are restricted from the
domain.
Answer: The domain consists of any real number x, where x ≠ ±1 .
2
Example 4: Determine the domain: x −25
4
.
Solution: There is no variable in the denominator and thus no restriction to the

domain.
Answer: The domain consists of all real numbers, R.
Simplifying Rational Expressions
When simplifying fractions, look for common factors that cancel. For example,

We say that the fraction 12/60 is equivalent to 1/5. Fractions are in simplest form if
the numerator and denominator share no common factor other than 1. Similarly,
when working with rational expressions, look for factors to cancel. For example,
The resulting rational expression is equivalent if it shares the same domain.

Therefore, we must make note of the restrictions and write
x+4 1
In words, (x−3)(x+4) is equivalent to x−3 , if x ≠ 3 and x ≠ −4 . We can verify this
by choosing a few values with which to evaluate both expressions to see if the
results are the same. Here we choose x = 7 and evaluate as follows:
It is important to state the restrictions before simplifying rational expressions

because the simplified expression may be defined for restrictions of the original. In
this case, the expressions are not equivalent. Here −4 is defined for the simplified
equivalent but not for the original, as illustrated below:

2
Example 5: Simplify and state the restriction: 25x 3 .
15x
Solution: In this example, the expression is undefined when x is 0.
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers x, where x ≠ 0 . With this
understanding, we can cancel common factors.
5
Answer: 3x , where x ≠ 0

3x(x−5)
(2x+1)(x−5)
Example 6: State the restrictions and simplify: .
Solution: To determine the restrictions, set the denominator equal to 0 and solve.
The domain consists of all real numbers except for −1/2 and 5. Next, we find an
equivalent expression by canceling common factors.
3x
Answer: 2x+1 , where x ≠ − 12 and x ≠ 5
Typically, rational expressions are not given in factored form. If this is the case,
factor first and then cancel. The steps are outlined in the following example.
3x+6
x 2 +x−2
Solution:
Step 1: Completely factor the numerator and denominator.

Step 2: Determine the restrictions to the domain. To do this, set the denominator
equal to 0 and solve.
The domain consists of all real numbers except −2 and 1.
Step 3: Cancel common factors, if any.
3
Answer: x−1 , where x ≠ 1 and x ≠ −2
x 2 +7x−30
x 2 −7x+12
Solution: First, factor the numerator and denominator.

Any value of x that results in a value of 0 in the denominator is a restriction. By

inspection, we determine that the domain consists of all real numbers except 4 and
3. Next, cancel common factors.
x+10
Answer: x−4 , where x ≠ 3 and x ≠ 4
It is important to remember that we can only cancel factors of a product. A common

mistake is to cancel terms. For example,
2
Try this! State the restrictions and simplify: x 2 −16 .
5x −20x
x+4
Answer: 5x , where x ≠ 0 and x ≠ 4
Video Solution
In some examples, we will make a broad assumption that the denominator is

nonzero. When we make that assumption, we do not need to determine the
restrictions.

xy+y 2 −3x−3y
Example 9: Simplify: . (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
x 2 −y 2
Solution: Factor the numerator by grouping. Factor the denominator using the
formula for a difference of squares.
Next, cancel common factors.
y−3
Answer: x−y
Opposite Binomial Factors
Recall that the opposite of the real number a is −a. Similarly, we can define the
opposite of a polynomial P to be −P. We first consider the opposite of the binomial
a − b:
5. If given a binomial a − b, then This leads us to the opposite binomial property5:
− (a − b) = b − a.
the opposite is

This is equivalent to factoring out a –1.
If a ≠ b, then we can divide both sides by (a − b) and obtain the following:
Example 10: State the restrictions and simplify: 3−x

x−3
.
Solution: By inspection, we can see that the denominator is 0 if x = 3 . Therefore, 3

is the restriction to the domain. Apply the opposite binomial property to the
numerator and then cancel.
Answer: 3−x
x−3
= −1, where x ≠ 3
Since addition is commutative, we have

or
Take care not to confuse this with the opposite binomial property. Also, it is
important to recall that
In other words, show a negative fraction by placing the negative sign in the
numerator, in front of the fraction bar, or in the denominator. Generally, negative
denominators are avoided.
4−x 2
Example 11: Simplify and state the restrictions: .
x 2 +3x−10
Solution: Begin by factoring the numerator and denominator.

x+2
Answer: − x+5 , where x ≠ 2 and x ≠ −5
2
Try this! Simplify and state the restrictions: 2x −7x−15 .
25−x
2
2x+3
Answer: − x+5 , where x ≠ ±5
Video Solution

Rational Functions
Rational functions have the form
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) ≠ 0. The domain of a rational
function consists of all real numbers x such that the denominator q(x) ≠ 0.
Example 12:
2x 2 +5x−3
a. Simplify: r (x) = .
6x 2 +18x
b. State the domain.
c. Calculate r(−2).
Solution:
a. To simplify the rational function, first factor and then cancel.

b. To determine the restrictions, set the denominator of the original function equal
to 0 and solve.
The domain consists of all real numbers x, where x ≠ 0 and x ≠ −3 .
c. Since −2 is not a restriction, substitute it for the variable x using the simplified
form.

Answers:
a. r (x) = 2x−1
6x
b. The domain is all real numbers except 0 and −3.
c. r (−2) = 5
12
If a cost function6 C(x) represents the cost of producing x units, then the average
cost7 c(x) is the cost divided by the number of units produced.
Example 13: The cost in dollars of producing t-shirts with a company logo is given
by C (x) = 7x + 200, where x represents the number of shirts produced.
Determine the average cost of producing
a. 40 t-shirts
b. 250 t-shirts
c. 1,000 t-shirts
Solution: Set up a function representing the average cost.
6. A function that represents the

cost of producing a certain
number of units.
7. The total cost divided by the

number of units produced,
which can be represented by
C(x)
c(x) = x , where C(x) is a Next, calculate c(40), c(250), and c(1000).
cost function.

Answers:
a. If 40 t-shirts are produced, then the average cost per t-shirt is $12.00.
b. If 250 t-shirts are produced, then the average cost per t-shirt is $7.80.
c. If 1,000 t-shirts are produced, then the average cost per t-shirt is $7.20.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Rational expressions usually are not defined for all real numbers. The
real numbers that give a value of 0 in the denominator are not part of
the domain. These values are called restrictions.
• Simplifying rational expressions is similar to simplifying fractions. First,
factor the numerator and denominator and then cancel the common
factors. Rational expressions are simplified if there are no common
factors other than 1 in the numerator and the denominator.
• Simplified rational expressions are equivalent for values in the domain
of the original expression. Be sure to state the restrictions if the
denominators are not assumed to be nonzero.
involve subtraction. Use − (a − b) = b − ato replace factors that

• Use the opposite binomial property to cancel binomial factors that
such as (a + b) = (b + a).
will then cancel. Do not confuse this with factors that involve addition,

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Rational Expressions
Evaluate for the given set of x-values.
5
1. x ; {−1, 0, 1}
4x
2. ; {−1, 0, 1}
3x 2
1
3. ; {−10, −9, 0}
x+9
x+6
4. ; {−6, 0, 5}
x−5
3x(x−2)
5. ; {0, 1/2, 2}
2x−1
9x 2 −1
6. x−7 ; {0, 1/3, 7}
5
7. ; {−3, 0, 3}
x 2 −9
x 2 −25
8. ; {−5, −4, 5}
x 2 −3x−10


An object’s weight depends on its height above the surface of earth. If an object
weighs 120 pounds on the surface of earth, then its weight in pounds, W, x miles
above the surface is approximated by the formula
120 ⋅ 4000 2
W=
(4000 + x) 2
For each problem below, approximate the weight of a 120-pound object at the given
height above the surface of earth. (1 mile = 5,280 feet)
13. 100 miles
14. 1,000 miles
15. 44,350 feet
16. 90,000 feet
The price to earnings ratio (P/E) is a metric used to compare the valuations of
similar publicly traded companies. The P/E ratio is calculated using the stock price
and the earnings per share (EPS) over the previous 12‑month period as follows:
price per share

P/E =
earnings per share
If each share of a company stock is priced at $22.40, then calculate the P/E ratio
given the following values for the earnings per share.
17. $1.40
18. $1.21
19. What happens to the P/E ratio when earnings decrease?
20. What happens to the P/E ratio when earnings increase?

State the restrictions to the domain.
1
21.
3x
3x 2
22.
7x 5
3x(x+1)
23.
x+4
2x 2 (x−3)
24.
x−1
1
25.
5x−1
x−2
26.
3x−2
x−9
27.
5x(x−2)
(x−3)(x+6)
1
28.
x
29.
1−x 2
x 2 −9
30.
x 2 −36
1
31.
2x(x+3)(2x−1)
x−3
32.
(3x−1)(2x+3)
4x(2x+1)
33.
12x 2 +x−1
x−5
34.
3x 2 −15x
Part B: Simplifying Rational Expressions
State the restrictions and then simplify.

5x 2
35.
20x 3
12x 6
36.
60x
3x 2 (x−2)
37.
9x(x−2)
20(x−3)(x−5)
38.
6(x−3)(x+1)
6x 2 (x−8)
39.
36x(x+9)(x−8)
16x 2 −1
40.
(4x+1) 2
9x 2 −6x+1
41.
(3x−1) 2
x−7
42.
x 2 −49
x 2 −64
43.
x 2 +8x
x+10
44.
x 2 −100
2x 3 −12x 2
45.
5x 2 −30x
30x 5 +60x 4
46.
2x 3 −8x
2x−1
47.
2x 2 +x−6
x 2 −x−6
48.
3x 2 −8x−3
6x 2 −25x+25
49.
3x 2 +16x−35
3x 2 +4x−15
50.
x 2 −9

x 2 −10x+21
51.
x 2 −4x−21
x 3 −1
52.
x 2 −1
x 3 +8
53.
x 2 −4
x 4 −16
54.
x 2 −4
Part C: Simplifying Rational Expressions with Opposite Binomial Factors
State the restrictions and then simplify.
x−9
55.
9−x
3x−2
56.
2−3x
x+6
57.
6+x
3x+1
58.
1+3x
(2x−5)(x−7)
59.
(7−x)(2x−1)
(3x+2)(x+5)
(x−5)(2+3x)
60.
x 2 −4
61.
(2−x) 2
16−9x 2
62.
(3x+4) 2
4x 2 (10−x)
63.
3x 3 −300x
−2x+14
64.
x 3 −49x

2x 2 −7x−4
65.
1−4x 2
9x 2 −4
66.
4x−6x 2
x 2 −5x−14
67.
7−15x+2x 2
2x 3 +x 2 −2x−1
68.
1+x−2x 2
x 3 +2x−3x 2 −6
69.
2+x 2
27+x 3
70.
x 2 +6x+9
64−x 3
71.
x 2 −8x+16
x 2 +4
72.
4−x 2
Simplify. (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
−15x 3 y 2
5xy 2 (x+y)
73.
14x 7 y 2 (x−2y)
4
7x 8 y(x−2y)
74. 2
y+x
75.
x 2 −y 2
y−x
76.
x 2 −y 2
x 2 −y 2
(x−y)
77. 2
a2 −ab−6b 2
78.
a2 −6ab+9b 2

2a2 −11a+12
79.
−32+2a2
a2 b−3a2
80.
3a2 −3ab
xy 2 −x+y 3 −y
81.
x−xy 2
x 3 −xy 2 −x 2 y+y 3
82.
x 2 −2xy+y 2
x 3 −27
83.
x 2 +3x+9
x 2 −x+1
84.
x 3 +1
Part D: Rational Functions
Calculate the following.
5x
85. f (x) = ;f (0), f (2), f (4)
x−3
x+7
86. f (x) = ;f (−1) , f (0), f (1)
x 2 +1
x3
87. g (x) = ; g (0) , g (2) , g (−2)
(x−2) 2
x 2 −9
88. g (x) = ; g (−2) , g (0) , g (2)
9−x 2
x3
89. g (x) = ; g (−1) , g (0) , g (1)
x 2 +1
; g (−1/5) , g (−1) , g (−5)

5x+1
90. g (x) = x 2 −25
State the restrictions to the domain and then simplify.
−3x 2 −6x
91. f (x) = x 2 +4x+4

x 2 +6x+9
92. f (x) = 2x 2 +5x−3
9−x
93. g (x) = x 2 −81
x 3 −27
94. g (x) = 3−x
3x−15
95. g (x) = 10−2x
25−5x
96. g (x) = 4x−20
97. The cost in dollars of producing coffee mugs with a company logo is
given by C (x) = x + 40 , where x represents the number of mugs
produced. Calculate the average cost of producing 100 mugs and the average
cost of producing 500 mugs.
98. The cost in dollars of renting a moving truck for the day is given by
C (x) = 0.45x + 90 , where x represents the number of miles driven.
Calculate the average cost per mile if the truck is driven 250 miles in one
day.
99. The cost in dollars of producing sweat shirts with a custom design on the
back is given by C(x) = 1200 + (12 − 0.05x)x , where x represents
the number of sweat shirts produced. Calculate the average cost of
producing 150 custom sweat shirts.
100. The cost in dollars of producing a custom injected molded part is given
by C(x) = 500 + (3 − 0.001x)x , where x represents the number of
parts produced. Calculate the average cost of producing 1,000 custom parts.
Part E: Discussion Board
b−a
101. Explain why
a−b
= −1 and illustrate this fact by substituting some
numbers for the variables.
b+a
102. Explain why
a+b
= 1 and illustrate this fact by substituting some
numbers for the variables.
x
103. Explain why we cannot cancel x in the expression .
x+1

ANSWERS
1: −5, undefined, 5
3: −1, undefined, 1/9
5: 0, undefined, 0
7: Undefined, −5/9, undefined
9:
11:
13: 114 pounds
15: 119.5 pounds

17: 16
19: The P/E ratio increases.
21: x ≠0
23: x ≠ −4
25: x ≠ 1
5
27: x ≠ 0 and x ≠ 2
29: x ≠ ±1
31: x ≠ 0 , x ≠ −3 , and x ≠ 1
2
33: x ≠− 1
3
and x ≠ 1
4
1
35: ;x ≠0
4x
x
37: ;x ≠ 0, 2
3
x
39: ;x ≠ 0, −9, 8
6(x+9)
41: 1 ; x ≠ 1
3
x−8
43: x ;x ≠ 0, −8
2x
45: ;x ≠ 0, 6
5
2x−1
47: ;x ≠ −2, 3
2x 2 +x−6 2
2x−5
49: x+7 ; x ≠ −7, 5
3
x−3
51: ;x ≠ −3, 7
x+3

x 2 −2x+4
53: ;x ≠ ±2
x−2
55: −1; x ≠9
57: 1; x ≠ −6
2x−5
59: − ;x ≠ 1
,7
2x−1 2
x+2
61: ;x ≠2
x−2
4x
63: − ;x ≠ ±10, 0
3(x+10)
x−4
65: ;x ≠± 1
1−2x 2
x+2
67: ;x ≠ 1
,7
2x−1 2
69: x − 3 ; none
16+4x+x 2
71: − ;x ≠4
x−4
3x 2
73: − x+y
1
75: x−y
x+y
77: x−y
2a−3
79:
2(4+a)
x+y
81: − x
83: x −3
85: f (0) = 0, f (2) = −10 , f (4) = 20
87: g (0) = 0, g (2) undefined, g (−2) = −1/2

89: g (−1) = −1/2 , g (0) = 0, g (1) = 1/2

3x
91: f (x) =− ;x ≠ −2
x+2
1
93: g(x) =− ;x ≠ ±9
x+9
3
95: g(x) =− ;x ≠5
2
97: The average cost of producing 100 mugs is $1.40 per mug. The average
cost of producing 500 mugs is $1.08 per mug.
99: $12.50

7.2 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Multiply rational expressions.

2. Divide rational expressions.
3. Multiply and divide rational functions.
Multiplying Rational Expressions
When multiplying fractions, we can multiply the numerators and denominators

together and then reduce, as illustrated:
Multiplying rational expressions is performed in a similar manner. For example,
In general, given polynomials P, Q, R, and S, where Q ≠ 0 and S ≠ 0 , we have
In this section, assume that all variable expressions in the denominator are nonzero
unless otherwise stated.
1107
2 20y 4
Example 1: Multiply: 12x3 ⋅ .
5y 3 6x
Solution: Multiply numerators and denominators and then cancel common factors.
8y
Answer: x
Example 2: Multiply: x−3

x+5
⋅ x+5
x+7
.
Solution: Leave the product in factored form and cancel the common factors.
Answer: x−3
x+7
15x 2 y 3 x(2x−1)
Example 3: Multiply: (2x−1) ⋅ 2 .
3x y(x+3)
7.2 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions 1108

Solution: Leave the polynomials in the numerator and denominator factored so

that we can cancel the factors. In other words, do not apply the distributive
property.
5xy 2
Answer: x+3
Typically, rational expressions will not be given in factored form. In this case, first
factor all numerators and denominators completely. Next, multiply and cancel any
common factors, if there are any.
x+5
Example 4: Multiply: x−5 ⋅ x−5 .
x 2 −25
Solution: Factor the denominator x 2 − 25 as a difference of squares. Then

multiply and cancel.

Keep in mind that 1 is always a factor; so when the entire numerator cancels out,
make sure to write the factor 1.
1
Answer: x−5
x 2 +3x+2 x 2 −7x+12
Example 5: Multiply:
x 2 −5x+6
⋅ x 2 +8x+7
.
Solution:
It is a best practice to leave the final answer in factored form.
(x+2)(x−4)
Answer: (x−2)(x+7)
−2x 2 +x+3 3x−6

Example 6: Multiply:
x 2 +2x−8
⋅ x 2 +x
.
Solution: The trinomial −2x 2 + x + 3 in the numerator has a negative leading

coefficient. Recall that it is a best practice to first factor out a −1 and then factor the
resulting trinomial.

3(2x−3)
Answer: − x(x+4)
2
Example 7: Multiply: 7−x
2
⋅ x +10x+21
x +3x 2
.
x −49
Solution: We replace 7 − x with −1 (x − 7) so that we can cancel this factor.
Answer: − 1x

2 2
Try this! Multiply: x8−x
−64
⋅ x 2x+x
+9x+8
.
Answer: −x
Video Solution

Dividing Rational Expressions
To divide two fractions, we multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor, as illustrated:
Dividing rational expressions is performed in a similar manner. For example,
In general, given polynomials P, Q, R, and S, where Q ≠ 0, R ≠ 0 , and S ≠ 0 , we

have
8x 5 y 20xy 4
Example 8: Divide:
25z 6
÷ 15z 3
.
Solution: First, multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor and then cancel.

4
Answer: 6x3 3
25y z
x+2 x+3
Example 9: Divide:
x 2 −4
÷ x−2
.
Solution: After multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor, factor and cancel.
1
Answer: x+3

2 x 2 +9x+14
Example 10: Divide: x 2 −6x−16 ÷ 2 .
x +4x−21 x −8x+15
Solution: Begin by multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor. After doing so,
factor and cancel.
(x−8)(x−5)
Answer:
(x+7) 2
9−4x 2
Example 11: Divide: x+2 ÷ (2x − 3).
Solution: Just as we do with fractions, think of the divisor (2x − 3) as an algebraic

fraction over 1.

2x+3
Answer: − x+2
4x 2 +7x−2 1−4x
Try this! Divide:
25x 2
÷ 100x 4
.
Answer: −4x 2 (x + 2)
Video Solution

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Functions
The product and quotient of two rational functions can be simplified using the
techniques described in this section. The restrictions to the domain of a product
consist of the restrictions of each function.
Example 12: Calculate (f ⋅ g) (x) and determine the restrictions to the domain.

Solution: In this case, the domain of f (x) consists of all real numbers except 0, and
the domain of g(x) consists of all real numbers except 1/4. Therefore, the domain of
the product consists of all real numbers except 0 and 1/4. Multiply the functions
and then simplify the result.
Answer: (f ⋅ g) (x) = − 5x , where x ≠ 0,

4x+1 1
4
The restrictions to the domain of a quotient will consist of the restrictions of each
function as well as the restrictions on the reciprocal of the divisor.
Example 13: Calculate (f /g) (x) and determine the restrictions.
Solution:

In this case, the domain of f (x) consists of all real numbers except 3 and 8, and the
domain of g(x) consists all real numbers except 3. In addition, the reciprocal of g(x)
has a restriction of −8. Therefore, the domain of this quotient consists of all real
numbers except 3, 8, and −8.
Answer: (f /g) (x) = 1, where x ≠ 3, 8, − 8
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• After multiplying rational expressions, factor both the numerator and

denominator and then cancel common factors. Make note of the
restrictions to the domain. The values that give a value of 0 in the
denominator are the restrictions.
• To divide rational expressions, multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor.
• The restrictions to the domain of a product consist of the restrictions to
the domain of each factor.
• The restrictions to the domain of a quotient consist of the restrictions to
the domain of each rational expression as well as the restrictions on the
reciprocal of the divisor.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Multiplying Rational Expressions
Multiply. (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
2x 9
1.
3
⋅ 4x 2
−5x 3 y2
2. y ⋅ 25x
5x 2 4y 2
3.
2y
⋅ 15x 3
16a4 49b
4. ⋅ 32a3
7b 2
x−6 24x 2
5.
12x 3
⋅ x−6
x+10 x−2
6.
2x−1
⋅ x+10
(y−1)
2
1
7.
y+1
⋅ y−1
y 2 −9 2y−3
8.
y+3
⋅ y−3
2a−5 2a+5
9.
a−5
⋅ 4a2 −25
2a2 −9a+4
10.
a2 −16
⋅ (a2 + 4a)
2x 2 +3x−2 2x
11. ⋅ x+2
(2x−1) 2
9x 2 +19x+2 x 2 −4x+4
12.
4−x 2
⋅ 9x 2 −8x−1
x 2 +8x+16 x 2 −3x−4
13.
16−x 2
⋅ x 2 +5x+4

x 2 −x−2 x 2 +2x−15
14.
x 2 +8x+7
⋅ x 2 −5x+6
x+1 3−x
15.
x−3
⋅ x+5
2x−1 x+6
16.
x−1
⋅ 1−2x
9+x 3
17.
3x+1
⋅ x+9
1 5x+2
18.
2+5x
⋅ 5x
100−y 2 25y 2
19.
y−10
⋅ y+10
3y 3 36y 2 −25
20.
6y−5
⋅ 5+6y
3a2 +14a−5 3a+1

21.
a2 +1
⋅ 1−9a2
4a2 −16a 1−16a2

22.
4a−1
⋅ 4a2 −15a−4
23.
x+9
−x 2 +14x−45
⋅ (x 2 − 81)
24.
1
2+5x
⋅ (25x 2 + 20x + 4)
x 2 +x−6 2x 2 −8
25.
3x 2 +15x+18
⋅ x 2 −4x+4
5x 2 −4x−1 25x 2 −10x+1

26.
5x 2 −6x+1
⋅ 3−75x 2
Part B: Dividing Rational Expressions
Divide. (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
5x 15x 2
27.
8
÷ 4

3 −15
28.
8y
÷ 2y 2
5x 9
3y 3
29.
25x 10
9y 5
12x 4 y 2
21z 5
30.
6x 3 y 2
7z 3
(x−4) 2 x−4
31.
30x 4
÷ 15x
5y 4 10y 5
÷
10(3y−5) 2(3y−5)
32. 2 3
x 2 −9
33.
5x
÷ (x − 3)
÷ (8 + y)
y 2 −64
34.
8y
(a−8)2 a−8
35.
2a2 +10a
÷ a
3 12ab(a−2b)
36. 24a2 b (a − 2b) ÷ 5
x 2 +7x+10 1
37.
x 2 +4x+4
÷ x 2 −4
2x 2 −x−1 1
38.
2x 2 −3x+1
÷ 4x 2 −1
y+1 y 2 −1
39.
y 2 −3y
÷ y 2 −6y+9
9−a2 2a2 −10a

40.
a2 −8a+15
÷ a2 −10a+25
a2 −3a−18 a2 +a−6
41.
2a2 −11a−6
÷ 2a2 −a−1

y 2 −7y+10
y 2 +5y−14
42.
2y 2 −9y−5
y 2 +14y+49
6y 2 +y−1
4y 2 +4y+1
43.
3y 2 +2y−1
2y 2 −7y−4
x 2 −7x−18 x 2 −81
44.
x 2 +8x+12
÷ x 2 +12x+36
÷ (b − 2a)
4a2 −b 2 2
45.
b+2a
÷ (y − x)
x 2 −y 2 2
46. y+x
5y 2 (y−3) 25y(3−y)
47.
4x 3
÷ 2x 2
15x 3 25x 6
3(y+7)
÷
9(7+y)
48. 2
3x+4 7x
49.
x−8
÷ 8−x
3x−2 2−3x
50.
2x+1
÷ 3x
(7x−1) 2 28x 2 −11x+1

51.
4x+1
÷ 1−4x
4x 2−x
52. ÷ x 2 −4
(x+2) 2
÷ (b − a)
a2 −b 2 2
53. a
÷ (2b 2 + ab − a2 )
(a−2b)2
54.
2b
x 2 −6x+9 9−x 2
55.
x 2 +7x+12
÷ x 2 +8x+16

2x 2 −9x−5 1−4x+4x 2
56.
25−x 2
÷ −2x 2 −9x+5
3x 2 −16x+5
100−4x 2
57.
9x 2 −6x+1
3x 2 +14x−5
10x 2 −25x−15
x 2 −6x+9
58.
9−x 2
2
x +6x+9
Recall that multiplication and division are to be performed in the order they appear
from left to right. Simplify the following.
1 x−1 x−1
59.
x2
⋅ x+3
÷ x3
x−7 1 x−7
60.
x+9
⋅ x3
÷ x
x+1 x x2
61.
x−2
÷ x−5
⋅ x+1
x+4 x−3 x+4

62.
2x+5
÷ 2x+5
⋅ x−3
2x−1 x−4 x−4

63.
x+1
÷ x 2 +1
⋅ 2x−1
4x 2 −1 2x−1 3x+2
64.
3x+2
÷ x+5
⋅ 2x+1
Part C: Multiplying and Dividing Rational Functions
Calculate (f ⋅ g) (x) and determine the restrictions to the domain.
1 1
65. f (x) = x and g(x) = x−1
x+1
66. f (x) = x−1
and g(x) = x2 − 1
3x+2 x 2 −4
67. f (x) = and g(x) =
x+2 (3x+2) 2

(x−6)
2
(1−3x) 2
68. f (x) = and g(x) =
x−6 9x 2 −1
25x 2 −1 x 2 −9
69. f (x) = and g(x) =
x 2 +6x+9 5x+1
x 2 −49 4x 2 −4x+1
70. f (x) = and g(x) = 7−x
2x 2 +13x−7
Calculate (f /g) (x) and state the restrictions.
1 x−2
71. f (x) = x and g(x) = x−1
(5x+3)
2
5x+3
72. f (x) = and g(x) =
x2 6−x
5−x x 2 −25
73. f (x) = and g(x) =
(x−8) 2 x−8
x 2 −2x−15 2x 2 −5x−3
74. f (x) = and g(x) =
x 2 −3x−10 x 2 −7x+12
3x 2 +11x−4 x 2 −2x+1
75. f (x) = and g(x) =
9x 2 −6x+1 3x 2 −4x+1
36−x 2 x 2 −12x+36
76. f (x) = and g(x) =
x 2 +12x+36 x 2 +4x−12
77. In the history of fractions, who is credited for the first use of the fraction
bar?
78. How did the ancient Egyptians use fractions?
1 x−7
79. Explain why x = 7 is a restriction to x ÷ .
x−2

ANSWERS
3
1:
2x
2y
3:
3x
2
5: x
y−1
7:
y+1
1
9:
a−5
2x
11:
2x−1
13: −1
x+1
15: −
x+5
3
17:
3x+1
19: −25y 2
a+5
21: −
a2 +1
(x+9) 2
23: −
x−5
25: 2/3
1
27:
6x
3y 2
29:
5x
x−4
31:
2x 3

x+3
33:
5x
2(a+5)
a−8
35:
37: (x + 5) (x − 2)
y−3
y(y−1)
39:
a−1
41:
a−2
y−4
43:
y+1
1
45:
2a−b
y
47: −
10x
3x+4
49: − 7x
7x−1
51: −
4x+1
a+b
53: −
a(b−a)
(x−3)(x+4)
55: −
(x+3) 2
57: −1/4
x
59:
x+3
x(x−5)
61:
x−2
x 2 +1
63:
x+1

65: (f ⋅ g) (x) = 1
;x ≠ 0, 1
x(x−1)
67: (f ⋅ g) (x) = x−2

;x ≠ −2, − 2
3x+2 3
69: (f ⋅ g) (x) =
(x−3)(5x−1)
;x ≠ −3, − 1
x+3 5
71: (f /g) (x)

x−1
= x(x−2)
;x ≠ 0, 1, 2
73: (f /g) (x)

(x−8)(x+5)
1
=− ;x ≠ ±5, 8
75: (f /g) (x)

(x+4)
= (x−1)
;x ≠ 1
3
,1

7.3 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Add and subtract rational expressions with common denominators.

2. Add and subtract rational expressions with unlike denominators.
3. Add and subtract rational functions.
Adding and Subtracting with Common Denominators
Adding and subtracting rational expressions is similar to adding and subtracting

fractions. Recall that if the denominators are the same, we can add or subtract the
numerators and write the result over the common denominator.
When working with rational expressions, the common denominator will be a

polynomial. In general, given polynomials P, Q, and R, where Q ≠ 0, we have the
following:
In this section, assume that all variable factors in the denominator are nonzero.
Example 1: Add: 3y + 7y.
1127
Solution: Add the numerators 3 and 7, and write the result over the common
denominator, y.
Answer: 10
y
x−5 1
Example 2: Subtract: 2x−1 − 2x−1.
Solution: Subtract the numerators x − 5 and 1, and write the result over the
common denominator, 2x − 1 .
x−6
Answer: 2x−1
2x+7 x+10
( )(x−3) ( )(x−3)
Example 3: Subtract: − .
x+5 x+5
Solution: We use parentheses to remind us to subtract the entire numerator of the

second rational expression.
7.3 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions 1128

1
Answer: x+5
2x 2 +10x+3 x 2 +6x+5 x−4

x 2 −36
− x 2 −36
+ .
x 2 −36
Solution: Subtract and add the numerators. Make use of parentheses and write the
result over the common denominator, x 2 − 36.
Answer: x−1
x−6

x 2 +1 x 2 −2x
Try this! Subtract:
2x 2 −7x−4
− 2x 2 −7x−4
.
1
Answer: x−4
Video Solution

Adding and Subtracting with Unlike Denominators
To add rational expressions with unlike denominators, first find equivalent

expressions with common denominators. Do this just as you have with fractions. If
the denominators of fractions are relatively prime, then the least common
denominator (LCD) is their product. For example,
Multiply each fraction by the appropriate form of 1 to obtain equivalent fractions

with a common denominator.
The process of adding and subtracting rational expressions is similar. In general,

given polynomials P, Q, R, and S, where Q ≠ 0 and S ≠ 0 , we have the following:

In this section, assume that all variable factors in the denominator are nonzero.
Example 5: Add: 1x + 1y.
Solution: In this example, the LCD = xy . To obtain equivalent terms with this
y
common denominator, multiply the first term by y and the second term by xx .
y+x
Answer: xy
Example 6: Subtract: 1y − y−3

1
.
Solution: Since the LCD = y(y − 3) , multiply the first term by 1 in the form of
(y−3) y
and the second term by y .
(y−3)

3
y(y−3)
Answer: −
It is not always the case that the LCD is the product of the given denominators.
Typically, the denominators are not relatively prime; thus determining the LCD
requires some thought. Begin by factoring all denominators. The LCD is the product
of all factors with the highest power. For example, given
there are three base factors in the denominator: x , (x + 2), and (x − 3). The
highest powers of these factors are x 3 , (x + 2)2 , and (x − 3)1 . Therefore,
The general steps for adding or subtracting rational expressions are illustrated in
the following example.

x 3
Example 7: Subtract:
x 2 +4x+3
− x 2 −4x−5
.
Solution:
Step 1: Factor all denominators to determine the LCD.
The LCD is (x + 1) (x + 3) (x − 5).
Step 2: Multiply by the appropriate factors to obtain equivalent terms with a

(x−5)
common denominator. To do this, multiply the first term by and the second
(x−5)
(x+3)
term by (x+3)
.
Step 3: Add or subtract the numerators and place the result over the common
denominator.
Step 4: Simplify the resulting algebraic fraction.

(x−9)
(x+3)(x−5)
Answer:
x 2 −9x+18 x
x 2 −13x+36
− x−4
.
Solution: It is best not to factor the numerator, x 2 − 9x + 18, because we will

most likely need to simplify after we subtract.

18
Answer: (x−4)(x−9)
1 1
x 2 −4
− 2−x
.
Solution: First, factor the denominators and determine the LCD. Notice how the
opposite binomial property is applied to obtain a more workable denominator.
The LCD is (x + 2) (x − 2). Multiply the second term by 1 in the form of

(x+2)
(x+2)
.

Now that we have equivalent terms with a common denominator, add the
numerators and write the result over the common denominator.
x+3
Answer: (x+2)(x−2)
y−1 y+1 y 2 −5
Example 10: Simplify: y+1 − y−1 + 2 .
y −1
Solution: Begin by factoring the denominator.
We can see that the LCD is (y + 1) (y − 1). Find equivalent fractions with this
denominator.

Next, subtract and add the numerators and place the result over the common
denominator.
Finish by simplifying the resulting rational expression.
y−5
Answer: y−1
x 5
Try this! Simplify: −2 + 1+x − 1−x.
x 2 −1
x+3
Answer: x−1

Video Solution
Rational expressions are sometimes expressed using negative exponents. In this

case, apply the rules for negative exponents before simplifying the expression.
Example 11: Simplify: y −2 + (y − 1) .

−1
Solution: Recall that x −n = x1n . We begin by rewriting the negative exponents as

rational expressions.
y 2 +y−1
y 2 (y−1)
Answer:

Adding and Subtracting Rational Functions
We can simplify sums or differences of rational functions using the techniques

learned in this section. The restrictions of the result consist of the restrictions to
the domains of each function.
Example 12: Calculate (f + g) (x), given f (x) = x+3

1 1
and g (x) = x−2 , and state
the restrictions.
Solution:
Here the domain of f consists of all real numbers except −3, and the domain of g
consists of all real numbers except 2. Therefore, the domain of f + g consists of all
real numbers except −3 and 2.
2x+1
Answer: (x+3)(x−2) , where x ≠ −3, 2

Example 13: Calculate (f − g) (x), given f (x) = 2

x(x−1)
and g (x) = x−3
x−5
, and state
x −25
the restrictions to the domain.
Solution:
The domain of f consists of all real numbers except 5 and −5, and the domain of g
consists of all real numbers except 5. Therefore, the domain of f − g consists of all
real numbers except −5 and 5.
3
Answer: − x+5 , where x ≠ ±5

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When adding or subtracting rational expressions with a common

denominator, add or subtract the expressions in the numerator and
write the result over the common denominator.
• To find equivalent rational expressions with a common denominator,
first factor all denominators and determine the least common multiple.
Then multiply numerator and denominator of each term by the
appropriate factor to obtain a common denominator. Finally, add or
subtract the expressions in the numerator and write the result over the
common denominator.
• The restrictions to the domain of a sum or difference of rational
functions consist of the restrictions to the domains of each function.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Adding and Subtracting with Common Denominators
3 7
1. x + x
9 10
2. x − x
x 3
3. y − y
4 6
4.
x−3
+ x−3
7 x
5.
2x−1
− 2x−1
8 3x
6.
3x−8
− 3x−8
2 x−11
7.
x−9
+ x−9
y+2 y+3
8.
2y+3
− 2y+3
2x−3 x−4
9.
4x−1
− 4x−1
2x 3x+4 x−2
10.
x−1
− x−1
+ x−1
1 2y−9 13−5y
11.
3y
− 3y
− 3y
−3y+2 y+7 3y+4

12.
5y−10
+ 5y−10
− 5y−10
x 3
13.
(x+1)(x−3)
− (x+1)(x−3)
3x+5 x+6
(2x−1)(x−6) (2x−1)(x−6)
14. −

x 6
15.
x 2 −36
+ x 2 −36
x 9
16.
x 2 −81
− x 2 −81
x 2 +2 x−22
17.
x 2 +3x−28
+ x 2 +3x−28
x 3−x
18.
2x 2 −x−3
− 2x 2 −x−3
Part B: Adding and Subtracting with Unlike Denominators
1 1
19.
2
+ 3x
1 1
20.
5x 2
− x
1 3
21.
12y 2
+ 10y 3
1 1
22. x − 2y
1
23. y −2
3
24.
y+2
−4
2
25.
x+4
+2
2 1
26. y − y2
3 1
27.
x+1
+ x
1 2
28.
x−1
− x
1 1
29.
x−3
+ x+5

1 1
30.
x+2
− x−3
x 2
31.
x+1
− x−2
2x−3 x
32.
x+5
− x−3
y+1 y−1
33.
y−1
+ y+1
3y−1 y+4
34.
3y
− y−2
2x−5 2x+5
35.
2x+5
− 2x−5
2 2x+1
36.
2x−1
− 1−2x
3x+4 2
37.
x−8
− 8−x
1 1
38.
y−1
+ 1−y
2x 2 x+15
39.
x 2 −9
+ 9−x 2
x 1 15−x
40.
x+3
+ x−3
− (x+3)(x−3)
2x 1 2(x−1)
41.
3x−1
− 3x+1
+ (3x−1)(3x+1)
(2x+1)(x−5)
4x x 16x−3
42.
2x+1
− x−5
+
x 2 4
43.
3x
+ x−2
+ 3x(x−2)
18(x−2)
(x+6)(x−6)
−2x 3x
44.
x+6
− 6−x
−
(x+5)(x−7)
x 1 25−7x
45.
x+5
− x−7
−

x 2
46.
x 2 −2x−3
+ x−3
1 x2
47.
x+5
− x 2 −25
5x−2 2
48.
x 2 −4
− x−2
1 6x−3
49.
x+1
− x 2 −7x−8
3x 1
50.
9x 2 −16
− 3x+4
2x 1
51.
x 2 −1
+ x 2 +x
x(4x−1) x
52.
2x 2 +7x−4
− 4+x
3x 2 2x
53.
3x 2 +5x−2
− 3x−1
2x 11x+4
54.
x−4
− x 2 −2x−8
x 6x−24
55.
2x+1
+ 2x 2 −7x−4
1 1
56.
x 2 −x−6
+ x 2 −3x−10
x 3
57.
x 2 +4x+3
− x 2 −4x−5
y+1 y
58.
2y 2 +5y−3
− 4y 2 −1
y−1 2
59.
y 2 −25
− y 2 −10y+25
3x 2 +24 12
60.
x 2 −2x−8
− x−4
4x 2 +28 28
61.
x 2 −6x−7
− x−7

a a2 −9a+18
62.
4−a
+ a2 −13a+36
3a−12 a+2
63.
a2 −8a+16
− 4−a
a2 −14 5
64.
2a2 −7a−4
− 1+2a
1 x 3
65.
x+3
− x 2 −6x+9
+ x 2 −9
3x 2x 23x−10
66. x+7 − x−2
+ x 2 +5x−14
x+3 x−1 x(x+11)

67.
x−1
+ x+2
− x 2 +x−2
−2x 4 4(x+5)
68.
3x+1
− x−2
+ 3x 2 −5x−2
x−1 x+3 3(x+5)

69.
4x−1
− 2x+3
− 8x 2 +10x−3
3x 2 6x 2 −5x−9
70.
2x−3
− 2x+3
− 4x 2 −9
1 1 2
71.
y+1
+ y + y 2 −1
1 1 1
72. y − y+1
+ y−1
−2
73. 5 + 2 −1
−1
74. 6 + 4 −2
75. x −1 + y −1
76. x −2 − y −1
77. (2x − 1) −1 − x −2
78. (x − 4) −1 − (x + 1) −1

79. 3x 2 (x − 1) −1 − 2x
80. 2(y − 1) − (y − 1)
−2 −1
Part C: Adding and Subtracting Rational Functions
Calculate (f + g) (x) and (f − g) (x) and state the restrictions to the

domain.
1 1
81. f (x) = and g (x) =
3x x−2
1 1
82. f (x) = and g (x) =
x−1 x+5
x 1
83. f (x) = and g (x) =
x−4 4−x
x 1
84. f (x) = and g (x) =
x−5 2x−3
x−1 4
85. f (x) = and g (x) =
x 2 −4 x 2 −6x−16
5
86. f (x) = and g (x) = 3x + 4
x+2
Calculate (f + f ) (x) and state the restrictions to the domain.
1
87. f (x) = x
1
88. f (x) = 2x
x
89. f (x) = 2x−1
1
90. f (x) = x+2
Part D: Discussion Board
1 2 3
91. Explain to a classmate why this is incorrect:
x2
+ x2
= 2x 2
.

92. Explain to a classmate how to find the common denominator when

adding algebraic expressions. Give an example.

ANSWERS
10
1: x
x−3
3: y
7−x
5:
2x−1
7: 1
x+1
9:
4x−1
y−1
11: y
1
13:
x+1
1
15:
x−6
x+5
17: x+7
3x+2
19:
6x
5y+18
21:
60y 3
1−2y
23: y
2(x+5)
25:
x+4
4x+1
27:
x(x+1)
2(x+1)
(x−3)(x+5)
29:

x 2 −4x−2
31:
(x−2)(x+1)
2(y 2 +1)
(y+1)(y−1)
33:
(2x+5)(2x−5)
40x
35: −
3(x+2)
37:
x−8
2x+5
39:
x+3
2x+1
41:
3x+1
x 2 +4x+4
43:
3x(x−2)
x−6
45: x−7
−x 2 +x−5
(x+5)(x−5)
47:
5
49: −
x−8
2x−1
51:
x(x−1)
x(x−4)
53:
(x+2)(3x−1)
x+6
55:
2x+1
x−9
(x−5)(x+3)
57:
y 2 −8y−5
(y+5)(y−5)
59: 2

4x
61:
x+1
a+5
63:
a−4
6x
65: −
(x+3)(x−3) 2
x−7
67:
x+2
−x−5
69:
4x−1
2y−1
y(y−1)
71:
27
73:
50
x+y
75: xy
(x−1) 2
77:
x 2 (2x−1)
x(x+2)
79:
x−1
81: (f + g) (x) = 3x(x−2) (

− g) (x) = −
2(2x−1) 2(x+1)
; f ;x ≠ 0, 2
3x(x−2)
83: (f + g) (x) = x−4 (

x−1
; f − g) (x) = x+1
x−4
;x ≠4
85: (f
+ g) (x) = (x+2)(x−2)(x−8) (
− g) (x) =
x(x−5) x 2 −13x+16
; f ;
(x+2)(x−2)(x−8)
x ≠ −2, 2, 8
87: (f + f ) (x) = 2
x;x ≠0
89: (f + f ) (x) = 2x
;x ≠ 1
2x−1 2

7.4 Complex Rational Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Simplify complex rational expressions by multiplying the numerator by

the reciprocal of the divisor.
2. Simplify complex rational expressions by multiplying numerator and
denominator by the least common denominator (LCD).
Definitions
A complex fraction8 is a fraction where the numerator or denominator consists of

one or more fractions. For example,
Simplifying such a fraction requires us to find an equivalent fraction with integer

numerator and denominator. One way to do this is to divide. Recall that dividing
fractions involves multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor.
An alternative method for simplifying this complex fraction involves multiplying

both the numerator and denominator by the LCD of all the given fractions. In this
case, the LCD = 4.
8. A fraction where the

numerator or denominator
fractions.
1152
A complex rational expression9 is defined as a rational expression that contains

one or more rational expressions in the numerator or denominator or both. For
example,
We simplify a complex rational expression by finding an equivalent fraction where

the numerator and denominator are polynomials. As illustrated above, there are
two methods for simplifying complex rational expressions, and we will outline the
steps for both methods. For the sake of clarity, assume that variable expressions
used as denominators are nonzero.
Method 1: Simplify Using Division
We begin our discussion on simplifying complex rational expressions using division.

Before we can multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor, we must simplify the
numerator and denominator separately. The goal is to first obtain single algebraic
fractions in the numerator and the denominator. The steps for simplifying a
complex algebraic fraction are illustrated in the following example.
1
2
+ 1x
.
4
− 12
x
Solution:
9. A rational expression where
the numerator or denominator Step 1: Simplify the numerator and denominator. The goal is to obtain a single
rational expressions.
algebraic fraction divided by another single algebraic fraction. In this example, find
7.4 Complex Rational Expressions 1153

equivalent terms with a common denominator in both the numerator and

denominator before adding and subtracting.
At this point we have a single algebraic fraction divided by a single algebraic

fraction.
Step 2: Multiply the numerator by the reciprocal of the divisor.
Step 3: Factor all numerators and denominators completely.
Step 4: Cancel all common factors.

2x
Answer: x−2
1 1
x − x−2
.
x 2 −2x
Solution:

Answer: − 12
1− 4x − 21
x2
Example 3: Simplify 15
.
1− 2x −
x2
Solution: The LCD of the rational expressions in both the numerator and
denominator is x 2 . Multiply by the appropriate factors to obtain equivalent terms
with this as the denominator and then subtract.

We now have a single rational expression divided by another single rational

expression. Next, multiply the numerator by the reciprocal of the divisor and then
factor and cancel.
Answer: x−7
x−5
1
1−
x2
.
x −1

Solution:
x+1
Answer: − x
1 1
81
−
x2
Try this! Simplify: 1
.
9
+ 1x
x−9
Answer: 9x
Video Solution

Method 2: Simplify Using the LCD
An alternative method for simplifying complex rational expressions involves

clearing the fractions by multiplying the expression by a special form of 1. In this

method, multiply the numerator and denominator by the least common

denominator (LCD) of all given fractions.
1
2
+ 1x
.
4
− 12
x
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the LCD of all the fractions in the numerator and denominator.
In this case, the denominators of the given fractions are 2, x , 4, and x 2 . Therefore,
the LCD is 4x 2 .
Step 2: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the LCD. This step should clear
the fractions in both the numerator and denominator.
This leaves us with a single algebraic fraction with a polynomial in the numerator
and in the denominator.
Step 3: Factor the numerator and denominator completely.

Step 4: Cancel all common factors.
2x
Answer: x−2
Note
This was the same problem that we began this section with, and the results
here are the same. It is worth taking the time to compare the steps involved
using both methods on the same problem.
15
1− 2x −
x2
Example 6: Simplify: 14 5
.
3− x − x2
Solution: Considering all of the denominators, we find that the LCD is x 2 .

Therefore, multiply the numerator and denominator by x 2 :

At this point, we have a rational expression that can be simplified by factoring and
then canceling the common factors.
x+3
Answer: 3x+1
It is important to point out that multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
same nonzero factor is equivalent to multiplying by 1 and does not change the
problem. Because x 2 = 1, we can multiply the numerator and denominator by x 2
2
x
in the previous example and obtain an equivalent expression.
1 3
x+1
+ x−3
Example 7: Simplify: 2 1
.
x−3
− x+1

Solution: The LCM of all the denominators is (x + 1) (x − 3). Begin by multiplying

the numerator and denominator by these factors.
4x
Answer: x+5
1
y − 14
Try this! Simplify: 1 1
.
−
16 y2
4y
Answer: − y+4
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Complex rational expressions can be simplified into equivalent

expressions with a polynomial numerator and polynomial denominator.
• One method of simplifying a complex rational expression requires us to
first write the numerator and denominator as a single algebraic fraction.
Then multiply the numerator by the reciprocal of the divisor and
simplify the result.
• Another method for simplifying a complex rational expression requires
that we multiply it by a special form of 1. Multiply the numerator and
denominator by the LCM of all the denominators as a means to clear the
fractions. After doing this, simplify the remaining rational expression.
• An algebraic fraction is reduced to lowest terms if the numerator and
denominator are polynomials that share no common factors other than
1.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Complex Rational Expressions
1
2
1. 5
4
7
8
2. 5
4
10
3
3. 20
9
4
− 21
4. 8
7
2
3
5. 5
6
7
4
6. 14
3
1− 32
7. 5
4
− 13
1
2
−5
8. 1
2
+ 13
1+ 32
9.
1− 14
2− 12
10.
1+ 34

5x 2
x+1
11. 25x
x+1
7+x
7x
12. x+7
14x 2
3y
x
13.
y2
x−1
5a2
b−1
14.
15a3
(b−1)2
1+ 1x
15.
2− 1x
2
x +1
16.
3− 1x
2
3y
−4
17.
6− 1y
5
y − 12
18. 10−y
y2
1
5
− 1x
19. 1 1
−
25 x2
1
x + 15
20. 1 1
−
25 x2
1 1
x −3
21. 1
9
− 12
x

1
4
+ 1x
22. 1 1
− 16
x2
1
16−
x2
23. 1
x −4
2− 1y
24. 1
1−
4y 2
1
x + 1y
25. 1 1
−
y2 x2
1
2x
− 43
26. 1
− 16
4x 2 9
2 1
−
25 2x 2
27. 1 1
5
− 2x
4 1
−
25 4x 2
28. 1 1
5
+ 4x
1
y − 1x
29.
4− xy2
1
ab
+2
30. 1 1
a+b
1
y + 1x
31. xy
3x
32. 1
3
− 1x
1− 4x − 21
x2
33. 15
1− 2x −
x2

1− 3x − 4
x2
34. 16
1−
x2
3− 2x1 − 1
2x 2
35.
2− 2x + 1
2x 2
1
2
− 5x + 12
x2
36. 1
2
− 6x + 18
x2
1 4
x −
3x 2
37. 8 16
3− x + 3x 2
3 1
1+ 10x −
10x 2
38. 3 1
5
− 10x
− 12
5x
x−1
39. 5
1+ 4x −
x2
2− 2x5 − 3
x2
40.
4x+3
1
x−3
+ 2x
41. 1 3
x − x−3
1 1
+
4x−5 x2
42. 1 1
+
x2 3x−10
1 4
x+5
+ x−2
43. 2 1
x−2
− x+5
3 2
x−1
− x+3
44. 2 1
x+3
+ x−3
x 2
x+1
− x+3
45. x 1
3x+4
+ x+1

x 2
x−9
+ x+1
46. x 1
7x−9
− x+1
x 1
3x+2
− x+2
47. x 2
x+2
− x+2
x 1
x−4
+ x+2
48. x 1
3x+4
+ x+2
a3 −8b 3
27
49.
a−2b
27a3 +b 3
ab
50.
3a+b
1 1
+
b3 a3
51. 1 1
b
+ a
1 1
−
b3 a3
52. 1 1
a − b
x 2 +y 2
xy +2
53.
x 2 −y 2
2xy
x 4y
y +4+ x
54. x 2y
y +3+ x
1
55. 1 +
1+ 12
1
56. 2 −
1+ 13
1
57. 1
1+ 1+x

x+1
x
58. 1
1− x+1
1− 1x
59.
x− 1x
1
x −x
60. x−1
x2
Part B: Discussion Board Topics
61. Choose a problem from this exercise set and clearly work it out on paper,
explaining each step in words. Scan your page and post it on the discussion
board.
62. Explain why we need to simplify the numerator and denominator to a

single algebraic fraction before multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor.
63. Two methods for simplifying complex rational expressions have been
presented in this section. Which of the two methods do you feel is more
efficient, and why?

ANSWERS
2
1:
5
3
3:
2
5: 4/5
7: −6/11
10
9:
3
x
11:
5
3(x−1)
13: xy
x+1
15:
2x−1
2
17: −
3
5x
19:
x+5
3x
21: −
x+3
4x+1
23: − x
xy
25: x−y
2x+5
27:
5x
x−y
29:
4xy−2
x+y
31:
x 2y2

x−7
33:
x−5
3x+1
35:
2x−1
1
37:
3x−4
x2
39:
x+5
3(x−2)
41: −
2x+3
5x+18
43:
x+12
(x−1)(3x+4)
45:
(x+2)(x+3)
x+1
47:
3x+2
a2 +2ab+4b 2
49:
27
a2 −ab+b 2
51:
a2 b 2
2(x+y)
53: x−y
5
55:
3
x+1
57:
x+2
1
59:
x+1

7.5 Solving Rational Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve rational equations.

2. Solve literal equations, or formulas, involving rational expressions.
Solving Rational Equations
A rational equation10 is an equation containing at least one rational expression.

Rational expressions typically contain a variable in the denominator. For this
reason, we will take care to ensure that the denominator is not 0 by making note of
restrictions and checking our solutions.
Solve rational equations by clearing the fractions by multiplying both sides of the
equation by the least common denominator (LCD).
Example 1: Solve: 5x − 13 = 1x.
Solution: We first make a note that x ≠ 0 and then multiply both sides by the LCD,
3x:
Check your answer by substituting 12 for x to see if you obtain a true statement.
10. An equation containing at least
one rational expression.
1172
After multiplying both sides of the previous example by the LCD, we were left with a
linear equation to solve. This is not always the case; sometimes we will be left with a
quadratic equation.
1 3
Example 2: Solve: 2 − x(x+1) = x+1.
Solution: In this example, there are two restrictions, x ≠ 0 and x ≠ −1 . Begin by

multiplying both sides by the LCD, x(x + 1) .
7.5 Solving Rational Equations 1173

After distributing and dividing out the common factors, a quadratic equation
remains. To solve it, rewrite it in standard form, factor, and then set each factor
equal to 0.
Check to see if these values solve the original equation.
Answer: The solutions are −1/2 and 1.

Up to this point, all of the possible solutions have solved the original equation.
However, this may not always be the case. Multiplying both sides of an equation by
variable factors may lead to extraneous solutions11, which are solutions that do
not solve the original equation. A complete list of steps for solving a rational
equation is outlined in the following example.
x 2 5
Example 3: Solve: x+2 + x 2 +5x+6
= x+3
.
Solution:
Step 1: Factor all denominators and determine the LCD.
The LCD is (x + 2) (x + 3).
Step 2: Identify the restrictions. In this case, they are x ≠ −2 and x ≠ −3 .
Step 3: Multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD. Distribute carefully and then
simplify.
11. A solution that does not solve


Step 4: Solve the resulting equation. Here the result is a quadratic equation.
Rewrite it in standard form, factor, and then set each factor equal to 0.
Step 5: Check for extraneous solutions. Always substitute into the original
equation, or the factored equivalent. In this case, choose the factored equivalent to
check:
Here −2 is an extraneous solution and is not included in the solution set. It is

important to note that −2 is a restriction.

If this process produces a solution that happens to be a restriction, then disregard it

as an extraneous solution.
x 3 7x
Try this! Solve: x−5 + x+2 = x 2 −3x−10
.
Answer: −3
Video Solution
Sometimes all potential solutions are extraneous, in which case we say that there is
no solution to the original equation. In the next two examples, we demonstrate two
ways in which a rational equation can have no solutions.
Example 4: Solve: 3x − 2
x+2
= 1
x+2
.
2 x −4
Solution: To identify the LCD, first factor the denominators.
Multiply both sides by the least common denonominator (LCD), (x + 2) (x − 2),

distributing carefully.

The equation is a contradiction and thus has no solution.
x 4 36
Example 5: Solve: x−4 − x+5 = x 2 +x−20
.
Solution: First, factor the denominators.
multiply by the LCD, (x − 4) (x + 5).

Take note that the restrictions are x ≠ 4 and x ≠ −5 . To clear the fractions,

Both of these values are restrictions of the original equation; hence both are
extraneous.
1 x 4x
Try this! Solve: x+1 + x−3 = x 2 −2x−3
.
Answer: ∅
Video Solution
It is important to point out that this technique for clearing algebraic fractions only
works for equations. Do not try to clear algebraic fractions when simplifying expressions.
As a reminder, we have

Expressions are to be simplified and equations are to be solved. If we multiply the

expression by the LCD, x (2x + 1) , we obtain another expression that is not
equivalent.
Literal Equations
Literal equations, or formulas, are often rational equations. Hence the techniques
described in this section can be used to solve for particular variables. Assume that
all variable expressions in the denominator are nonzero.
Example 6: Solve for x: z = x−5

y .
Solution: The goal is to isolate x. Assuming that y is nonzero, multiply both sides by
y and then add 5 to both sides.
Answer: x = yz + 5

Example 7: Solve for c: 1c = 1a + 1b.
Solution: In this example, the goal is to isolate c. We begin by multiplying both

sides by the LCD, a ⋅ b ⋅ c, distributing carefully.
On the right side of the equation, factor out c.
Next, divide both sides of the equation by the quantity (b + a).
ab
Answer: c = b+a
y+1
Try this! Solve for y: x = y−1 .
x+1
Answer: y = x−1

Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Begin solving rational equations by multiplying both sides by the LCD.

The resulting equivalent equation can be solved using the techniques
learned up to this point.
• Multiplying both sides of a rational equation by a variable expression
introduces the possibility of extraneous solutions. Therefore, we must
check the solutions against the set of restrictions. If a solution is a
restriction, then it is not part of the domain and is extraneous.
• When multiplying both sides of an equation by an expression, distribute
carefully and multiply each term by that expression.
• If all of the resulting solutions are extraneous, then the original
equation has no solutions.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Rational Equations
Solve.
1 1 1
1.
2
+ x = 8
1 1 2
2.
3
− x = 9
1 2 1
3.
3x
− 3
= x
2 1 3
4.
5x
− x = 10
1
5.
2x+1
=5
3
6.
3x−1
+4=5
2x−3 2
7.
x+5
= x+5
5x x−1
8.
2x−1
= 2x−1
5 6
9. x−7 = x−9
5 3
10.
x+5
= x+1
x 6
11.
6
− x =0
5 x
12. x + 5
= −2
x 2
13.
x+12
= x
2x 1
14.
x+5
= 6−x

1 x
15. x + 2x+1
=0
9x 4
16.
3x−1
− x =0
2 48
17. 1 − x = x2
9 5
18. 2 − x = x2
12 12
19. 1 + x = x−2
3x−5 1
20. 1 − =− x
x(3x−4)
x 14
21.
2
= x+3
3x x+1
22.
2
= 3−x
−3x+3
23. 6 = x−1
12 6(4−x)
24.
x−2
=2+ x−2
2x 3(x−1)
25. 2 + =
x−3 x−3
(x−1)(6x−1)
x 1 x
26.
x−1
+ 6x−1
=
12 1 2
27.
x 2 −81
= x+9
− x−9
14 2 3
28.
x 2 −49
= x−7
− x+7
6x 4 3x
29.
x+3
+ x−3
= x 2 −9
3x 17 48
30.
x+2
− x−2
=− x 2 −4
31. x −1 +3=0

32. 4 − y −1 = 0
33. y −2 −4=0
34. 9x −2 −1=0
35. 3(x − 1) −1 + 5 = 0
36. 5 − 2(3x + 1) −1 = 0
2 2
37. 3 + =
x−3 x−3
1 1
38. x = x+1
x x+1
39.
x+1
= x
3x−1 x
40.
3x
= x+3
4x−7 3x−2
41.
x−5
= x−5
x 1
42.
x 2 −9
= x−3
3x+4 2
43.
x−8
− 8−x
=1
1 6
44. x = x(x+3)
3 1 13
45. x = x+1
+ x(x+1)
x 3 9x
46.
x−1
− 4x−1
= (4x−1)(x−1)
1 x 2
47.
x−4
+ x−2
= x 2 −6x+8
x x−1 5
48.
x−5
+ x 2 −11x+30
= x−6

x 6 5
49.
x+1
− 5x 2 +4x−1
=− 5x−1
−8 2(x+2) 1
50.
x 2 −4x−12
+ x 2 +4x−60
= x+2
x 20 4
51.
x+2
− x 2 −x−6
=− x−3
x+7 x−1 4
52.
x−1
+ x+1
= x 2 −1
x−1 x−3 −x+5

53.
x−3
+ x−1
= x−3
x−2 x−5 8−x

54.
x−5
− x−2
= x−5
x+7 81 9
55.
x−2
− x 2 +5x−14
= x+7
x 5x+30
56.
x−6
+1= 36−x 2
2x 4 −7
57.
x+1
− 4x−3
= 4x 2 +x−3
x−5 5 5x
58.
x−10
+ x−5
=− x 2 −15x+50
5 x+1 5
59.
x 2 +5x+4
+ x 2 +3x−4
= x 2 −1
1 x−9 1
60.
x 2 −2x−63
+ x 2 +10x+21
= x 2 −6x−27
4 2(x−2) x+2
61.
x 2 −4
+ x 2 −4x−12
= x 2 −8x+12
x+2 x+2 x−1

62.
x 2 −5x+4
+ x 2 +x−2
= x 2 −2x−8
6x 11x+1 6x
63.
x−1
− 2x 2 −x−1
= 2x+1
8x 4x 1
64.
2x−3
+ 2x 2 −7x+6
= x−2
Part B: Literal Equations

Solve for the indicated variable.
D
65. Solve for r: t= r.
2A
66. Solve for b: h= b
.
I
67. Solve for P: t= Pr
.
C
68. Solve for π : r= .
2π
1 1 1
69. Solve for c: a = b
+ c.
y−y 1
70. Solve for y: m= x−x 1 .
71. Solve for w: P = 2(l + w).
72. Solve for t: A = P(1 + rt).

1
73. Solve for m: s= n+m .
S
74. Solve for S: h= 2πr
− r.
x
75. Solve for x: y= x+2
.
2x+1
76. Solve for x: y= 5x
.
1 1 1
77. Solve for R: R = R1
+ R2
.
1 1 1
78. Solve for S 1 : = S1
+ S2
.
f
Part C: Discussion Board
79. Explain why multiplying both sides of an equation by the LCD sometimes
produces extraneous solutions.

80. Explain the connection between the technique of cross multiplication

and multiplying both sides of a rational equation by the LCD.
81. Explain how we can tell the difference between a rational expression and
a rational equation. How do we treat them differently?

ANSWERS
1: −8/3
3: −1
5: −2/5
7: 5/2
9: −3
11: −6, 6
13: −4, 6
15: −1
17: −6, 8
19: −4, 6
21: −7, 4
23: ∅
25: ∅
27: −39
29: 4/3, 3/2
31: −1/3
33: −1/2, 1/2
35: 2/5
37: ∅

39: −1/2
41: ∅
43: −7
45: 5
47: −1
49: ∅
51: −4
53: 5/3
55: ∅
57: 1/2
59: −6, 4
61: 10
63: 1/3
D
65: r = t
I
67: P = tr
ab
69: c = b−a
P−2l
71: w = 2
1−sn
73: m = s
2y
75: x = 1−y

R1 R2
77: R = R 1 +R 2

7.6 Applications of Rational Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve applications involving relationships between real numbers.

2. Solve applications involving uniform motion (distance problems).
3. Solve work-rate applications.
Number Problems
Recall that the reciprocal12 of a nonzero number n is 1/n. For example, the
reciprocal of 5 is 1/5 and 5 ⋅ 1/5 = 1. In this section, the applications will often
involve the key word “reciprocal.” When this is the case, we will see that the
algebraic setup results in a rational equation.
Example 1: A positive integer is 4 less than another. The sum of the reciprocals of
the two positive integers is 10/21. Find the two integers.
Solution: Begin by assigning variables to the unknowns.
Next, use the reciprocals 1n and n−4

1
to translate the sentences into an algebraic
equation.
12. The reciprocal of a nonzero

number n is 1/n.
1192
We can solve this rational expression by multiplying both sides of the equation by
the least common denominator (LCD). In this case, the LCD is 21n(n − 4).
Solve the resulting quadratic equation.
The question calls for integers and the only integer solution is n = 7. Hence
disregard 6/5. Use the expression n − 4 to find the smaller integer.
7.6 Applications of Rational Equations 1193

Answer: The two positive integers are 3 and 7. The check is left to the reader.
Example 2: A positive integer is 4 less than another. If the reciprocal of the smaller
integer is subtracted from twice the reciprocal of the larger, then the result is 1/30.
Find the two integers.
Solution:
Set up an algebraic equation.
Solve this rational expression by multiplying both sides by the LCD. The LCD is
30n(n − 4).

Here we have two viable possibilities for the larger integer. For this reason, we will
we have two solutions to this problem.
As a check, perform the operations indicated in the problem.

Answer: Two sets of positive integers solve this problem: {6, 10} and {20, 24}.
Try this! The difference between the reciprocals of two consecutive positive odd
integers is 2/15. Find the integers.
Answer: The integers are 3 and 5.
Video Solution

Uniform Motion Problems
Uniform motion13 problems, also referred to as distance problems, involve the

formula
where the distance, D, is given as the product of the average rate, r, and the time, t,
traveled at that rate. If we divide both sides by the average rate, r, then we obtain
13. Described by the formula the formula
D = rt, where the distance, D,
is given as the product of the
average rate, r, and the time, t,
traveled at that rate.

For this reason, when the unknown quantity is time, the algebraic setup for
distance problems often results in a rational equation. Similarly, when the
unknown quantity is the rate, the setup also may result in a rational equation.
We begin any uniform motion problem by first organizing our data with a chart.
Use this information to set up an algebraic equation that models the application.
Example 5: Mary spent the first 120 miles of her road trip in traffic. When the
traffic cleared, she was able to drive twice as fast for the remaining 300 miles. If the
total trip took 9 hours, then how fast was she moving in traffic?
To avoid introducing two more variables for the time column, use the formula
t = Dr. Here the time for each leg of the trip is calculated as follows:
Use these expressions to complete the chart.

The algebraic setup is defined by the time column. Add the times for each leg of the
trip to obtain a total of 9 hours:
We begin solving this equation by first multiplying both sides by the LCD, 2x.

Answer: Mary averaged 30 miles per hour in traffic.
Example 6: A passenger train can travel, on average, 20 miles per hour faster than a
freight train. If the passenger train covers 390 miles in the same time it takes the
freight train to cover 270 miles, then how fast is each train?
Solution: First, identify the unknown quantities and organize the data.
Next, organize the given data in a chart.
Use the formula t = Dr to fill in the time column for each train.

Because the trains travel the same amount of time, finish the algebraic setup by
equating the expressions that represent the times:
Solve this equation by first multiplying both sides by the LCD, x(x + 20) .
Use x + 20 to find the speed of the passenger train.
Answer: The speed of the passenger train is 65 miles per hour and the speed of the
freight train is 45 miles per hour.

Example 7: Brett lives on the river 8 miles upstream from town. When the current
is 2 miles per hour, he can row his boat downstream to town for supplies and back
in 3 hours. What is his average rowing speed in still water?
Solution:
Rowing downstream, the current increases his speed, and his rate is x + 2 miles per
hour. Rowing upstream, the current decreases his speed, and his rate is x − 2 miles
per hour. Begin by organizing the data in the following chart:
Use the formula t = Dr to fill in the time column for each leg of the trip.

The algebraic setup is defined by the time column. Add the times for each leg of the
trip to obtain a total of 3 hours:
Solve this equation by first multiplying both sides by the LCD, (x + 2) (x − 2).
Next, solve the resulting quadratic equation.
Use only the positive solution, x = 6 miles per hour.
Answer: His rowing speed is 6 miles per hour.

Try this! Dwayne drove 18 miles to the airport to pick up his father and then
returned home. On the return trip he was able to drive an average of 15 miles per
hour faster than he did on the trip there. If the total driving time was 1 hour, then
what was his average speed driving to the airport?
Answer: His average speed driving to the airport was 30 miles per hour.
Video Solution

Work-Rate Problems
The rate at which a task can be performed is called a work rate14. For example, if a
painter can paint a room in 8 hours, then the task is to paint the room, and we can
write
In other words, the painter can complete 18 of the task per hour. If he works for less
than 8 hours, then he will perform a fraction of the task. For example,
Obtain the amount of the task completed by multiplying the work rate by the
amount of time the painter works. Typically, work-rate problems involve people
14. The rate at which a task can be working together to complete tasks. When this is the case, we can organize the data
performed. in a chart, just as we have done with distance problems.

Suppose an apprentice painter can paint the same room by himself in 10 hours.
Then we say that he can complete 101 of the task per hour. Let t represent the time it
takes both of the painters, working together, to paint the room.
To complete the chart, multiply the work rate by the time for each person. The
portion of the room each can paint adds to a total of 1 task completed. This is
represented by the equation obtained from the first column of the chart:
This setup results in a rational equation that can be solved for t by multiplying both
sides by the LCD, 40.

Therefore, the two painters, working together, complete the task in 4 49 hours.
In general, we have the following work-rate formula15:
1 1
Here t1
and t2
are the individual work rates and t is the time it takes to complete
one task working together. If we factor out the time, t, and then divide both sides by
t, we obtain an equivalent work-rate formula:
1 1
15. t ⋅ t + t ⋅ t = 1, where t1
1 2 1
and t1 are the individual work
2
rates and t is the time it takes In summary, we have the following equivalent work-rate formulas:
to complete the task working
together.

Example 3: Working alone, Billy’s dad can complete the yard work in 3 hours. If
Billy helps his dad, then the yard work takes 2 hours. How long would it take Billy
working alone to complete the yard work?
Solution: The given information tells us that Billy’s dad has an individual work rate
of 13 task per hour. If we let x represent the time it takes Billy working alone to
complete the yard work, then Billy’s individual work rate is 1x , and we can write
Working together, they can complete the task in 2 hours. Multiply the individual
work rates by 2 hours to fill in the chart.

The amount of the task each completes will total 1 completed task. To solve for x,
we first multiply both sides by the LCD, 3x.
Answer: It takes Billy 6 hours to complete the yard work alone.
Of course, the unit of time for the work rate need not always be in hours.

Example 4: Working together, two construction crews can build a shed in 5 days.
Working separately, the less experienced crew takes twice as long to build a shed
than the more experienced crew. Working separately, how long does it take each
crew to build a shed?
Solution:
Working together, the job is completed in 5 days. This gives the following setup:
The first column in the chart gives us an algebraic equation that models the
problem:
Solve the equation by multiplying both sides by 2x.

To determine the time it takes the less experienced crew, we use 2x:
Answer: Working separately, the experienced crew takes 7½ days to build a shed,
and the less experienced crew takes 15 days to build a shed.
Try this! Joe’s garden hose fills the pool in 12 hours. His neighbor has a thinner
hose that fills the pool in 15 hours. How long will it take to fill the pool using both
hoses?
Answer: It will take both hoses 6 23 hours to fill the pool.
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• In this section, all of the steps outlined for solving general word
problems apply. Look for the new key word “reciprocal,” which
indicates that you should write the quantity in the denominator of a
fraction with numerator 1.
• When solving distance problems where the time element is unknown,
D
use the equivalent form of the uniform motion formula, t = r , to avoid
introducing more variables.
• When solving work-rate problems, multiply the individual work rate by
the time to obtain the portion of the task completed. The sum of the
portions of the task results in the total amount of work completed.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Number Problems
Use algebra to solve the following applications.
1. A positive integer is twice another. The sum of the reciprocals of the two
positive integers is 3/10. Find the two integers.
3. A positive integer is twice another. The difference of the reciprocals of the

two positive integers is 1/8. Find the two integers.
4. A positive integer is twice another. The difference of the reciprocals of the

two positive integers is 1/18. Find the two integers.
5. A positive integer is 2 less than another. If the sum of the reciprocal of the
smaller and twice the reciprocal of the larger is 5/12, then find the two
integers.
6. A positive integer is 2 more than another. If the sum of the reciprocal of

the smaller and twice the reciprocal of the larger is 17/35, then find the two
integers.
7. The sum of the reciprocals of two consecutive positive even integers is 11/
60. Find the two even integers.
8. The sum of the reciprocals of two consecutive positive odd integers is 16/
63. Find the integers.
9. The difference of the reciprocals of two consecutive positive even integers

is 1/24. Find the two even integers.
10. The difference of the reciprocals of two consecutive positive odd integers
is 2/99. Find the integers.
11. If 3 times the reciprocal of the larger of two consecutive integers is

subtracted from 2 times the reciprocal of the smaller, then the result is 1/2.

12. If 3 times the reciprocal of the smaller of two consecutive integers is

subtracted from 7 times the reciprocal of the larger, then the result is 1/2.
13. A positive integer is 5 less than another. If the reciprocal of the smaller
integer is subtracted from 3 times the reciprocal of the larger, then the
result is 1/12. Find the two integers.
14. A positive integer is 6 less than another. If the reciprocal of the smaller
integer is subtracted from 10 times the reciprocal of the larger, then the
result is 3/7. Find the two integers.
Part B: Uniform Motion Problems
15. James can jog twice as fast as he can walk. He was able to jog the first 9
miles to his grandmother’s house, but then he tired and walked the
remaining 1.5 miles. If the total trip took 2 hours, then what was his average
jogging speed?
16. On a business trip, an executive traveled 720 miles by jet aircraft and
then another 80 miles by helicopter. If the jet averaged 3 times the speed of
the helicopter and the total trip took 4 hours, then what was the average
speed of the jet?
17. Sally was able to drive an average of 20 miles per hour faster in her car
after the traffic cleared. She drove 23 miles in traffic before it cleared and
then drove another 99 miles. If the total trip took 2 hours, then what was
her average speed in traffic?
18. Harry traveled 15 miles on the bus and then another 72 miles on a train.
If the train was 18 miles per hour faster than the bus and the total trip took
2 hours, then what was the average speed of the train?
19. A bus averages 6 miles per hour faster than a trolley. If the bus travels 90
miles in the same time it takes the trolley to travel 75 miles, then what is the
speed of each?
20. A passenger car averages 16 miles per hour faster than the bus. If the bus
travels 56 miles in the same time it takes the passenger car to travel 84
miles, then what is the speed of each?

21. A light aircraft travels 2 miles per hour less than twice as fast as a
passenger car. If the passenger car can travel 231 miles in the same time it
takes the aircraft to travel 455 miles, then what is the average speed of
each?
22. Mary can run 1 mile per hour more than twice as fast as Bill can walk. If
Bill can walk 3 miles in the same time it takes Mary to run 7.2 miles, then
what is Bill’s average walking speed?
23. An airplane traveling with a 20-mile-per-hour tailwind covers 270 miles.

On the return trip against the wind, it covers 190 miles in the same amount
of time. What is the speed of the airplane in still air?
24. A jet airliner traveling with a 30-mile-per-hour tailwind covers 525 miles
in the same amount of time it is able to travel 495 miles after the tailwind
eases to 10 miles per hour. What is the speed of the airliner in still air?
25. A boat averages 16 miles per hour in still water. With the current, the
boat can travel 95 miles in the same time it travels 65 miles against it. What
is the speed of the current?
26. A river tour boat averages 7 miles per hour in still water. If the total
24-mile tour downriver and 24 miles back takes 7 hours, then how fast is the
river current?
27. If the river current flows at an average 3 miles per hour, then a tour boat
makes the 9-mile tour downstream with the current and back the 9 miles
against the current in 4 hours. What is the average speed of the boat in still
water?
28. Jane rowed her canoe against a 1-mile-per-hour current upstream 12

miles and then returned the 12 miles back downstream. If the total trip took
5 hours, then at what speed can Jane row in still water?
29. Jose drove 15 miles to pick up his sister and then returned home. On the
return trip, he was able to average 15 miles per hour faster than he did on
the trip to pick her up. If the total trip took 1 hour, then what was Jose’s
average speed on the return trip?
30. Barry drove the 24 miles to town and then back in 1 hour. On the return
trip, he was able to average 14 miles per hour faster than he averaged on the
trip to town. What was his average speed on the trip to town?

31. Jerry paddled his kayak upstream against a 1-mile-per-hour current for
12 miles. The return trip downstream with the 1-mile-per-hour current took
1 hour less time. How fast can Jerry paddle the kayak in still water?
32. It takes a light aircraft 1 hour more time to fly 360 miles against a
30-mile-per-hour headwind than it does to fly the same distance with it.
What is the speed of the aircraft in calm air?
Part C: Work-Rate Problems
33. James can paint the office by himself in 7 hours. Manny paints the office
in 10 hours. How long will it take them to paint the office working together?
34. Barry can lay a brick driveway by himself in 12 hours. Robert does the
same job in 10 hours. How long will it take them to lay the brick driveway
working together?
35. Jerry can detail a car by himself in 50 minutes. Sally does the same job in
1 hour. How long will it take them to detail a car working together?
36. Jose can build a small shed by himself in 26 hours. Alex builds the same
small shed in 2 days. How long would it take them to build the shed working
together?
37. Allison can complete a sales route by herself in 6 hours. Working with an
associate, she completes the route in 4 hours. How long would it take her
associate to complete the route by herself?
38. James can prepare and paint a house by himself in 5 days. Working with
his brother, Bryan, they can do it in 3 days. How long would it take Bryan to
prepare and paint the house by himself?
39. Joe can assemble a computer by himself in 1 hour. Working with an

assistant, he can assemble a computer in 40 minutes. How long would it take
his assistant to assemble a computer working alone?
40. The teacher’s assistant can grade class homework assignments by herself
in 1 hour. If the teacher helps, then the grading can be completed in 20

minutes. How long would it take the teacher to grade the papers working
alone?
41. A larger pipe fills a water tank twice as fast as a smaller pipe. When both
pipes are used, they fill the tank in 5 hours. If the larger pipe is left off, then
how long would it take the smaller pipe to fill the tank?
42. A newer printer can print twice as fast as an older printer. If both
printers working together can print a batch of flyers in 45 minutes, then
how long would it take the newer printer to print the batch working alone?
43. Working alone, Henry takes 9 hours longer than Mary to clean the
carpets in the entire office. Working together, they clean the carpets in 6
hours. How long would it take Mary to clean the office carpets if Henry were
not there to help?
44. Working alone, Monique takes 4 hours longer than Audrey to record the
inventory of the entire shop. Working together, they take inventory in 1.5
hours. How long would it take Audrey to record the inventory working
alone?
45. Jerry can lay a tile floor in 3 hours less time than Jake. If they work
together, the floor takes 2 hours. How long would it take Jerry to lay the
floor by himself?
46. Jeremy can build a model airplane in 5 hours less time than his brother.
Working together, they need 6 hours to build the plane. How long would it
take Jeremy to build the model airplane working alone?
47. Harry can paint a shed by himself in 6 hours. Jeremy can paint the same
shed by himself in 8 hours. How long will it take them to paint two sheds
working together?
48. Joe assembles a computer by himself in 1 hour. Working with an

assistant, he can assemble 10 computers in 6 hours. How long would it take
his assistant to assemble 1 computer working alone?
49. Jerry can lay a tile floor in 3 hours, and his assistant can do the same job
in 4 hours. If Jerry starts the job and his assistant joins him 1 hour later,
then how long will it take to lay the floor?

50. Working alone, Monique takes 6 hours to record the inventory of the
entire shop, while it takes Audrey only 4 hours to do the same job. How long
will it take them working together if Monique leaves 2 hours early?

ANSWERS
1: {5, 10}
3: {4, 8}
5: {6, 8}
7: {10, 12}
9: {6, 8}
11: {1, 2} or {−4, −3}
13: {4, 9} or {15, 20}
19: Trolley: 30 miles per hour; bus: 36 miles per hour
21: Passenger car: 66 miles per hour; aircraft: 130 miles per hour
33: 4 2
17
hours
35: 27 3
11
minutes
37: 12 hours

39: 2 hours
41: 15 hours
43: 9 hours
45: 3 hours
47: 6 6
7
hours
49: 2 1
7
hours

7.7 Variation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve applications involving direct variation.

2. Solve applications involving inverse variation.
3. Solve applications involving joint variation.
Direct Variation
Consider a freight train moving at a constant speed of 30 miles per hour. The
equation that expresses the distance traveled at that speed in terms of time is given
by
After 1 hour the train has traveled 30 miles, after 2 hours the train has traveled 60
miles, and so on. We can construct a chart and graph this relation.
1219
In this example, we can see that the distance varies over time as the product of the
constant rate, 30 miles per hour, and the variable, t. This relationship is described
as direct variation16 and 30 is called the variation constant. In addition, if we
divide both sides of D = 30t by t we have
In this form, it is reasonable to say that D is proportional to t, where 30 is the

constant of proportionality. In general, we have
Key words Translation
“y varies directly as x”
y = kx
“y is directly proportional17 to x”
16. Describes two quantities x and
y that are constant multiples of
each other: y = kx .
17. Used when referring to direct

variation.
7.7 Variation 1220

“y is proportional to x”
Here k is nonzero and is called the constant of variation18 or the constant of

proportionality19.
Example 1: The circumference of a circle is directly proportional to its diameter,

and the constant of proportionality is π. If the circumference is measured to be 20
inches, then what is the radius of the circle?
Solution:
Use the fact that “the circumference is directly proportional to the diameter” to
write an equation that relates the two variables.
We are given that “the constant of proportionality is π,” or k = π. Therefore, we

write
18. The nonzero multiple k, when Now use this formula to find d when the circumference is 20 inches.
quantities vary directly or
inversely.
19. Used when referring to the

constant of variation.
7.7 Variation 1221

The radius of the circle, r, is one-half of its diameter.
Answer: The radius is 10

π inches, or approximately 3.18 inches.
Typically, we will not be given the constant of variation. Instead, we will be given
information from which it can be determined.
Example 2: An object’s weight on earth varies directly to its weight on the moon. If
a man weighs 180 pounds on earth, then he will weigh 30 pounds on the moon. Set
up an algebraic equation that expresses the weight on earth in terms of the weight
on the moon and use it to determine the weight of a woman on the moon if she
weighs 120 pounds on earth.
Solution:
7.7 Variation 1222

We are given that the “weight on earth varies directly to the weight on the moon.”
To find the constant of variation k, use the given information. A 180-pound man on
earth weighs 30 pounds on the moon, or y = 180 when x = 30 .
Solve for k.
Next, set up a formula that models the given information.
This implies that a person’s weight on earth is 6 times her weight on the moon. To
answer the question, use the woman’s weight on earth, y = 120 pounds, and solve
for x.
7.7 Variation 1223

Answer: The woman weighs 20 pounds on the moon.
Inverse Variation
Next, consider the relationship between time and rate,
If we wish to travel a fixed distance, then we can determine the average speed
required to travel that distance in a given amount of time. For example, if we wish
to drive 240 miles in 4 hours, we can determine the required average speed as
follows:
The average speed required to drive 240 miles in 4 hours is 60 miles per hour. If we
wish to drive the 240 miles in 5 hours, then determine the required speed using a
similar equation:
In this case, we would only have to average 48 miles per hour. We can make a chart
and view this relationship on a graph.
7.7 Variation 1224

This is an example of an inverse relationship. We say that r is inversely proportional

to the time t, where 240 is the constant of proportionality. In general, we have
“y varies inversely20 as x”
k
y= x
“y is inversely proportional21 to x”
Again, k is nonzero and is called the constant of variation or the constant of

proportionality.
Example 3: If y varies inversely as x and y = 5 when x = 2 , then find the constant

20. Describes two quantities x and of proportionality and an equation that relates the two variables.
y, where one variable is
directly proportional to the
reciprocal of the other:
Solution: If we let k represent the constant of proportionality, then the statement
y= k
x .
“y varies inversely as x” can be written as follows:
21. Used when referring to inverse
variation.
7.7 Variation 1225

Use the given information, y = 5 when x = 2 , to find k.
Solve for k.
Therefore, the formula that models the problem is
Answer: The constant of proportionality is 10, and the equation is y = 10

x .
Example 4: The weight of an object varies inversely as the square of its distance
from the center of earth. If an object weighs 100 pounds on the surface of earth
(approximately 4,000 miles from the center), then how much will it weigh at 1,000
miles above earth’s surface?
Solution:
7.7 Variation 1226

Since “w varies inversely as the square of d,” we can write
Use the given information to find k. An object weighs 100 pounds on the surface of
earth, approximately 4,000 miles from the center. In other words, w = 100 when d =
4,000:
Solve for k.
Therefore, we can model the problem with the following formula:
To use the formula to find the weight, we need the distance from the center of
earth. Since the object is 1,000 miles above the surface, find the distance from the
center of earth by adding 4,000 miles:
To answer the question, use the formula with d = 5,000.
7.7 Variation 1227

Answer: The object will weigh 64 pounds at a distance 1,000 miles above the surface
of earth.
Joint Variation
Lastly, we define relationships between multiple variables. In general, we have
Vocabulary Translation
“y varies jointly22 as x and z”
y = kxz
“y is jointly proportional23 to x and z”
Here k is nonzero and is called the constant of variation or the constant of

proportionality.
Example 5: The area of an ellipse varies jointly as a, half of the ellipse’s major axis,
and b, half of the ellipse’s minor axis. If the area of an ellipse is 300π cm2 , where
22. Describes a quantity y that a = 10 cm and b = 30 cm, then what is the constant of proportionality? Give a
varies directly as the product
of two other quantities x and z: formula for the area of an ellipse.
y = kxz .
23. Used when referring to joint
variation.
7.7 Variation 1228

Solution: If we let A represent the area of an ellipse, then we can use the statement
“area varies jointly as a and b” to write
To find the constant of variation, k, use the fact that the area is 300π when a = 10
and b = 30.
Therefore, the formula for the area of an ellipse is
Answer: The constant of proportionality is π, and the formula for the area is
A = abπ .
Try this! Given that y varies directly as the square of x and inversely to z, where y =
2 when x = 3 and z = 27, find y when x = 2 and z = 16.
Answer: 3/2
7.7 Variation 1229

Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAY
• The setup of variation problems usually requires multiple steps. First,

identify the key words to set up an equation and then use the given
information to find the constant of variation k. After determining the
constant of variation, write a formula that models the problem. Once a
formula is found, use it to answer the question.
7.7 Variation 1230

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Variation Problems
Translate the following sentences into a mathematical formula.
1. The distance, D, an automobile can travel is directly proportional to the

time, t, that it travels at a constant speed.
2. The extension of a hanging spring, d, is directly proportional to the

weight, w, attached to it.
3. An automobile’s breaking distance, d, is directly proportional to the

square of the automobile’s speed, v.
4. The volume, V, of a sphere varies directly as the cube of its radius, r.
5. The volume, V, of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the

pressure, p, exerted on it.
6. The intensity, I, of light from a light source is inversely proportional to

the square of the distance, d, from the source.
7. Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with
a force, F, that is directly proportional to the product of the masses, m 1 and
m 2 , of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance, d, between them.
8. Simple interest, I, is jointly proportional to the annual interest rate, r, and

the time, t, in years a fixed amount of money is invested.
9. The period, T, of a pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of

its length, L.
10. The time, t, it takes an object to fall is directly proportional to the square
root of the distance, d, it falls.
Construct a mathematical model given the following.
11. y varies directly as x, and y = 30 when x = 6.
7.7 Variation 1231

13. y is directly proportional to x, and y = 12 when x = 3.
14. y is directly proportional to x, and y = 120 when x = 20.
17. y varies inversely as x, and y = 5 when x = 7.
19. y is inversely proportional to x, and y = 3 when x = 9.
20. y is inversely proportional to x, and y = 21 when x = 3.
21. y varies inversely as x, and y = 2 when x = 1/8.
22. y varies inversely as x, and y = 3/2 when x = 1/9.
23. y varies jointly as x and z, where y = 8 when x = 4 and z = 1/2.
24. y varies jointly as x and z, where y = 24 when x = 1/3 and z = 9.
25. y is jointly proportional to x and z, where y = 2 when x = 1 and z = 3.
27. y varies jointly as x and z, where y = 2/3 when x = 1/2 and z = 12.
28. y varies jointly as x and z, where y = 5 when x = 3/2 and z = 2/9.
29. y varies directly as the square of x, where y = 45 when x = 3.
30. y varies directly as the square of x, where y = 3 when x = 1/2.
31. y is inversely proportional to the square of x, where y = 27 when x = 1/3.
7.7 Variation 1232

32. y is inversely proportional to the square of x, where y = 9 when x = 2/3.
33. y varies jointly as x and the square of z, where y = 54 when x = 2 and z = 3.
34. y varies jointly as x and the square of z, where y = 6 when x = 1/4 and z =
2/3.
35. y varies jointly as x and z and inversely as the square of w, where y = 30

when x = 8, z = 3, and w = 2.
36. y varies jointly as x and z and inversely as the square of w, where y = 5

when x = 1, z = 3, and w = 1/2.
37. y varies directly as the square root of x and inversely as z, where y = 12

when x = 9 and z = 5.
38. y varies directly as the square root of x and inversely as the square of z,
where y = 15 when x = 25 and z = 2.
39. y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as z and the square of w,
where y = 14 when x = 4, w = 2, and z = 2.
40. y varies directly as the square root of x and inversely as z and the square
of w, where y = 27 when x = 9, w = 1/2, and z = 4.
Part B: Variation Problems
Applications involving variation.
41. Revenue in dollars is directly proportional to the number of branded

sweat shirts sold. If the revenue earned from selling 25 sweat shirts is
$318.75, then determine the revenue if 30 sweat shirts are sold.
42. The sales tax on the purchase of a new car varies directly as the price of
the car. If an $18,000 new car is purchased, then the sales tax is $1,350. How
much sales tax is charged if the new car is priced at $22,000?
43. The price of a share of common stock in a company is directly

proportional to the earnings per share (EPS) of the previous 12 months. If
the price of a share of common stock in a company is $22.55 and the EPS is
7.7 Variation 1233

published to be $1.10, then determine the value of the stock if the EPS
increases by $0.20.
44. The distance traveled on a road trip varies directly with the time spent
on the road. If a 126-mile trip can be made in 3 hours, then what distance
can be traveled in 4 hours?
45. The circumference of a circle is directly proportional to its radius. If the

circumference of a circle with radius 7 centimeters is measured as 14π
centimeters, then find the constant of proportionality.
46. The area of circle varies directly as the square of its radius. If the area of
a circle with radius 7 centimeters is determined to be 49π square
centimeters, then find the constant of proportionality.
47. The surface area of a sphere varies directly as the square of its radius.
When the radius of a sphere measures 2 meters, the surface area measures
16π square meters. Find the surface area of a sphere with radius 3 meters.
48. The volume of a sphere varies directly as the cube of its radius. When the
radius of a sphere measures 3 meters, the volume is 36π cubic meters. Find
the volume of a sphere with radius 1 meter.
49. With a fixed height, the volume of a cone is directly proportional to the
square of the radius at the base. When the radius at the base measures 10
centimeters, the volume is 200 cubic centimeters. Determine the volume of
the cone if the radius of the base is halved.
50. The distance, d, an object in free fall drops varies directly with the square
of the time, t, that it has been falling. If an object in free fall drops 36 feet in
1.5 seconds, then how far will it have fallen in 3 seconds?
Hooke’s law suggests that the extension of a hanging spring is directly proportional
to the weight attached to it. The constant of variation is called the spring constant.
7.7 Variation 1234

Figure 7.1
Robert Hooke
(1635–1703)
51. If a hanging spring is stretched 5 inches when a 20‑pound weight is

attached to it, then determine its spring constant.
52. If a hanging spring is stretched 3 centimeters when a 2-kilogram weight

is attached to it, then determine the spring constant.
53. If a hanging spring is stretched 3 inches when a 2‑pound weight is

attached, then how far will it stretch with a 5-pound weight attached?
54. If a hanging spring is stretched 6 centimeters when a 4-kilogram weight

is attached to it, then how far will it stretch with a 2-kilogram weight
attached?
The breaking distance of an automobile is directly proportional to the square of its

speed.
55. If it takes 36 feet to stop a particular automobile moving at a speed of 30

miles per hour, then how much breaking distance is required if the speed is
35 miles per hour?
56. After an accident, it was determined that it took a driver 80 feet to stop
his car. In an experiment under similar conditions, it takes 45 feet to stop
the car moving at a speed of 30 miles per hour. Estimate how fast the driver
was moving before the accident.
Boyle’s law states that if the temperature remains constant, the volume, V, of a given
mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure, p, exerted on it.
7.7 Variation 1235

Figure 7.2
Robert Boyle
(1627–1691)
Portrait of Robert
Boyle, from
http://commons.wikim
edia.org/wiki/
File:Robert_boyle.jpg.
57. A balloon is filled to a volume of 216 cubic inches on a diving boat under
1 atmosphere of pressure. If the balloon is taken underwater approximately
33 feet, where the pressure measures 2 atmospheres, then what is the
volume of the balloon?
58. If a balloon is filled to 216 cubic inches under a pressure of 3

atmospheres at a depth of 66 feet, then what would the volume be at the
surface, where the pressure is 1 atmosphere?
59. To balance a seesaw, the distance from the fulcrum that a person must
sit is inversely proportional to his weight. If a 72-pound boy is sitting 3 feet
from the fulcrum, then how far from the fulcrum must a 54-pound boy sit to
balance the seesaw?
60. The current, I, in an electrical conductor is inversely proportional to its

resistance, R. If the current is 1/4 ampere when the resistance is 100 ohms,
then what is the current when the resistance is 150 ohms?
61. The number of men, represented by y, needed to lay a cobblestone

driveway is directly proportional to the area, A, of the driveway and
inversely proportional to the amount of time, t, allowed to complete the job.
Typically, 3 men can lay 1,200 square feet of cobblestone in 4 hours. How
7.7 Variation 1236

many men will be required to lay 2,400 square feet of cobblestone given 6
hours?
62. The volume of a right circular cylinder varies jointly as the square of its
radius and its height. A right circular cylinder with a 3-centimeter radius
and a height of 4 centimeters has a volume of 36π cubic centimeters. Find a
formula for the volume of a right circular cylinder in terms of its radius and
height.
63. The period, T, of a pendulum is directly proportional to the square root

of its length, L. If the length of a pendulum is 1 meter, then the period is
approximately 2 seconds. Approximate the period of a pendulum that is 0.5
meter in length.
64. The time, t, it takes an object to fall is directly proportional to the square
root of the distance, d, it falls. An object dropped from 4 feet will take 1/2
second to hit the ground. How long will it take an object dropped from 16
feet to hit the ground?
Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every particle of matter in the
universe attracts every other particle with a force, F, that is directly proportional to
the product of the masses, m 1 and m 2 , of the particles and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance, d, between them. The constant of proportionality is
called the gravitational constant.
Figure 7.3
Sir Isaac Newton
(1643–1724)
7.7 Variation 1237

Source: Portrait of
Isaac Newton by Sir
Godfrey Kneller, from
http://commons.wikim
edia.org/wiki/
File:GodfreyKneller-
IsaacNewton-1689.jpg.
65. If two objects with masses 50 kilograms and 100 kilograms are 1/2 meter
apart, then they produce approximately 1.34 × 10 −6 newtons (N) of
force. Calculate the gravitational constant.
66. Use the gravitational constant from the previous exercise to write a
formula that approximates the force, F, in newtons between two masses m 1
and m 2 , expressed in kilograms, given the distance d between them in
meters.
67. Calculate the force in newtons between earth and the moon, given that
the mass of the moon is approximately 7.3 × 10 22 kilograms, the mass of
24
earth is approximately 6.0× 10 kilograms, and the distance between
11
them is on average 1.5 × 10 meters.
68. Calculate the force in newtons between earth and the sun, given that the
mass of the sun is approximately 2.0 × 10 30 kilograms, the mass of earth
24
is approximately 6.0
× 10 kilograms, and the distance between them is
8
on average 3.85 × 10 meters.
69. If y varies directly as the square of x, then how does y change if x is

doubled?
70. If y varies inversely as square of t, then how does y change if t is doubled?
71. If y varies directly as the square of x and inversely as the square of t, then
how does y change if both x and t are doubled?
7.7 Variation 1238

ANSWERS
1: D = kt
3: d = kv 2
k
5: V = p
m 1 ⋅m 2
7: F =k
d2
⎯⎯
⎯
9: T = k√ L
11: y = 5x
13: y = 4x
15: y = 7
5
x
35
17: y = x
27
19: y = x
1
21: y = 4x
23: y = 4xz
25: y = 2
3
xz
27: y = 1
9
xz
29: y = 5x 2
3
31: y = x2
33: y = 3xz 2
7.7 Variation 1239

5xz
35: y = w2
20√x
37: y = z
7x 2
39: y = w2 z
41: $382.50
43: $26.65
45: 2π
47: 36π square meters
49: 50 cubic centimeters
51: 1/4
53: 7.5 inches
55: 49 feet
57: 108 cubic inches
59: 4 feet
61: 4 men
63: 1.4 seconds
65: 6.7 × 10 −11 N m 2 /kg 2
67: 1.98 × 10 20 N
69: y changes by a factor of 4
71: y remains unchanged
7.7 Variation 1240

1241
REVIEW EXERCISES
Simplifying Rational Expressions
Evaluate for the given set of x-values.
25
1. ; {−5, 0, 5}
2x 2
x−4
2. ; {1/2, 2, 4}
2x−1
1
3. ; {−3, 0, 3}
x 2 +9
x+3
4. ; {−3, 0, 3}
x 2 −9
State the restrictions to the domain.
5
5. x
1
6.
x(3x+1)
x+2
7.
x 2 −25
x−1
8.
(x−1)(2x−3)
State the restrictions and simplify.
x−8
9.
x 2 −64
3x 2 +9x
10.
2x 3 −18x
x 2 −5x−24
11.
x 2 −3x−40
2x 2 +9x−5
12.
4x 2 −1

x 2 −144
13.
12−x
8x 2 −10x−3
14.
9−4x 2
x−3
15. Given f (x) = , find f (−3) , f (0), and f (3).
x 2 +9
x 2 −2x−24
16. Simplify g (x) = and state the restrictions.
2x 2 −9x−18
Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
Multiply. (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
3x 5 x−3
17.
x−3
⋅ 9x 2
12y 2 (2y−1)
(2y−1)
18. ⋅ 3y
y3
3x 2 x 2 −4x+4
19.
x−2
⋅ 5x 3
x 2 −8x+15 12x 2
20.
9x 5
⋅ x−3
x 2 −36 2x 2 +10x
21.
x 2 −x−30
⋅ x 2 +5x−6
9x 2 +11x+2 9x−2
22.
4−81x 2
⋅
(x+1) 2
Divide. (Assume all denominators are nonzero.)
9x 2 −25 3x+5
23.
5x 3
÷ 15x 4
4x 2 2x
24.
4x 2 −1
÷ 2x−1
3x 2 −13x−10 9x 2 +12x+4
25.
x 2 −x−20
÷ x 2 +8x+16

2x 2 +xy−y 2 4x 2 −y 2
26.
x 2 +2xy+y 2
÷ 3x 2 +2xy−y 2
27.
2x 2 −6x−20
8x 2 +17x+2
÷ (8x 2 − 39x − 5)
28.
12x 2 −27x 4
15x 4 +10x 3
÷ (3x 2 + x − 2)
25y 2 −1 10y 2
5y 4 (y−2)
1
⋅ ÷
(y−2)
29.
5y−1 2
10x 4 5x 2 x−1
30.
1−36x 2
÷ 6x 2 −7x+1
⋅ 2x
, calculate (f ⋅ g) (x)
16x 2 −9 x 2 +3x−10
31. Given f (x) = and g (x) =
x+5 4x 2 +5x−6
and state the restrictions.
, calculate (f /g)
x+7 x 2 −49
32. Given f (x) = and g (x) = (x) and
5x−1 25x 2 −5x
state the restrictions.
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
5x 3
33. y − y
x 3
34.
x 2 −x−6
− x 2 −x−6
2x 1
35.
2x+1
+ x−5
3 1−2x
36. x−7 + x2
7x 2
37.
4x 2 −9x+2
− x−2
5 20−9x
38.
x−5
+ 2x 2 −15x+25

x 2 5(x−3)
39.
x−5
− x−3
− x 2 −8x+15
3x x−4 12(2−x)
40.
2x−1
− x+4
+ 2x 2 +7x−4
1 1
41.
x 2 +8x−9
− x 2 +11x+18
4 3
42.
x 2 +13x+36
+ x 2 +6x−27
y+1 1 2y
43.
y+2
− 2−y
+ y 2 −4
1 1 2
44. y − 1−y
− y 2 −1
, calculate (f + g) (x) and

x+1 x
2x−5 x+1
, calculate (f − g) (x) and

x+1 2
3x x−8
Complex Fractions
Simplify.
4− 2x
47. 2x−1
3x
1
3
− 3y1
48. 1
5
− 5y1
1
6
+ 1x
49. 1 1
−
36 x2
1 1
100
−
x2
50. 1 1
10
− x

x 2
x+3
− x+1
51. x 1
x+4
+ x+3
3 1
x − x−5
52. 5
x+2
− 2x
35
1− 12
x + x2
53. 25
1−
x2
2− 15
x +
25
x2
54.
2x−5
Solving Rational Equations
Solve.
6 2
55.
x−6
= 2x−1
x x+2
56.
x−6
= x−2
1 2 1
57.
3x
− 9
= x
2 3 1
58.
x−5
+ 5
= x−5
x 4 10
59.
x−5
+ x+5
=− x 2 −25
2 12 2−3x 2
60. x − 2x+3
= 2x 2 +3x
x+1 x−6
61.
2(x−2)
+ x =1
5x+2 x
62.
x+1
− x+4
=4
x 1 4x−7
63.
x+5
+ x−4
= x 2 +x−20

2 x 2(3−4x)
64.
3x−1
+ 2x+1
= 6x 2 +x−1
x 1 2x
65.
x−1
+ x+1
= x 2 −1
2x 1 4−7x
66.
x+5
− 2x−3
= 2x 2 +7x−15
1 1 1
67. Solve for a: a = b
+ c.
2y−1
68. Solve for y: x= 3y
.
Applications of Rational Equations
70. If the reciprocal of the smaller of two consecutive integers is subtracted

from three times the reciprocal of the larger, the result is 3/10. Find the
integers.
71. Mary can jog, on average, 2 miles per hour faster than her husband,
James. James can jog 6.6 miles in the same amount of time it takes Mary to
jog 9 miles. How fast, on average, can Mary jog?
72. Billy traveled 140 miles to visit his grandmother on the bus and then
drove the 140 miles back in a rental car. The bus averages 14 miles per hour
slower than the car. If the total time spent traveling was 4.5 hours, then
what was the average speed of the bus?
73. Jerry takes twice as long as Manny to assemble a skateboard. If they work
together, they can assemble a skateboard in 6 minutes. How long would it
take Manny to assemble the skateboard without Jerry’s help?
74. Working alone, Joe completes the yard work in 30 minutes. It takes Mike
45 minutes to complete work on the same yard. How long would it take them
working together?

Variation
Construct a mathematical model given the following.
75. y varies directly with x, and y = 12 when x = 4.
78. y is directly proportional to the square of x and inversely proportional to

z, where y = 20 when x = 2 and z = 5.
79. The distance an object in free fall drops varies directly with the square of
the time that it has been falling. It is observed that an object falls 16 feet in 1
second. Find an equation that models the distance an object will fall and use
it to determine how far it will fall in 2 seconds.
80. The weight of an object varies inversely as the square of its distance from
the center of earth. If an object weighs 180 pounds on the surface of earth
(approximately 4,000 miles from the center), then how much will it weigh at
2,000 miles above earth’s surface?

SAMPLE EXAM
Simplify and state the restrictions.
15x 3 (3x−1) 2
1.
3x(3x−1)
x 2 −144
2.
x 2 +12x
x 2 +x−12
3.
2x 2 +7x−4
9−x 2
4.
(x−3) 2
Simplify. (Assume all variables in the denominator are positive.)
5x x−5
5.
x 2 −25
⋅ 25x 2
x 2 +x−6 3x 2 −5x−2
6.
x 2 −4x+4
⋅ x 2 −9
x 2 −4x−12 x−6
7.
12x 2
÷ 6x
2x 2 −7x−4 2x 2 +7x+3
8.
6x 2 −24x
÷ 10x 2 +30x
1 1
9.
x−5
+ x+5
x 8 12x
10.
x+1
− 2−x
− x 2 −x−2
1
y + 1x
11. 1 1
−
y2 x2
9
1− 6x +
x2
12.
2− 5x − 3
x2

, calculate (f ⋅ g) (x) and

x 2 −81 4x−3
(4x−3) 2 x−9
, calculate (f − g) (x) and

x 1
x−5 3x−5
Solve.
1 1
15.
3
+ x =2
1 3
16.
x−5
= 2x−3
9 20
17. 1 − x + =0
x2
x+2 1 4(x+1)
18.
x−2
+ x+2
= x 2 −4
x 1 3x−10
19.
x−2
− x−3
= x 2 −5x+6
5 x 9x−4
20.
x+4
− 4−x
= x 2 −16
120
21. Solve for r: P= 1+3r
.
22. An integer is three times another. The sum of the reciprocals of the two
integers is 1/3. Find the two integers.
23. Working alone, Joe can paint the room in 6 hours. If Manny helps, then
together they can paint the room in 2 hours. How long would it take Manny
to paint the room by himself?
24. A river tour boat averages 6 miles per hour in still water. With the
current, the boat can travel 17 miles in the same time it can travel 7 miles
against the current. What is the speed of the current?
25. The breaking distance of an automobile is directly proportional to the

square of its speed. Under optimal conditions, a certain automobile moving

at 35 miles per hour can break to a stop in 25 feet. Find an equation that
models the breaking distance under optimal conditions and use it to
determine the breaking distance if the automobile is moving 28 miles per
hour.

1: 1/2, undefined, 1/2
3: 1/18, 1/9, 1/18
5: x ≠0
7: x ≠ ±5
1
9: ;x ≠ ±8
x+8
x+3
11: ;x ≠ −5, 8
x+5
13: − (x + 12) ; x ≠ 12
15: f (−3) = − 1
3
, f (0) = − 1
3
, f (3) = 0
x3
17:
3
3(x−2)
19:
5x
2x
21:
x−1
23: 3x (3x − 5)
x+4
25:
3x+2
2
27:
(8x+1) 2
(5y+1)(y−2)
29:
50y 6
31: (f ⋅ g) (x) =
(4x+3)(x−2)
;x ≠ −5, − 2, 3
x+2 4

5x−3
33: y
2x 2 −8x+1
(2x+1)(x−5)
35:
1
37: −
4x−1
x−5
39:
x−3
3
41:
(x−1)(x+2)(x+9)
y
43:
y−2
45: (f + g) (x) = 3x 2 −3x+1

(2x−5)(x+1)
;x ≠ −1, 5
2
47: 6
6x
49:
x−6
(x−3)(x+4)
51:
(x+1)(x+2)
x−7
53:
x+5
55: −3/5
57: −3
59: −10, 1
61: 3, 8
63: 3
65: Ø

bc
67: a = b+c
69: 6, 12
71: 7.5 miles per hour
73: 9 minutes
75: y = 3x
77: y = 3xz
79: d = 16t 2 ; 64 feet

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: 5x 2 (3x − 1) ; x ≠ 0, 1
3
x−3
3: ;x ≠ −4, 1
2x−1 2
5x(x+5)
1
5:
x+2
7:
2x
( )(x+5)
2x
9:
x−5
xy
11: x−y
13: (f ⋅ g) (x) = x+9

;x ≠ 3
,9
4x−3 4
15: 3/5
17: 4, 5
19: 4
40 1
21: r = P
− 3
23: 3 hours
25: y = 1
49
x 2 ; 16 feet

Chapter 8
Radical Expressions and Equations
1256
Chapter 8 Radical Expressions and Equations
8.1 Radicals
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Find square roots.

2. Find cube roots.
3. Find nth roots.
4. Simplify expressions using the product and quotient rules for radicals.
Square Roots
The square root1 of a number is that number that when multiplied by itself yields
the original number. For example, 4 is a square root of 16, because 42 = 16. Since
(−4)2 = 16, we can say that −4 is a square root of 16 as well. Every positive real
number has two square roots, one positive and one negative. For this reason, we use
the radical sign √ to denote the principal (nonnegative) square root2 and a
negative sign in front of the radical −√ to denote the negative square root.
Zero is the only real number with one square root.
If the radicand3, the number inside the radical sign, is nonnegative and can be
1. The number that, when
multiplied by itself, yields the factored as the square of another nonnegative number, then the square root of the
original number. number is apparent. In this case, we have the following property:
2. The positive square root of a
real number, denoted with the
symbol √ .
3. The expression a within a

n ⎯⎯
radical sign, √ a.
1257
Example 1: Find the square root.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √36
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √144
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. √0.04
d. √ 19
⎯⎯⎯
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √36 = √62 = 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √144 = √122 = 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. √0.04 = √(0.2)2 = 0.2
d. √ 19 = √( 13 ) = 13
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
Example 2: Find the negative square root.
⎯⎯
a. −√4
⎯⎯
b. −√1
Solution:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. −√4 = −√22 = −2
8.1 Radicals 1258

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. −√1 = −√12 = −1
The radicand may not always be a perfect square. If a positive integer is not a
⎯⎯
perfect square, then its square root will be irrational. For example, √2 is an
irrational number and can be approximated on most calculators using the square
root button.
Next, consider the square root of a negative number. To determine the square root
of −9, you must find a number that when squared results in −9:
However, any real number squared always results in a positive number:
The square root of a negative number is currently left undefined. For now, we will
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
state that √−9 is not a real a number.
Cube Roots
The cube root4 of a number is that number that when multiplied by itself three
times yields the original number. Furthermore, we denote a cube root using the
symbol √ 3 , where 3 is called the index5. For example,
4. The number that, when used as

a factor with itself three times,
yields the original number; it is
denoted with the symbol √ 3 .
5. The positive integer n in the

notation √n that is used to
The product of three equal factors will be positive if the factor is positive and
negative if the factor is negative. For this reason, any real number will have only
indicate an nth root.
8.1 Radicals 1259

one real cube root. Hence the technicalities associated with the principal root do
not apply. For example,
In general, given any real number a, we have the following property:
When simplifying cube roots, look for factors that are perfect cubes.
Example 3: Find the cube root.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √64
3
⎯⎯
c. √0
3
d. √
⎯⎯⎯
3 1
8
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √27 = √33 = 3
3 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √64 = √43 = 4
3 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. √0 = √03 = 0
3 3
8.1 Radicals 1260

d. √ = √( 12 ) = 12
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
3 1 3
8
Example 4: Find the cube root.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √−8
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √−1
3
c. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
3
− 27
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √−8 = √(−2)3 = −2
3 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √−1 = √(−1)3 = −1
3 3
c. √ =√ (− 3 ) = − 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1 1 3 1
3
− 27 3
It may be the case that the radicand is not a perfect cube. If an integer is not a
⎯⎯
perfect cube, then its cube root will be irrational. For example, √2 is an irrational
3
number which can be approximated on most calculators using the root button.
Depending on the calculator, we typically type in the index prior to pushing the
button and then the radicand as follows:
Therefore, we have
8.1 Radicals 1261

nth Roots
For any integer n ≥ 2, we define the nth root6 of a positive real number as that
number that when raised to the nth power yields the original number. Given any
nonnegative real number a, we have the following property:
Here n is called the index and an is called the radicand. Furthermore, we can refer
n ⎯⎯
to the entire expression √ a as a radical7. When the index is an integer greater
than 3, we say “fourth root”, “fifth root”, and so on. The nth root of any number is
apparent if we can write the radicand with an exponent equal to the index.
Example 5: Find the nth root.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √81
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √32
5
⎯⎯
c. √1
7
d. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
4 1
16
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √81 = √34 = 3
4 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √32 = √25 = 2
5 5
6. The number that, when raised

to the nth power, yields the
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. √1 = √17 = 1
7 7
original number.
7. Used when referring to an

n ⎯⎯
expression of the form √ a.
8.1 Radicals 1262

d. √ = √( 12 ) = 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯4⎯
4 1 4
16
If the index is n = 2, then the radical indicates a square root and it is customary to
write the radical without the index, as illustrated below:
We have already taken care to define the principal square root of a number. At this
point, we extend this idea to nth roots when n is even. For example, 3 is a fourth
root of 81, because 34 = 81. And since (−3)4 = 81, we can say that −3 is a fourth
root of 81 as well. Hence we use the radical sign √
n to denote the principal
(nonnegative) nth root8 when n is even. In this case, for any real number a, we use
the following property:
For example,
The negative nth root, when n is even, will be denoted using a negative sign in front
of the radical −√
n .
We have seen that the square root of a negative number is not real because any real
number, when squared, will result in a positive number. In fact, a similar problem
arises for any even index:
8. The positive nth root when n is
even.
8.1 Radicals 1263

Here the fourth root of −81 is not a real number because the fourth power of any
real number is always positive.
Example 6: Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √−16
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. −√16
4
Solution:
a. The radicand is negative and the index is even. Therefore, there is no real
number that when raised to the fourth power is −16.
b. Here the radicand is positive. Furthermore, 16 = 24 , and we can simplify as

follows:
When n is odd, the same problems do not occur. The product of an odd number of
positive factors is positive and the product of an odd number of negative factors is
8.1 Radicals 1264

negative. Hence when the index n is odd, there is only one real nth root for any real
number a. And we have the following property:
Example 7: Find the nth root.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √−32
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √−1
7
Solution:
a. √−32 = √(−2)5 = −2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √−1 = √(−1)7 = −1
7 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Find the fourth root: √625.
4
Answer: 5
Video Solution
Summary: When n is odd, the nth root is positive or negative depending on the
sign of the radicand.
8.1 Radicals 1265

When n is even, the nth root is positive or not real depending on the sign of the
radicand.
Simplifying Using the Product and Quotient Rule for Radicals
It will not always be the case that the radicand is a perfect power of the given index.
If not, we use the following two properties to simplify them. If a and b represent
positive real numbers, then we have
n ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ n ⎯⎯ n ⎯⎯
Product rule for radicals9: √ a⋅b=√ a⋅√ b
√b =
⎯⎯a⎯ n a
√
Quotient rule for radicals10: n
n
√ b
A radical is simplified11 if it does not contain any factor that can be written as a
perfect power of the index.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
9. √a ⋅ b = √ a ⋅ √b, where
n n n
a and b represent positive real

numbers.
√b
⎯a⎯⎯ n a
√ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. n
= n , where a and b Example 8: Simplify: √12.
√ b
represent positive real
numbers.
Solution: Here 12 can be written as 4 ⋅ 3, where 4 is a perfect square.
11. A radical where the radicand
does not consist of any factor
that can be written as a perfect
power of the index.
8.1 Radicals 1266

We can verify our answer on a calculator:
Also, it is worth noting that
⎯⎯
Answer: 2√3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Solution: Begin by finding the largest perfect square factor of 135.
Therefore,
8.1 Radicals 1267

⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 3√15
Example 10: Simplify: √ 121

50
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
.
Solution: Begin by finding the prime factorizations of both 50 and 121. This will
enable us to easily determine the largest perfect square factors.
Therefore,
5√2
Answer: 11
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
Solution: Use the prime factorization of 162 to find the largest perfect cube factor:
8.1 Radicals 1268

Replace the radicand with this factorization and then apply the product rule for
radicals.
We can verify our answer on a calculator.
⎯⎯
Answer: 3 √6
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Simplify: 2 √96.
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 4 √12
3
Video Solution
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 12: Simplify: √−96.
5
Solution: Here we note that the index is odd and the radicand is negative; hence
the result will be negative. We can factor the radicand as follows:
8.1 Radicals 1269

Then simplify:
⎯⎯
Answer: −2 √3
5
Example 13: Simplify: √

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8
3
− 64 .
Solution: In this case, consider the equivalent fraction with −8 = (−2)3 in the
numerator and then simplify.
Answer: −1/2
8.1 Radicals 1270

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Simplify √−108.
3
⎯⎯
Answer: −3 √4
3
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The square root of a number is that number that when multiplied by

itself yields the original number. When the radicand a is positive,
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ a2 = a. When the radicand is negative, the result is not a real
number.
• The cube root of a number is that number that when used as a factor
with itself three times yields the original number. The cube root may be
positive or negative depending on the sign of the radicand. Therefore,
⎯⎯⎯⎯
for any real number a, we have the property √ a3 = a.
3
• When working with nth roots, n determines the definition that applies.
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
We use √ an = awhen n is odd and √ an = |a|when n is even.
n n
When n is even, the negative nth root is denoted with a negative sign in
front of the radical sign.
• To simplify square roots, look for the largest perfect square factor of the
radicand and then apply the product or quotient rule for radicals.
• To simplify cube roots, look for the largest perfect cube factor of the
radicand and then apply the product or quotient rule for radicals.
• To simplify nth roots, look for the factors that have a power that is equal
to the index n and then apply the product or quotient rule for radicals.
Typically, the process is streamlined if you work with the prime
factorization of the radicand.
8.1 Radicals 1271

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Radicals
Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. √ 81
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2. √ 100
⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. √ 64
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. √ 121
⎯⎯
5. √ 0
⎯⎯
6. √ 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
7. √ 0.25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8. √ 0.01
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9. √ 1.21
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. √ 2.25
11. √
⎯1⎯⎯
4
12. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
36
13. √
⎯25
⎯⎯⎯⎯
16
14. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
9
⎯
25
8.1 Radicals 1272

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
15. √ −25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
16. √ −9
⎯⎯⎯⎯
17. −√ 36
⎯⎯⎯⎯
18. −√ 81
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
19. −√ 100
⎯⎯
20. −√ 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. √ 27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. √ 125
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
23. √ 64
3
⎯⎯
24. √ 8
3
25. √
⎯1⎯⎯
3
8
26. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
3
64
27. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
8
⎯
3
27
28. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
64
⎯
3
125
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
29. √ 0.001
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
30. √ 1,000
3
8.1 Radicals 1273

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
31. √ −1
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
32. √ −8
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
33. √ −27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
34. √ −64
3
35. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯1⎯
3
− 8
36. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
27
⎯
3
− 64
37. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯8 ⎯
3
− 27
38. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
3
− 125
⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. √ 81
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √ 625
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
41. √ 16
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
42. √ 10,000
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
43. √ 32
5
⎯⎯
44. √ 1
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
45. √ 243
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
46. √ 100,000
5
8.1 Radicals 1274

⎯⎯⎯⎯
47. −√ 16
4
⎯⎯
48. −√ 1
6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. √ −32
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. √ −1
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
51. √ −1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
52. √ −16
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. −5 √ −27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. −2 √ −8
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. 5 √ −1,000
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. 3 √ −243
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
57. 10 √ −16
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
58. 2 √ −64
6
⎯⎯⎯⎯
59. 3√ 25
⎯⎯
60. 6√ 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
61. 2 √ 27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
62. 8 √ 243
5
⎯⎯
63. −7 √ 8
3
8.1 Radicals 1275

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
64. −4 √ 625
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. 6 √ 100,000
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. 5 √ 128
7
Part B: Simplifying Radicals
Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
67. √ 32
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
68. √ 250
⎯⎯⎯⎯
69. √ 80
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
70. √ 150
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
71. √ 160
⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. √ 60
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
73. √ 175
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
74. √ 216
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
75. 5√ 112
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
76. 10√ 135
77. √
⎯50
⎯⎯⎯⎯
49
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
78. −2√ 120
8.1 Radicals 1276

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
79. −3√ 162
80. √
⎯8⎯⎯
9
81. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
45
⎯
121
82. √
⎯96
⎯⎯⎯⎯
81
⎯⎯⎯⎯
83. √ 54
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
84. √ 24
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
85. √ 48
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
86. √ 81
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
87. √ 40
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
88. √ 120
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
89. √ 162
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
90. √ 500
3
91. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54
⎯
3
125
92. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
40
⎯
3
343
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
93. 5 √ −48
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
94. 2 √ −108
3
8.1 Radicals 1277

⎯⎯⎯⎯
95. 8 √ 96
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
96. 7 √ 162
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
97. √ 160
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
98. √ 486
5
99. √
⎯224
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5
243
100. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
5
⎯
5
32
Simplify. Give the exact answer and the approximate answer rounded to the nearest
hundredth.
⎯⎯
101. √ 8
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
102. √ 200
⎯⎯⎯⎯
103. √ 45
⎯⎯⎯⎯
104. √ 72
105. √
⎯3⎯⎯
4
106. √
⎯5⎯⎯
9
107. √
⎯32
⎯⎯⎯⎯
25
108. √
⎯48
⎯⎯⎯⎯
49
⎯⎯⎯⎯
109. √ 80
3
8.1 Radicals 1278

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
110. √ 320
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
111. √ 48
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
112. √ 270
3
Rewrite the following as a radical expression with coefficient 1.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
113. 2√ 15
⎯⎯
114. 3√ 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯
115. 5√ 10
⎯⎯
116. 10√ 3
⎯⎯
117. 2 √ 7
3
⎯⎯
118. 3 √ 6
3
⎯⎯
119. 2 √ 5
4
⎯⎯
120. 3 √ 2
4
121. The formula for the area A of a square is A = s2 . If the area is 18

square units, then what is the length of each side?
122. Calculate the length of a side of a square with an area of 60 square

centimeters.
123. The formula for the volume V of a cube is V = s3 . If the volume of a

cube is 112 cubic units, then what is the length of each side?
124. Calculate the length of a side of a cube with a volume of 54 cubic

centimeters.
8.1 Radicals 1279

125. Explain why there are two square roots for any nonzero real number.
126. Explain why there is only one cube root for any real number.
127. What is the square root of 1, and what is the cube root of 1? Explain
why.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
128. Explain why √ −1 is not a real number and why √ −1 is a real
3
number.
8.1 Radicals 1280

ANSWERS
1: 9
3: 8
5: 0
7: 0.5
9: 1.1
11: 1/2
13: 5/4
15: Not a real number
17: −6
19: −10
21: 3
23: 4
25: 1/2
27: 2/3
29: 0.1
31: −1
33: −3
35: −1/2
37: −2/3
8.1 Radicals 1281

39: 3
41: 2
43: 2
45: 3
47: −2
49: −2
53: 15
55: −50
59: 15
61: 6
63: −14
65: 60
⎯⎯
67: 4√ 2
⎯⎯
69: 4√ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
71: 4√ 10
⎯⎯
73: 5√ 7
⎯⎯
75: 20√ 7
8.1 Radicals 1282

5√2
77: 7
⎯⎯
79: −27√ 2
3√5
81:
11
⎯⎯
83: 3 √ 2
3
⎯⎯
85: 2 √ 6
3
⎯⎯
87: 2 √ 5
3
⎯⎯
89: 3 √ 6
3
3
3√ 2
91:
5
⎯⎯
93: −10 √ 6
3
⎯⎯
95: 16 √ 6
4
⎯⎯
97: 2 √ 5
5
5
2√ 7
99:
3
⎯⎯
101: 2√ 2 ≈ 2.83
⎯⎯
103: 3√ 5 ≈ 6.71
√3
105:
2
≈ 0.87
4√2
107:
5
≈ 1.13
8.1 Radicals 1283

⎯⎯⎯⎯
109: 2 √ 10 ≈ 4.31
3
⎯⎯
111: 2 √ 6 ≈ 3.63
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
113: √ 60
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
115: √ 250
⎯⎯⎯⎯
117: √ 56
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
119: √ 80
4
⎯⎯
121: 3√ 2 units
⎯⎯⎯⎯
123: 2 √ 14 units
3
8.1 Radicals 1284

8.2 Simplifying Radical Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Simplify radical expressions using the product and quotient rule for
radicals.
2. Use formulas involving radicals.
3. Evaluate given square root and cube root functions.
Simplifying Radical Expressions
An algebraic expression that contains radicals is called a radical expression12. We

use the product and quotient rules to simplify them.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
8y 3 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a = a when n is odd.
n n
Solution: Use the fact that √
Answer: 2y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 2: Simplify: √9x 2 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a = |a| when n is even.
n n
Solution: The square root has index 2; use the fact that √
12. An algebraic expression that

contains radicals.
1285
Since x is a variable, it may represent a negative number. Thus we need to ensure

that the result is positive by including the absolute value operator.
Answer: 3 |x|
Important Note
Typically, at this point beginning algebra texts note that all variables are
assumed to be positive. If this is the case, then x in the previous example is
positive and the absolute value operator is not needed. The example can be
simplified as follows:
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√9x 2 = √32 x 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
= √32 ⋅ √x 2
= 3x
In this section, we will assume that all variables are positive. This allows us to
focus on calculating nth roots without the technicalities associated with the
principal nth root problem. For this reason, we will use the following property
for the rest of the section:
n ⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ an = a, if a≥0 nth root
When simplifying radical expressions, look for factors with powers that match the
index.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 3: Simplify: √18x 3 y 4 .
8.2 Simplifying Radical Expressions 1286

Solution: Begin by determining the square factors of 18, x 3 , and y 4 .
Make these substitutions and then apply the product rule for radicals and simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 3xy 2 √2x
Example 4: Simplify: √ 4a6 .

⎯⎯⎯⎯5⎯
b
Solution: Begin by determining the square factors of 4, a5 , and b6 .

2a2 √a
Answer:
b3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
80x 5 y 7 .
Solution: Begin by determining the cubic factors of 80, x 5 , and y 7 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 2xy 2 ⋅ √
3
10x 2 y

√y z .
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9x 6
⎯
3
Example 6: Simplify 3 9
Solution: The coefficient 9 = 32 and thus does not have any perfect cube factors. It
will be left as the only remaining radicand because all of the other factors are cubes,
as illustrated below:
Replace the variables with these equivalents, apply the product and quotient rule
for radicals, and then simplify.
3
x 2 ⋅√ 9
Answer:
yz 3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 7: Simplify: √81a4 b5 .
4
Solution: Determine all factors that can be written as perfect powers of 4. Here it is
important to see that b5 = b4 ⋅ b. Hence the factor b will be left inside the radical.
⎯⎯
Answer: 3ab ⋅ √b
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5
−32x 3 y 6 z 5 .
Solution: Notice that the variable factor x cannot be written as a power of 5 and
thus will be left inside the radical. In addition, for y 6 = y 5 ⋅ y ; the factor y will be
left inside the radical as well.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: −2yz ⋅ √
5
x3y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Simplify: √192x 6 y 7 z 12 . (Assume all variables are positive.)
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 8x 3 y 3 z 6 √3y

Video Solution
Tip
To easily simplify an nth root, we can divide the powers by the index.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√a6 = a3 , which is a6÷2 = a3
3 ⎯⎯⎯6⎯
√ b = b2 , which is b6÷3 = b2
6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ c6 = c , which is c6÷6 = c1
If the index does not divide into the power evenly, then we can use the quotient
and remainder to simplify. For example,
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√a5 = a2 ⋅ √⎯⎯a, which is a5÷2 = a2 r 1
3 ⎯⎯⎯5⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ b = b ⋅ √b2 , which is b5÷3 = b1 r 2
5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ c14 = c2 ⋅ √c4 , which is c14÷5 = c2 r 4
The quotient is the exponent of the factor outside of the radical, and the
remainder is the exponent of the factor left inside the radical.
Formulas Involving Radicals
We next review the distance formula. Given two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ),
The distance, d, between them is given by the following formula:

Distance formula13: d = √(x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y 2 − y 1 )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
Recall that this formula was derived from the Pythagorean theorem.
Example 9: Calculate the distance between (−4, 7) and (2, 1).
Solution: Use the distance formula with the following points.
It is a good practice to include the formula in its general form before substituting
values for the variables; this improves readability and reduces the probability of
making errors.
13. Given two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and

(x 2 , y 2 ), calculate the
distance d between them using
√(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y 2 − y 1 ) .
the formula d =
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
2

⎯⎯
Answer: 6√2 units
Example 10: The period, T, of a pendulum in seconds is given by the formula
where L represents the length of the pendulum in feet. If the length of a pendulum
measures 6 feet, then calculate the period rounded off to the nearest tenth of a
second.

Solution: Substitute 6 for L and then simplify.

Answer: The period is approximately 2.7 seconds.
Square Root and Cube Root Functions
We begin with the square root function14:
We know that the square root is not a real number when the radicand x is negative.
Therefore, we conclude that the domain consists of all real numbers greater than or
equal to 0. Here we choose 0 and some positive values for x, calculate the
corresponding y-values, and plot the resulting ordered pairs.
After plotting the points, we can then sketch the graph of the square root function.
⎯⎯
14. The function f (x) = √x .

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 11: Given the function f (x) = √x + 2 , find f (−2), f (2), and f (6).
Solution: Replace x with each of the given values.
⎯⎯
Answer: f (−2) = 0, f (2) = 2, and f (6) = 2√2
Next, consider the cube root function15:

3 ⎯⎯
15. The function f (x) = √ x.

Since the cube root could be either negative or positive, we conclude that the
domain consists of all real numbers. For completeness, choose some positive and
negative values for x, as well as 0, and then calculate the corresponding y-values.
Plot the points and sketch the graph of the cube root function.
Example 12: Given the function g(x) = √x − 1, find g (−7), g (0), and g (55).
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

Solution: Replace x with each of the given values.
Answer: g (−7) = −2, g (0) = −1, and g (55) = 3 √2

3 ⎯⎯
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• In beginning algebra, we typically assume that all variable expressions

within the radical are positive. This allows us to focus on simplifying
radicals without the technical issues associated with the principal nth
root.
• To simplify radical expressions, look for factors of the radicand with
powers that match the index. If found, they can be simplified by
applying the product and quotient rules for radicals, as well as the
⎯⎯⎯⎯
property √ an = a, where a is positive.
n

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Simplifying Radical Expressions
Simplify. (Assume all variables represent positive numbers.)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. √ 36a2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
2. √ 121b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. √ x 2 y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. √ 25x 2 y 2 z 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. √ 180x 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. √ 150y 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
7. √ 49a3 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
⎯
8. √ 4a4 b c
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9. √ 45x 5 y 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. √ 50x 6 y 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
11. √ 64r2 s6 t 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. √ 144r8 s6 t 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
13. √ (x + 1)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
14. √ (2x + 3)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
15. √ 4(3x − 1)

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
16. √ 9(2x + 3)
√ 25y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9x 3
⎯
17.
√ 9y 4
⎯4x
⎯⎯⎯⎯5⎯
18.
19. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
m7
⎯
36n 4
20. √
⎯147m
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯9 ⎯
n6
21. √
⎯2r
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 s5
⎯
25t 4
22. √
⎯36r
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯5⎯
s2 t 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23. √ 27a3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
24. √ 125b
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
25. √ 250x 4 y 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯5⎯
26. √ 162a3 b
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
27. √ 64x 3 y 6 z 9
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
28. √ 216x 12 y 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
29. √ 8x 3 y 4
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
30. √ 27x 5 y 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5 6
⎯
31. √ a4 b
3
c

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5 3
⎯
32. √ a7 b
3
c
√ 27y 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8x 4
⎯
3
33.
√ 125y 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
x5
⎯
3
34.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35. √ 360r5 s12 t 13
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
36. √ 540r3 s2 t 9
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
37. √ 81x 4
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
38. √ x 4 y 4
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. √ 16x 4 y 8
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √ 81x 12 y 4
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5 6
⎯
41. √ a4 b
4
c
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4 6 8
⎯
42. √ 5
4
ac
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
43. √ 128x 6
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
44. √ 243y 7
4
45. √
⎯32m
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
10
⎯
5
n5
46. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
7 9⎯
5 3 m
n 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
47. −3√ 4x 2

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
48. 7√ 9y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. −5x√ 4x 2 y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. −3y√ 16x 3 y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
51. 12ab√ a5 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
52. 6a2 b√ 9a7 b
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. 2x ⋅ √ 8x 6
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. −5x 2 ⋅ √ 27x 3
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. 2ab ⋅ √ −8a4 b 5
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. 5a2 b ⋅ √ −27a3 b 3
Rewrite the following as a radical expression with coefficient 1.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
57. 5√ 2x
⎯⎯⎯⎯
58. 2√ 3y
⎯⎯
59. 2x√ 3
⎯⎯
60. 3y√ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
61. ab√ 10a
2 ⎯⎯
62. 2ab √a
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
63. m 2 n√ mn

⎯⎯⎯⎯
64. 2m 2 n 3 √ 3n
⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. 5 √ 2x
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. 3 √
3
5y
3 ⎯⎯
67. 2x ⋅√ 3
3 ⎯⎯
68. 3y ⋅√ 2
Assume that the variable could represent any real number and then simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
69. √ 4x 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
70. √ 25y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
71. √ 8y 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. √ 125a3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
73. √ 64x 4
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
74. √ 81y 4
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
75. √ 36a4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
76. √ 100a8
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
77. √ 4a6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
78. √ a10
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯5⎯
79. √ 18a4 b

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
80. √ 48a5 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
81. √ 128x 6 y 8
6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
7 8
⎯
82. √ a6 b
6
c
Part B: Formulas Involving Radicals
The y-intercepts for any graph will have the form (0, y), where y is a real number.
Therefore, to find y-intercepts, set x = 0 and solve for y. Find the y-intercepts for the
following.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
83. y = √x + 4 − 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
84. y = √x + 1 − 3
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
85. y =√ x−1 +2
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
86. y =√ x+1 −3
Use the distance formula to calculate the distance between the given two points.
87. (5, −7) and (3, −8)
88. (−9, 7) and (−8, 4)
89. (−3, −4) and (3, −6)
90. (−5, −2) and (1, −6)
91. (−1, 1) and (−4, 10)
92. (8, −3) and (2, −12)
Factor the radicand and then simplify. (Assume that all expressions are positive.)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
93. √ x 2 − 6x + 9

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
94. √ x 2 − 10x + 25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
95. √ 4x 2 + 12x + 9
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
96. √ 9x 2 + 6x + 1
97. The speed of a vehicle before the brakes were applied can be estimated
by the length of the skid marks left on the road. On dry pavement, the speed,
⎯⎯
v, in miles per hour can be estimated by the formula v = 5√ d , where d
represents the length of the skid marks in feet. Estimate the speed of a
vehicle before applying the brakes on dry pavement if the skid marks left
behind measure 36 feet.
98. The radius, r, of a sphere can be calculated using the formula

3
√ 6π 2 V
r= 2π
, where V represents the sphere’s volume. What is the radius of
a sphere if the volume is 36π cubic centimeters?
The period, T, of a pendulum in seconds is given by the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ 32
L
T = 2π
where L represents the length in feet. Calculate the period, given the following
lengths. Give the exact value and the approximate value rounded off to the nearest
tenth of a second.
99. 8 feet
100. 32 feet
101. 1/2 foot
102. 1/8 foot
The time, t, in seconds that an object is in free fall is given by the formula

⎯
√s
t=
4
where s represents the distance it has fallen in feet. Calculate the time it takes an
object to fall, given the following distances. Give the exact value and the
approximate value rounded off to the nearest tenth of a second.
103. 48 feet
104. 80 feet
105. 192 feet
106. 288 feet
Part C: Radical Functions
Given the function, calculate the following.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
107. f (x) = √ x − 1 , find f (1) , f (2) , and f (5)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
108. f (x) = √ x + 5 , find f (−5) , f (−1) , and f (20)
⎯⎯
109. f (x) = √ x + 3, find f (0) , f (1) , and f (16)
⎯⎯
110. f (x) = √ x − 5, find f (0) , f (1) , and f (25)
3 ⎯⎯
111. g(x) =√ x , find g(−1) , g(0) , and g(1)
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
112. g(x) =√ x + 7 , find g(−15) , g(−7) , and g(20)
3 ⎯⎯
113. g(x) =√ x − 2, find g(−1) , g(0) , and g(8)
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
114. g(x) =√ x − 1 + 2, find g(0) , g(2) , and g(9)
For each function, fill in the table.

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
115. f (x) = √x + 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
116. f (x) = √x − 2
3 ⎯⎯
117. f (x) =√ x +1
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
118. f (x) =√ x+2

⎯⎯⎯⎯
119. Give a value for x such that √ x 2 ≠ x. Explain why it is important to
assume that the variables represent positive numbers.
120. Research and discuss the accomplishments of Christoph Rudolff. What

is he credited for?
121. Research and discuss the methods used for calculating square roots
before the common use of electronic calculators.
122. What is a surd, and where does the word come from?

ANSWERS
1: 6a
3: xy
⎯⎯⎯⎯
5: 6x√ 5x
⎯⎯
7: 7ab√ a
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9: 3x 2 y√ 5xy
11: 8rs3 t 2 √ t
13: x +1
15: 2 (3x − 1)
3x√x
17:
5y
m 3 √m
19:
6n 2
rs2 √2s
21:
5t 2
23: 3a
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
25: 5xy ⋅√ 2x
27: 4xy 2 z 3
3 ⎯⎯
29: 2xy ⋅√ y
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
31: abc2 ⋅ √ ab 2

3 x
2x⋅√
33:
3y
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35: 2rs4 t 4 ⋅ √ 45r2 t
37: 3x
39: 2xy 2
4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
41: abc ⋅ √ bc2
4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
43: 2x ⋅ √ 8x 2
2m 2
45: n
47: −6x
49: −10x 2 √ y
⎯⎯
2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
51: 12a3 b √ ab
53: 4x 3
2 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
55: −4a2 b ⋅ √ ab 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
57: √ 50x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
59: √ 12x 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
61: √ 10a3 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
63: √ m 5 n 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
65: √ 250x
3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
67: √ 24x 3
3
69: 2 |x|
71: 2y
73: 2 |x|
75: 6a2
77: 2 ||a3 ||
2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
79: 3a2 b √ 2b
6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
81: 2 ||xy|| ⋅√ 2y
83: (0, 1)
85: (0, 1)
⎯⎯
87: √ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
89: 2√ 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯
91: 3√ 10
93: x −3
95: 2x +3
99: π ≈ 3.1 seconds
101: π/4 ≈ 0.8 seconds

⎯⎯
103: √ 3 ≈ 1.7 seconds

⎯⎯
105: 2√ 3 ≈ 3.5 seconds
107: f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1, and f (5) = 2
109: f (0) = 3, f (1) = 4, and f (16) = 7
111: g(−1) = −1 , g(0) = 0 , and g(1) = 1
113: g(−1) = −3 , g(0) = −2 , and g(8) = 0
115:
117:

8.3 Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Add and subtract like radicals.

2. Simplify radical expressions involving like radicals.
Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions
Adding and subtracting radical expressions is similar to adding and subtracting like
terms. Radicals are considered to be like radicals16, or similar radicals17, when
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
they share the same index and radicand. For example, the terms 3√5 and 4√5
contain like radicals and can be added using the distributive property as follows:
Typically, we do not show the step involving the distributive property and simply
write
When adding terms with like radicals, add only the coefficients; the radical part
remains the same.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 1: Add: 3√2 + 2√2.
16. Radicals that share the same Solution: The terms contain like radicals; therefore, add the coefficients.
index and radicand.
17. Term used when referring to

like radicals.
1313
⎯⎯
Answer: 5√2
Subtraction is performed in a similar manner.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 2: Subtract: 2√7 − 3√7.
Solution:
⎯⎯
Answer: −√7
If the radicand and the index are not exactly the same, then the radicals are not
similar and we cannot combine them.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 3: Simplify: 10√5 + 6√2 − 9√5 − 7√2.
Solution:
8.3 Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions 1314

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
We cannot simplify any further because √5 and √2 are not like radicals; the
radicands are not the same.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: √5 − √2
Caution
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
It is important to point out that √5 − √2 ≠ √5 − 2. We can verify this by
calculating the value of each side with a calculator.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
In general, note that √
n
a ± √b ≠ √
n
a ± b.
n
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 4: Simplify: 3 √6 + 2√6 − √6 − 3√6.
3 3
Solution:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
We cannot simplify any further because √6 and √6 are not like radicals; the
3
indices are not the same.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: 2 √6 − √6
3

Often we will have to simplify before we can identify the like radicals within the
terms.
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 5: Subtract: √12 − √48.
Solution: At first glance, the radicals do not appear to be similar. However, after
simplifying completely, we will see that we can combine them.
⎯⎯
Answer: −2√3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯

Example 6: Simplify: √20 + √27 − 3√5 − 2√12.
Solution:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: −√5 − √3

⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Try this! Subtract: 2√50 − 6√8.
⎯⎯
Answer: −2√2
Video Solution
Next, we work with radical expressions involving variables. In this section, assume
all radicands containing variable expressions are not negative.
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯

Example 7: Simplify: −6 √2x − √3x + 7 √2x.
3 3 3
Solution:
We cannot combine any further because the remaining radical expressions do not
share the same radicand; they are not like radicals. Note that
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ 2x − √ 3x ≠ √ 2x − 3x.
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: √2x − √3x
3 3
We will often find the need to subtract a radical expression with multiple terms. If
this is the case, remember to apply the distributive property before combining like
terms.

Example 8: Simplify: (9√x − 2√y ) − (10√x + 7√y ).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Solution:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: −√x − 9√y
Until we simplify, it is often unclear which terms involving radicals are similar.
2y − (√ 54y − √16).
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 9: Simplify: 5 √
3 3 3
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: 2 √ 2y + 2 √2
3 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

Example 10: Simplify: 2a√125a2 b − a2 √80b + 4√20a4 b.

Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 14a2 √5b
Try this! Simplify: √45x 3 − (√20x 3 − √80x ).

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: x√5x + 4√5x
Video Solution

Tip
Take careful note of the differences between products and sums within a
radical.
Products Sums
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ x 2 y 2 = xy √x 2 + y 2 ≠ x + y
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ x 3 y 3 = xy √ x 3 + y3 ≠ x + y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
The property √a ⋅ b = √ a ⋅ √b says that we can simplify radicals when the
n n n
operation in the radicand is multiplication. There is no corresponding property

for addition.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Add and subtract terms that contain like radicals just as you do like
terms. If the index and radicand are exactly the same, then the radicals
are similar and can be combined. This involves adding or subtracting
only the coefficients; the radical part remains the same.
• Simplify each radical completely before combining like terms.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Adding and Subtracting Like Radicals
Simplify.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
1. 9√ 3 + 5√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
2. 12√ 6 + 3√ 6
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
3. 4√ 5 − 7√ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. 3√ 10 − 8√ 10
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
5. √ 6 − 4√ 6 + 2√ 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. 5√ 10 − 15√ 10 − 2√ 10
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
7. 13√ 7 − 6√ 2 − 5√ 7 + 5√ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
8. 10√ 13 − 12√ 15 + 5√ 13 − 18√ 15
− (4√ 3 − 3√ 5 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
9. 6√ 5
− (6√ 6 + √ 2 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
10. −12√ 2
( ) ( 5)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
11. 2 √ 5 − 3 √ 10 − √ 10 + 3 √
( ) ( 15 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. −8 √ 3 + 6 √ 15 − √ 3 − √
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
13. 4 √ 6 − 3√ 5 + 6√ 6
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

14. √ 10 + 5√ 10 − 4 √ 10
3

(7 √ 9 − 4 √ 3 ) − (√ 9 − 3 √ 3 )
3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
15.
( ) ( 25 )
3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
16. −8 √ 5 + √ 25 − 2 √ 5 + 6 √
Simplify. (Assume all radicands containing variable expressions are positive.)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
17. 9√ x + 7√ x
18. −8√ y
⎯⎯ + 4 ⎯⎯
√y
19. 7x√ y
⎯⎯ − 3x ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
√ y + x√ y
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
20. 10y 2 √ x − 12y 2 √ x − 2y 2 √ x
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
21. 2√ ab − 5√ a + 6√ ab − 10√ a
22. −3x√ y
⎯⎯ + 6 ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
√ y − 4x√ y − 7√ y
(3√ xy − 7√ xy )
23. 5√ xy
⎯⎯⎯⎯ − ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
− (2a√ b − 4√ ab)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
24. −8a√ b
( ) ( 3x )
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
25. 3 √ 2x − √ 3x − √ 2x − 7 √
( ) ( 2y )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
26. √ y − 4 √ 2y − √ y − 5 √
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
27. 5 √
3
x − 12 √ x
28. −2 √ y ⎯⎯ − 3 3 ⎯⎯
y
3
√
5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

29. a ⋅√ 3b + 4a ⋅ √ 3b − a ⋅ √ 3b

⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

30. −8 √ ab + 3√ ab − 2 √ ab
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

31. 6√ 2a − 4√ 2a + 7√ 2a − √ 2a
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
32. 4 √ 3a +√ 3a − 9 √ 3a + √ 3a
5
(√ 4xy − √ xy ) − (2 √ 4xy − √ xy )
4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
33.
(5 √ 6y − 5√ y ) − (2 √ 6y + 3√ y )
6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ 6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
34.
Part B: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
35. √ 75 − √ 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
36. √ 24 − √ 54
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
37. √ 32 + √ 27 − √ 8
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
38. √ 20 + √ 48 − √ 45
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. √ 28 − √ 27 + √ 63 − √ 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √ 90 + √ 24 − √ 40 − √ 54
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
41. √ 45 − √ 80 + √ 245 − √ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
42. √ 108 + √ 48 − √ 75 − √ 3
− (√ 27 − √ 72 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
43. 4√ 2
− (√ 20 − √ 50 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
44. −3√ 5

⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
45. √ 16 −√ 54
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
46. √ 81 −√ 24
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
47. √ 135 +√ 40 − √ 5
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
48. √ 108 −√ 32 − √ 4
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. 2√ 27 − 2√ 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. 3√ 50 − 4√ 32
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
51. 3√ 243 − 2√ 18 − √ 48
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
52. 6√ 216 − 2√ 24 − 2√ 96
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. 2√ 18 − 3√ 75 − 2√ 98 + 4√ 48
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. 2√ 45 − √ 12 + 2√ 20 − √ 108
( ) ( 54 )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. 2 √ 363 − 3 √ 96 − 7 √ 12 − 2 √
( ) ( 40 )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. 2 √ 288 + 3 √ 360 − 2 √ 72 − 7 √
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

57. 3 √ 54 + 5√ 250 − 4 √ 16
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

58. 4 √ 162 − 2√ 384 − 3 √ 750
3
Simplify. (Assume all radicands containing variable expressions are positive.)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
59. √ 81b + √ 4b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
60. √ 100a + √a

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
61. √ 9a2 b − √ 36a2 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
62. √ 50a2 − √ 18a2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
63. √ 49x − √ 9y + √ x − √ 4y
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
64. √ 9x + √ 64y − √ 25x − √ ⎯⎯
y
− (3√ 16y − 2√ 18x )

⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. 7√ 8x
− (3√ 32y − √ 81y )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. 2√ 64y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

67. 2√ 9m 2 n − 5m√ 9n + √ m 2 n
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
68. 4√ 18n 2 m − 2n√ 8m + n√ 2m
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
69. √ 4x 2 y − √ 9xy 2 − √ 16x 2 y + √ y 2 x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
70. √ 32x 2 y 2 + √ 12x 2 y − √ 18x 2 y 2 − √ 27x 2 y
71. (√ 9x 2 y − √ 16y ) − (√ 49x 2 y − 4√ ⎯⎯

y)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. (√ 72x 2 y 2 − √ 18x 2 y ) − (√ 50x 2 y 2 + x√ 2y )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

73. √ 12m 4 n − m√ 75m 2 n + 2√ 27m 4 n
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
74. 5n√ 27mn 2 + 2√ 12mn 4 − n√ 3mn 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
75. 2√ 27a3 b − a√ 48ab − a√ 144a3 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
76. 2√ 98a4 b − 2a√ 162a2 b + a√ 200b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
77. √ 125a −√ 27a
3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
78. √ 1000a2 − √ 64a2
3
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

79. 2x ⋅√ 54x − 2 √ 16x 4 + 5 √ 2x 4
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
80. x ⋅ √ 54x 3 − √ 250x 6 + x 2 ⋅ √ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
81. √ 16y 2 +√ 81y 2
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯4⎯
82. √ 32y 4 −√ y
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

83. √ 32a3 − √ 162a3 + 5 √ 2a3
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

84. √ 80a4 b + √ 5a4 b − a ⋅ √
4
5b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
85. √ 27x 3 8x − √ 125x 3
3
+√
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
86. √ 24x −√ 128x − √ 81x
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯

87. √ 27x 4 y −√ 8xy 3 + x ⋅ √ 64xy − y ⋅ √ x
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯

88. √ 125xy 3 +√ 8x 3 y − √ 216xy 3 + 10x ⋅ √ y
3
89. (√ 162x 4 y 250x 4 y 2 ) − (√ 384x 4 y )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
−√ 2x 4 y 2 − √
90. (√ 32x 2 y 6 243x 6 y 2 ) − (√ xy 2 )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5
−√ x 2y6 − x ⋅ √
91. Choose values for x and y and use a calculator to show that
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
√ x + y ≠ √ x + √ y.
92. Choose values for x and y and use a calculator to show that
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√x 2 + y 2 ≠ x + y .

ANSWERS
⎯⎯
1: 14√ 3
⎯⎯
3: −2√ 5
⎯⎯
5: −√ 6
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
7: 8√ 7 − √2
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
9: 9√ 5 − 4√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
11: −√ 5 − 4√ 10
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
13: 10 √ 6 − 3√ 5
3
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
15: 6 √ 9 −√ 3
3
⎯⎯
17: 16√ x
19: 5x√ y
⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
21: 8√ ab − 15√ a
23: 9√ xy
⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
25: 2√ 2x + 6√ 3x
⎯⎯
27: −7 √
3
x
5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
29: 4a ⋅√ 3b
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
31: 13√ 2a − 5√ 2a

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
33: −√
4
4xy
⎯⎯
35: 3√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
37: 2√ 2 + 3√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
39: 5√ 7 − 5√ 3
⎯⎯
41: 5√ 5
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
43: 10√ 2 − 3√ 3
⎯⎯
45: −√ 2
3
⎯⎯
47: 4 √ 5
3
⎯⎯
49: 2√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
51: 23√ 3 − 6√ 2
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
53: −8√ 2 + √3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
55: 8√ 3 − 6√ 6
⎯⎯
57: 26 √ 2
3
⎯⎯
59: 11√ b
⎯⎯
61: −3a√ b
⎯⎯
63: 8√ x − 5√ ⎯⎯
y
⎯⎯⎯⎯
65: 20√ 2x − 12√ ⎯⎯
y

⎯⎯
67: −8m√ n
69: −2x√ y
⎯⎯ − 2y ⎯⎯
√x
71: −4x√ y
⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯
73: 3m 2 √ 3n
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
75: 2a√ 3ab − 12a2 √ ab
⎯⎯
77: 2 √
3
a
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
79: 7x ⋅√ 2x
⎯⎯⎯⎯
81: 5 √ y 2
4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
83: 4 √ 2a3
4
3 ⎯⎯
85: −2x + 2√ x
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
87: 7x ⋅√ xy − 3y ⋅ √ x
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
89: 7x ⋅√ 6xy − 6x ⋅ √ 2xy 2

8.4 Multiplying and Dividing Radical Expressions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Multiply radical expressions.

2. Divide radical expressions.
3. Rationalize the denominator.
Multiplying Radical Expressions
When multiplying radical expressions with the same index, we use the product rule
for radicals. If a and b represent positive real numbers,
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 1: Multiply: √2 ⋅ √6.
Solution: This problem is a product of two square roots. Apply the product rule for
radicals and then simplify.
⎯⎯
Answer: 2√3
1330
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
3 3
Solution: This problem is a product of cube roots. Apply the product rule for
radicals and then simplify.
⎯⎯
Answer: 3 √2
3
Often there will be coefficients in front of the radicals.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 3: Multiply: 2√3 ⋅ 5√2.
Solution: Using the product rule for radicals and the fact that multiplication is
commutative, we can multiply the coefficients and the radicands as follows.
Typically, the first step involving the application of the commutative property is
not shown.
⎯⎯
Answer: 10√6
8.4 Multiplying and Dividing Radical Expressions 1331

⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 4: Multiply: −2 √5x ⋅ 3 √25x 2 .
3 3
Solution:
Answer: −30x
Use the distributive property when multiplying rational expressions with more
than one term.
Example 5: Multiply: 4√3 (2√3 − 3√6).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
⎯⎯
Solution: Apply the distributive property and multiply each term by 4√3.

⎯⎯
Answer: 24 − 36√2
Example 6: Multiply: √4x 2 (√2x − 5 √4x 2 ).

3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Solution: Apply the distributive property and then simplify the result.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 2x − 10x ⋅ √2x
3
The process for multiplying radical expressions with multiple terms is the same
process used when multiplying polynomials. Apply the distributive property,
simplify each radical, and then combine like terms.
Example 7: Multiply: (√5 + 2) (√5 − 4).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Solution: Begin by applying the distributive property.

⎯⎯
Answer: −3 − 2√5
Example 8: Multiply: (3√x − √y ) .

⎯⎯ 2
⎯⎯
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 9x − 6√xy + y

Try this! Multiply: (2√3 + 5√2) (√3 − 2√6).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: 6 − 12√2 + 5√6 − 20√3
Video Solution
The expressions (a + b) and (a − b) are called conjugates18. When multiplying

conjugates, the sum of the products of the inner and outer terms results in 0.
Example 9: Multiply: (√2 + √5) (√2 − √5).

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Solution: Apply the distributive property and then combine like terms.
Answer: −3
It is important to note that when multiplying conjugate radical expressions, we

obtain a rational expression. This is true in general and is often used in our study of
algebra.
18. The factors (a + b) and

(a − b) are conjugates.

Therefore, for nonnegative real numbers a and b, we have the following property:
Dividing Radical Expressions (Rationalizing the Denominator)
To divide radical expressions with the same index, we use the quotient rule for
radicals. If a and b represent nonnegative numbers, where b ≠ 0, then we have
√80
√10
Solution: In this case, we can see that 10 and 80 have common factors. If we apply
the quotient rule for radicals and write it as a single square root, we will be able to
reduce the fractional radicand.

⎯⎯
Answer: 2√2
√16x 5 y 4
√2xy
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: 2x 2 y√2y
3
√ 54a3 b5
.
√ 16a2 b2
Solution:

3b⋅√3a
Answer: 2
When the divisor of a radical expression contains a radical, it is a common practice

to find an equivalent expression where the denominator is a rational number.
Finding such an equivalent expression is called rationalizing the denominator19.
To do this, multiply the fraction by a special form of 1 so that the radicand in the
denominator can be written with a power that matches the index. After doing this,
simplify and eliminate the radical in the denominator. For example,
19. The process of determining an

equivalent radical expression
with a rational denominator.

Remember, to obtain an equivalent expression, you must multiply the numerator

and denominator by the exact same nonzero factor.
√3
Example 13: Rationalize the denominator: .
√2
Solution: The goal is to find an equivalent expression without a radical in the

√2
denominator. In this example, multiply by 1 in the form .
√2
√6
Answer: 2
1
2√3x
Solution: The radicand in the denominator determines the factors that you need to
√3x
use to rationalize it. In this example, multiply by 1 in the form .
√3x

√3x
Answer: 6x
Typically, we will find the need to reduce, or cancel, after rationalizing the
denominator.
5√2
√5ab
√5ab
Solution: In this example, we will multiply by 1 in the form .
√5ab

Notice that a and b do not cancel in this example. Do not cancel factors inside a
radical with those that are outside.
√10ab
Answer: ab
Try this! Rationalize the denominator: √ 3b

4a
⎯⎯⎯⎯
.
2√3ab
Answer: 3b
Video Solution
Up to this point, we have seen that multiplying a numerator and a denominator by

a square root with the exact same radicand results in a rational denominator. In
general, this is true only when the denominator contains a square root. However,
this is not the case for a cube root. For example,
Note that multiplying by the same factor in the denominator does not rationalize it.
√x 2
3
In this case, if we multiply by 1 in the form of , then we can write the radicand in
√x 2
3
the denominator as a power of 3. Simplifying the result then yields a rationalized

denominator. For example,

Therefore, to rationalize the denominator of radical expressions with one radical

term in the denominator, begin by factoring the radicand of the denominator. The
factors of this radicand and the index determine what we should multiply by.
Multiply numerator and denominator by the nth root of factors that produce nth
powers of all the factors in the radicand of the denominator.
1
Example 16: Rationalize the denominator: 3
.
√25
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Solution: The radical in the denominator is equivalent to √52 . To rationalize the
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
denominator, it should be √53 . To obtain this, we need one more factor of 5.
3
35
√
Therefore, multiply by 1 in the form of 35
.
√
3
√ 5
Answer: 5
√ 2b2 .
⎯27a
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
Example 17: Rationalize the denominator:
√22 b
3
√22 b
3

3
3√ 4ab
Answer: 2b
1
Example 18: Rationalize the denominator: 5
.
√ 4x 3
√23 x 2
5
√23 x 2
5
5
√ 8x 2
Answer: 2x
When two terms involving square roots appear in the denominator, we can
rationalize it using a very special technique. This technique involves multiplying

the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the
denominator. Recall that multiplying a radical expression by its conjugate produces
a rational number.
1
√ √2
3 −
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Solution: In this example, the conjugate of the denominator is √3 + √2.
(√3+√2)
(√3+√2)
Therefore, multiply by 1 in the form .
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: √3 + √2
Notice that the terms involving the square root in the denominator are eliminated
by multiplying by the conjugate. We can use the property
(√a + √b) (√a − √b) = a − bto expedite the process of multiplying the
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
expressions in the denominator.

√2−√6
√2+√6
√2−√6
Solution: Multiply by 1 in the form .
√2−√6
⎯⎯
Answer: −2 + √3
√x +√y
√x −√y
√x −√y
√x −√y

x−2√xy +y
Answer: x−y
3√5+5
Try this! Rationalize the denominator: .
2√5−3
19√5+45
Answer: 11
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• To multiply two single-term radical expressions, multiply the

coefficients and multiply the radicands. If possible, simplify the result.
• Apply the distributive property when multiplying radical expressions
with multiple terms. Then simplify and combine all like radicals.
• Multiplying a two-term radical expression involving square roots by its
conjugate results in a rational expression.
• It is common practice to write radical expressions without radicals in
the denominator. The process of finding such an equivalent expression
is called rationalizing the denominator.
• If an expression has one term in the denominator involving a radical,
then rationalize it by multiplying numerator and denominator by the
nth root of factors of the radicand so that their powers equal the index.
• If a radical expression has two terms in the denominator involving
square roots, then rationalize it by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by its conjugate.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Multiplying Radical Expressions
Multiply. (Assume all variables are nonnegative.)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
1. √ 3 ⋅ √5
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
2. √ 7 ⋅ √3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
3. √ 2 ⋅ √6
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. √ 5 ⋅ √ 15
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
5. √ 7 ⋅ √7
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. √ 12 ⋅ √ 12
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
7. 2√ 5 ⋅ 7√ 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
8. 3√ 15 ⋅ 2√ 6
( 5)
⎯⎯ 2
9. 2 √
( )
⎯⎯ 2
10. 6√ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
11. √ 2x ⋅ √ 2x
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. √ 5y ⋅ √ 5y
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
13. √ 3a ⋅ √ 12
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
14. √ 3a ⋅ √ 2a

⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
15. 4√ 2x ⋅ 3√ 6x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
16. 5√ 10y ⋅ 2√ 2y
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
17. √ 5 ⋅√ 25
3
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
18. √ 4 ⋅√ 2
3
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
19. √ 4 ⋅√ 10
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
20. √ 18 ⋅√ 6
3
( )( 6)
3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
21. 5 √ 9 2 √
( )( 4)
3 ⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
22. 2 √ 4 3 √
( )
3 ⎯⎯
3
23. 2 √ 2
( )
⎯⎯ 3
24. 3 √ 4
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
25. √ 3a2
3
⋅√ 9a
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
26. √ 7b
3
⋅ √ 49b 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
27. √ 6x 2 ⋅ √ 4x 2
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
28. √
3
12y ⋅√ 9y
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
29. √ 20x 2 y ⋅√ 10x 2 y 2
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
30. √
3
63xy ⋅√ 12x 4 y 2

(3 − √ 5 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
31. √ 5
( 2)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
32. √ 2 √ 3 − √
( 3)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
33. 3√ 7 2 √ 7 − √
( 10 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
34. 2√ 5 6 − 3√
( 2)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
35. √ 6 √ 3 − √
( 3)
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
36. √ 15 √ 5 + √
(√ x + √ xy )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
37. √ x
(√ xy + √ y )
38. √ y
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
( 10b )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. √ 2ab √ 14a − 2 √
(5√ 2a − √ 3b )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √ 6ab
(√ 2 − √ 5 ) (√ 3 + √ 7 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
41.
( )( 7)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
42. √ 3 + √ 2 √ 5 − √
( ) ( 6 + 1)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
43. 2 √ 3 − 4 3√
( )( 3)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
44. 5 − 2 √ 6 7 − 2 √

( 3)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ 2
45. √ 5 − √
( )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ 2
46. √ 7 − √ 2
( )( 2)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
47. 2 √ 3 + √ 2 2 √ 3 − √
( )( 7)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
48. √ 2 + 3 √ 7 √ 2 − 3 √
( )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
49. √ a − √ 2b
(√ )
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2
50. ab + 1
⎯⎯
51. What are the perimeter and area of a rectangle with length of 5√ 3
⎯⎯
centimeters and width of 3√ 2 centimeters?
⎯⎯
52. What are the perimeter and area of a rectangle with length of 2√ 6
⎯⎯
centimeters and width of √ 3 centimeters?
⎯⎯
53. If the base of a triangle measures 6√ 2 meters and the height measures
⎯⎯
3√ 2 meters, then what is the area?
⎯⎯
54. If the base of a triangle measures 6√ 3 meters and the height measures
⎯⎯
3√ 6 meters, then what is the area?
Part B: Dividing Radical Expressions
Divide.
√75
55.
√3

√360
56.
√10
√72
57.
√75
√90
58.
√98
√90x 5
59.
√2x
√96y 3
60.
√3y
√162x 7 y 5
61.
√2xy
√363x 4 y 9
62.
√3xy
3
√ 16a5 b 2
63. 3
√ 2a2 b 2
3
√ 192a2 b 7
64. 3
√ 2a2 b 2
Rationalize the denominator.
1
65.
√5
1
66.
√6
√2
67.
√3

√3
68.
√7
5
69.
2√10
3
70.
5√6
√3 −√5
71.
√3
√6 −√2
72.
√2
1
73.
√7x
1
74.
√3y
a
75.
5√ab
3b 2
76.
2√3ab
2
77. 3
√ 36
14
78. 3
√ 7
1
79. 3
√ 4x
1
80. 3
√3y 2
3
9x⋅√ 2
81. 3
√ 9xy 2

5y 2 ⋅√
3 x
82. 3
√ 5x 2 y
3a
83. 3
2 √3a2 b 2
25n
84. 3
3 √25m 2 n
3
85. 5
√ 27x 2 y
2
86. 5
√16xy 2
ab
87. 5
√ 9a3 b
abc
88. 5
√ab 2 c3
3
89.
√ −3
10
2
90.
√6 −2
1
91.
√ √3
5 +
1
92.
√7 −√2
√3
93.
√3 +√6
√5
94.
√5 +√15
10
95.
5−3√5

−2√2
96.
4−3√2
√3 +√5
97.
√3 −√5
√10 −√2
98.
√10 +√2
2√3 −3√2
99.
4√3 +√2
6√5 +2
100.
2√5 −√2
x+√y
101.
x−√y
x−√y
102.
x+√y
√a−√b
103.
√a+√b
√ab+√2
104.
√ab−√2
√x
105.
5−2√x
1
106.
√x −y
Part C: Discussion
107. Research and discuss some of the reasons why it is a common practice
to rationalize the denominator.
108. Explain in your own words how to rationalize the denominator.

ANSWERS
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1: √ 15
⎯⎯
3: 2√ 3
5: 7
⎯⎯
7: 70√ 2
9: 20
11: 2x
⎯⎯
13: 6√ a
⎯⎯
15: 24x√ 3
17: 5
⎯⎯
19: 2 √ 5
3
⎯⎯
21: 30 √ 2
3
23: 16
25: 3a
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
27: 2x ⋅√ 3x
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
29: 2xy ⋅√ 25x
⎯⎯
31: 3√ 5 −5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
33: 42 − 3√ 21

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
35: 3√ 2 − 2√ 3
37: x + x√ ⎯⎯
y
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
39: 2a√ 7b − 4b√ 5a
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
41: √ 6 + √ 14 − √ 15 − √ 35
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
43: 18√ 2 + 2√ 3 − 12√ 6 − 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
45: 8 − 2√ 15
47: 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
49: a − 2√ 2ab + 2b
( )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
51: Perimeter: 10 √ 3 + 6 √ 2 centimeters; area: 15√ 6 square
centimeters
53: 18 square meters
55: 5
2√6
57:
5
⎯⎯
59: 3x 2 √ 5
61: 9x 3 y 2
63: 2a
√5
65:
5
√6
67:
3

√10
69:
4
3−√15
71:
3
√7x
73: 7x
√ab
75:
5b
3
√ 6
77:
3
3
√ 2x 2
79:
2x
3
3√ 6x 2 y
81: y
3
√ 9ab
83:
2b
5
√ 9x 3 y 4
85: xy
5
√ 27a2 b 4
87:
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
89: 3√ 10 +9
√5 −√3
91:
2
⎯⎯
93: −1 + √2
−5−3√5
95:
2
⎯⎯⎯⎯
97: −4 − √ 15

15−7√6
99:
23
x 2 +2x√y +y
101:
x 2 −y
a−2√ab+b
103:
a−b
5√x +2x
105:
25−4x

8.5 Rational Exponents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Write expressions with rational exponents in radical form.

2. Write radical expressions with rational exponents.
3. Perform operations and simplify expressions with rational exponents.
4. Perform operations on radicals with different indices.
Definition of Rational Exponents
So far, exponents have been limited to integers. In this section, we will define what
rational (or fractional) exponents20 mean and how to work with them. All of the
rules for exponents developed up to this point apply. In particular, recall the
product rule for exponents. Given any rational numbers m and n, then
For example, if we have an exponent of 12, then the product rule for exponents
implies the following:
Here 51/2 is one of two equal factors of 5; hence it is a square root of 5, and we can
write
Furthermore, we can see that 21/3 is one of three equal factors of 2.

20. The fractional exponent m/n
that indicates a radical with
index n and exponent m:
n ⎯⎯⎯⎯
am/n = √ am .
1360
Therefore, 21/3 is the cube root of 2, and we can write
This is true in general, given any nonzero real number a,
In other words, the denominator of a fractional exponent determines the index of

an nth root.
Example 1: Rewrite as a radical.
a. 71/2
b. 71/3
Solution:
⎯⎯
a. 71/2 = √7
⎯⎯
b. 71/3 = √7
3
Example 2: Rewrite as a radical and then simplify.
8.5 Rational Exponents 1361

a. 811/2
b. 811/4
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. 811/2 = √81 = 9
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. 811/4 = √81 = √34 = 3
4 4
a. (125x 3 )
1/3
b. (−32y 10 )
1/5
Solution:
a.
b.

Next, consider fractional exponents where the numerator is an integer other than
1. For example, consider the following:
This shows that 52/3 is one of three equal factors of 52 . In other words, 52/3 is the
cube root of 52 and we can write:
In general, given any real number a,
An expression with a rational exponent is equivalent to a radical where the

denominator is the index and the numerator is the exponent. Any radical
expression can be written with a rational exponent, which we call exponential
form21.
Example 4: Rewrite as a radical.
a. 72/5
b. 23/4
21. An equivalent expression
written using a rational
exponent. Solution:

⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. 72/5 = √72 = √49
5 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
b. 23/4 = √23 = √8
4 4
a. 82/3
b. (32)3/5
Solution:
a.
b. We can often avoid very large integers by working with their prime factorization.

Given a radical expression, we will be asked to find the equivalent in exponential

form. Assume all variables are positive.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 6: Rewrite using rational exponents: √x 2 .
3
Solution: Here the index is 3 and the power is 2. We can write
Answer: x 2/3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 7: Rewrite using rational exponents: √
6
y3 .
Answer: y 1/2
It is important to note that the following are equivalent.

In other words, it does not matter if we apply the power first or the root first. For
example, we can apply the power before the root:
Or we can apply the nth root before the power:
The results are the same.
Example 8: Rewrite as a radical and then simplify: (−8)2/3 .
Answer: 4
Try this! Rewrite as a radical and then simplify: 253/2 .
Answer: 125
Video Solution

Some calculators have a caret button ˆ . If so, we can calculate approximations

for radicals using it and rational exponents. For example, to calculate
⎯⎯
√2 = 21/2 = 2 ^ (1/2) ≈ 1.414, we would type
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
To calculate √22 = 22/3 = 2 ^ (2/3) ≈ 1.587, we would type
Operations Using the Rules of Exponents
In this section, we review all of the rules of exponents, which extend to include
rational exponents. If given any rational numbers m and n, then we have
Product rule: x m ⋅ x n = x m+n
xm
Quotient rule: = x m−n , x ≠ 0
x n
(x ) = x
m n m⋅n
Power rule:
(xy) = x y
n n n
Power rule for a product:
(y )
n
x xn
Power rule for a quotient: = n ,y≠0
y
1
Negative exponents: x −n =
xn

Zero exponent: x 0 = 1, x ≠ 0
These rules allow us to perform operations with rational exponents.
Example 9: Simplify: 22/3 ⋅ 21/6 .
Solution:
Answer: 25/6
1/2
Example 10: Simplify: x 1/3 .
x
Solution:
Answer: x 1/6

Example 11: Simplify: (y 3/4 )

2/3
.
Solution:
Answer: y 1/2
Example 12: Simplify: (16a4 b8 )

3/4
.
Solution:
Answer: 8a3 b6
Example 13: Simplify: 25−3/2 .
Solution:

Answer: 1/125
(8a b )
3/4 3 2/3

a1/3
Answer: 4a1/6 b2
Video Solution

Radical Expressions with Different Indices
To apply the product or quotient rule for radicals, the indices of the radicals
involved must be the same. If the indices are different, then first rewrite the
radicals in exponential form and then apply the rules for exponents.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
3
Solution: In this example, the index of each radical factor is different. Hence the
product rule for radicals does not apply. Begin by converting the radicals into an

equivalent form using rational exponents. Then apply the product rule for
exponents.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: √25
6
3
√ 4
.
√ 2
Solution: In this example, the index of the radical in the numerator is different
from the index of the radical in the denominator. Hence the quotient rule for
radicals does not apply. Begin by converting the radicals into an equivalent form
using rational exponents and then apply the quotient rule for exponents.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Answer: √27
15

Example 16: Simplify: √ √4 .

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
Solution: Here the radicand of the square root is a cube root. After rewriting this
expression using rational exponents, we will see that the power rule for exponents
applies.
⎯⎯
Answer: √2
3
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• When converting fractional exponents to radicals, use the numerator as

the power and the denominator as the index of the radical.
• All the rules of exponents apply to expressions with rational exponents.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Rational Exponents
Express using rational exponents.
⎯⎯
1. √ 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯
2. √ 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. √ 11
3
⎯⎯
4. √ 2
4
⎯⎯⎯2⎯
5. √ 5
3
⎯⎯⎯3⎯
6. √ 2
4
⎯⎯
7. √
5
x
⎯⎯
8. √
6
x
⎯⎯⎯⎯
9. √ x 7
6
⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. √ x 4
5
Express in radical form.
1/2
11. 2
1/3
12. 5
2/3
13. 7
3/5
14. 2

15. x 3/4
16. x 5/6
17. x −1/2
18. x −3/4
19. ( x )
1 −1/3
20. ( x )
1 −3/5
Write as a radical and then simplify.
1/2
21. 25
1/2
22. 36
1/2
23. 121
1/2
24. 144
25. (
4)
1 1/2
26. (
9)
4 1/2
−1/2
27. 4
−1/2
28. 9
29. (
4)
1 −1/2
30. (
16 )
1 −1/2

1/3
31. 8
1/3
32. 125
33. (
27 )
1 1/3
34. (
125 )
8 1/3
1/3
35. (−27)
36. (−64)
1/3
1/4
37. 16
1/4
38. 625
−1/4
39. 81
−1/4
40. 16
1/5
41. 100, 000
1/5
42. (−32)
43. (
32 )
1 1/5
44. (
243 )
1 1/5
3/2
45. 9
3/2
46. 4
5/3
47. 8
2/3
48. 27

3/2
49. 16
2/5
50. 32
51. (
16 )
1 3/4
52. (
81 )
1 3/4
2/3
53. (−27)
4/3
54. (−27)
3/5
55. (−32)
4/5
56. (−32)
Use a calculator to approximate an answer rounded to the nearest hundredth.
3/4
57. 2
2/3
58. 3
1/5
59. 5
1/7
60. 7
3/2
61. (−9)
3/2
62. −9
63. Explain why (−4)^(3/2) gives an error on a calculator and −4^(3/2) gives
an answer of −8.
64. Marcy received a text message from Mark asking her how old she was. In
response, Marcy texted back “125^(2/3) years old.” Help Mark determine
how old Marcy is.

Part B: Rational Exponents
Perform the operations and simplify. Leave answers in exponential form.
2/3
65. 2 ⋅ 2 4/3
3/2
66. 3 ⋅ 3 1/2
1/2
67. 5 ⋅ 5 1/3
1/6
68. 2 ⋅ 2 3/4
69. y 1/4 ⋅ y 2/5
70. x 1/2 ⋅ x 1/4
5 7/3
71.
5 1/3
2 9/2
72.
2 1/2
2a2/3
73.
a1/6
3b 1/2
74.
b 1/3
75. (8 )
1/2 2/3
76. (3 )
6 2/3
77. (x 2/3 )
1/2
78. (y 3/4 )
4/5
79. (4x 2 y 4 )
1/2

80. (9x 6 y 2 )
1/2
81. (2x 1/3 y 2/3 )

3
82. (8x 3/2 y 1/2 )

2
( a1/2 )
4/3
a3/4
83.
( b1/10 )
10/3
b 4/5
84.
( y4 )
1/2
4x 2/3
85.
( y9 )
1/3
27x 3/4
86.
y 1/2 ⋅y 2/3
87.
y 1/6
x 2/5 ⋅x 1/2
88.
x 1/10
xy
89.
x 1/2 y 1/3
x 5/4 y
90.
xy 2/5
49a5/7 b 3/2
91.
7a3/7 b 1/4
16a5/6 b 5/4
92.
8a1/2 b 2/3
(9x y )
2/3 6 3/2
93.
x 1/2 y

(125x y )
3 3/5 2/3
94.
xy 1/3
(27a b )
1/4 3/2 2/3
95.
a1/6 b 1/2
(25a b )
2/3 4/3 3/2
96.
a1/6 b 1/3
Part C: Mixed Indices
⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯
97. √ 9 ⋅√ 3
3
⎯⎯ 5 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
98. √ 5 ⋅√ 25
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
99. √ x ⋅√ x
100. √ y
⎯⎯ ⋅ 4 ⎯⎯
y
√
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 ⎯⎯
101. √ x 2
3
⋅√ x
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
102. √ x 3
5
⋅√ x
3
√ 100
103.
√10
5
√ 16
104. 3
√ 4
3 2
√a
105.
√a
5 4
√b
106. 3
√ b

3 2
√x
107. 5 3
√x
4 3
√x
108. 3 2
√x
109. √ √ 16
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5
110. √ √ 9
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
111. √ √ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35
112. √ √ 5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35
113. √ √ 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
114. √ √ 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
115. Who is credited for devising the notation for rational exponents? What
are some of his other accomplishments?
116. When using text, it is best to communicate nth roots using rational
exponents. Give an example.

ANSWERS
1/2
1: 6
1/3
3: 11
2/3
5: 5
7: x 1/5
9: x 7/6
⎯⎯
11: √ 2
⎯⎯⎯2⎯
13: √ 7
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
15: √ x 3
4
1
17:
√x
⎯⎯
19: √
3
x
21: 5
23: 11
25: 1/2
27: 1/2
29: 2
31: 2
33: 1/3
35: −3

37: 2
39: 1/3
41: 10
43: 1/2
45: 27
47: 32
49: 64
51: 1/8
53: 9
55: −8
57: 1.68
59: 1.38
63: In the first expression, the square root of a negative number creates an
error condition on the calculator. The square root of a negative number is
not real. In the second expression, because of the order of operations, the
negative sign is applied to the answer after 4 is raised to the (3/2) power.
65: 4
5/6
67: 5
69: y 13/20
71: 25
73: 2a1/2

75: 2
77: x 1/3
79: 2xy 2
81: 8xy 2
83: a1/3
2x 1/3
85:
y2
87: y
89: x 1/2 y 2/3
91: 7x 2/7 y 5/4
93: 27x 1/2 y 8
1/2
95: 9b
⎯⎯⎯⎯
13
⎯
97: √ 3
15
⎯⎯⎯⎯
99: √ x 5
6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
101: √ x 11
12
⎯⎯⎯⎯
103: √ 10
6
⎯⎯
105: √
6
a
⎯⎯
107: √
15
x
⎯⎯
109: √ 4
5

⎯⎯
111: √ 2
15
⎯⎯
113: √ 7
6

8.6 Solving Radical Equations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Solve equations involving square roots.

2. Solve equations involving cube roots.
Radical Equations
A radical equation22 is any equation that contains one or more radicals with a
variable in the radicand. Following are some examples of radical equations, all of
which will be solved in this section:
We begin with the squaring property of equality23; given real numbers a and b, we
have the following:
In other words, equality is retained if we square both sides of an equation.
22. Any equation that contains one

or more radicals with a The converse, on the other hand, is not necessarily true:
variable in the radicand.
23. Given real numbers a and b,

where a = b, then a2 = b2.
1385
This is important because we will use this property to solve radical equations.
Consider a very simple radical equation that can be solved by inspection:
use of the squaring property of equality and the fact that (√a) = √a2 = a when
Here we can see that x = 9 is a solution. To solve this equation algebraically, make
⎯⎯ 2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a is positive. Eliminate the square root by squaring both sides of the equation as
follows:
⎯⎯
As a check, we can see that √9 = 3 as expected. Because the converse of the
squaring property of equality is not necessarily true, solutions to the squared
equation may not be solutions to the original. Hence squaring both sides of an
equation introduces the possibility of extraneous solutions24, or solutions that do
not solve the original equation. For this reason, we must check the answers that
result from squaring both sides of an equation.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 1: Solve: √x − 1 = 5.
Solution: We can eliminate the square root by applying the squaring property of
equality.
24. A solution that does not solve

8.6 Solving Radical Equations 1386

Next, we must check.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 2: Solve: √5 − 4x = x.
Solution: Begin by squaring both sides of the equation.
You are left with a quadratic equation that can be solved by factoring.

Since you squared both sides, you must check your solutions.
After checking, you can see that x = −5 was extraneous; it did not solve the
original radical equation. Disregard that answer. This leaves x = 1 as the only
solution.
Answer: The solution is x = 1 .
In the previous two examples, notice that the radical is isolated on one side of the
equation. Typically, this is not the case. The steps for solving radical equations
involving square roots are outlined in the following example.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 3: Solve: √2x − 5 + 4 = x.

Solution:
Step 1: Isolate the square root. Begin by subtracting 4 from both sides of the
equation.
Step 2: Square both sides. Squaring both sides eliminates the square root.
Step 3: Solve the resulting equation. Here you are left with a quadratic equation
that can be solved by factoring.
Step 4: Check the solutions in the original equation. Squaring both sides introduces
the possibility of extraneous solutions; hence the check is required.

After checking, we can see that x = 3 is an extraneous root; it does not solve the
original radical equation. This leaves x = 7 as the only solution.
Answer: The solution is x = 7 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 4: Solve: 3√x + 1 − 2x = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating the term with the radical.
Despite the fact that the term on the left side has a coefficient, it is still considered
isolated. Recall that terms are separated by addition or subtraction operators.

Solve the resulting quadratic equation.
Since we squared both sides, we must check our solutions.
After checking, we can see that x = − 34 was extraneous.
Sometimes both of the possible solutions are extraneous.

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 5: Solve: √4 − 11x − x + 2 = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating the radical.
Since we squared both sides, we must check our solutions.
Since both possible solutions are extraneous, the equation has no solution.
Answer: No solution, Ø

The squaring property of equality extends to any positive integer power n. Given
real numbers a and b, we have the following:
along with the fact that (√ a) = √

This is often referred to as the power property of equality25. Use this property,
⎯⎯ n ⎯⎯⎯⎯
n
a = a, when a is positive, to solve radical
n n
equations with indices greater than 2.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 6: Solve: √x 2 + 4 − 2 = 0.
3
Solution: Isolate the radical and then cube both sides of the equation.
Check.
25. Given any positive integer n

and real numbers a and b,
n
where a = b, then an = b .

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Solve: √2x − 1 + 2 = x.
Answer: x = 5 (x = 1 is extraneous)
Video Solution
It may be the case that the equation has two radical expressions.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 7: Solve: √3x − 4 = √2x + 9.
Solution: Both radicals are considered isolated on separate sides of the equation.

Check x = 13 .
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Example 8: Solve: √x 2 + x − 14 = √x + 50.
3 3
Solution: Eliminate the radicals by cubing both sides.

Check.
We will learn how to solve some of the more advanced radical equations in the next
course, Intermediate Algebra.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Try this! Solve: √3x + 1 = 2√x − 3.
Answer: 13
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solve equations involving square roots by first isolating the radical and
then squaring both sides. Squaring a square root eliminates the radical,
leaving us with an equation that can be solved using the techniques
learned earlier in our study of algebra. However, squaring both sides of
an equation introduces the possibility of extraneous solutions, so check
your answers in the original equation.
• Solve equations involving cube roots by first isolating the radical and
then cubing both sides. This eliminates the radical and results in an
equation that may be solved with techniques you have already
mastered.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Solving Radical Equations
Solve.
⎯⎯
1. √ x =2
⎯⎯
2. √ x =7
⎯⎯
3. √ x +7=8
⎯⎯
4. √ x +4=9
⎯⎯
5. √ x +6=3
⎯⎯
6. √ x +2=1
⎯⎯
7. 5√ x −1=0
⎯⎯
8. 3√ x −2=0
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
9. √ x −3 =3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. √ x +5 =6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
11. √ 3x +1 =2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. √ 5x −4 =4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
13. √ 7x + 4 + 6 = 11
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
14. √ 3x − 5 + 9 = 14
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
15. 2√ x −1 −3=0

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
16. 3√ x +1 −2=0
⎯⎯
17. √
3
x =2
⎯⎯
18. √
3
x =5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
19. √ 2x +9 =3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
20. √ 4x − 11 = 1
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. √ 5x +7 +3=1
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. √ 3x −6 +5=2
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23. 2 √ x +2 −1=0
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
24. 2 √ 2x −3 −1=0
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
25. √ 8x + 11 = 3√ x + 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
26. 2√ 3x − 4 = √ 2 (3x + 1)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
27. √ 2 (x + 10) = √ 7x − 15
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
28. √ 5 (x − 4) = √ x + 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
29. √ 5x −2 =√ 4x
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
30. √ 9 (x − 1) = √ 3 (x + 7)
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
31. √ 3x +1 =√ 2(x − 1)
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
32. √ 9x =√ 3(x − 6)
3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
33. √ 4x + 21 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
34. √ 8x +9 =x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
35. √ 4 (2x − 3) = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
36. √ 3 (4x − 9) = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
37. 2√ x −1 =x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
38. 3√ 2x −9 =x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. √ 9x +9 =x+1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
40. √ 3x + 10 = x + 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
41. √ x −1 =x−3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
42. √ 2x −5 =x−4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
43. √ 16 − 3x = x − 6
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
44. √ 7 − 3x = x − 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
45. 3√ 2x + 10 = x + 9
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
46. 2√ 2x +5 =x+4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
47. 3√ x −1 −1=x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
48. 2√ 2x +2 −1=x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
49. √ 10x + 41 − 5 = x

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
50. √ 6 (x + 3) − 3 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
51. √ 8x 2 − 4x + 1 = 2x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
52. √ 18x 2 − 6x + 1 = 3x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
53. 5√ x +2 =x+8
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
54. 4√ 2 (x + 1) = x + 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
55. √ x 2 − 25 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
56. √ x 2 +9=x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
57. 3 + √ 6x − 11 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
58. 2 + √ 9x − 8 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
59. √ 4x + 25 − x = 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
60. √ 8x + 73 − x = 10
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
61. 2√ 4x + 3 − 3 = 2x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
62. 2√ 6x + 3 − 3 = 3x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
63. 2x − 4 = √ 14 − 10x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
64. 3x − 6 = √ 33 − 24x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
65. √ x 2
3
− 24 = 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. √ x 2
3
− 54 = 3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
67. √ x 2 + 6x + 1 = 4
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
68. √ x 2 + 2x + 5 = 7
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
69. √ 25x 2
3
− 10x − 7 = −2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
70. √ 9x 2
3
− 12x − 23 = −3
− 15x + 25 = √(x + 5) (x − 5)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
71. √ 2x 2
− 4x + 4 = √x (5 − x)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
72. √ x 2
73. √ 2 (x 2 + 3x − 20) = √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
3
(x + 3)
74. √ 3x + 3x + 40 = √ (x − 5)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
3 2 3
75. x 1/2 − 10 = 0
76. x 1/2 −6=0
77. x 1/3 +2=0
78. x 1/3 +4=0
79. (x − 1) 1/2 − 3 = 0
80. (x + 2) 1/2 − 6 = 0
81. (2x − 1) 1/3 + 3 = 0
82. (3x − 1) 1/3 − 2 = 0
83. (4x + 15)

1/2
− 2x = 0

84. (3x + 2) 1/2 − 3x = 0
85. (2x + 12) 1/2 − x = 6
86. (4x + 36)

1/2
−x=9
87. 2(5x + 26)

1/2
= x + 10
88. 3(x − 1) 1/2 = x + 1
89. The square root of 1 less than twice a number is equal to 2 less than the
number. Find the number.
90. The square root of 4 less than twice a number is equal to 6 less than the
number. Find the number.
91. The square root of twice a number is equal to one-half of that number.
Find the number.
92. The square root of twice a number is equal to one-third of that number.
Find the number.
93. The distance, d, measured in miles, a person can see an object is given by
the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ 6h
d=
2
where h represents the person’s height above sea level, measured in feet.
How high must a person be to see an object 5 miles away?
94. The current, I, measured in amperes, is given by the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√R
P
I=

where P is the power usage, measured in watts, and R is the resistance,

measured in ohms. If a light bulb requires 1/2 ampere of current and uses 60
watts of power, then what is the resistance of the bulb?
The period, T, of a pendulum in seconds is given by the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ 32
L
T = 2π
where L represents the length in feet. For each problem below, calculate the length of
a pendulum, given the period. Give the exact value and the approximate value
rounded off to the nearest tenth of a foot.
95. 1 second
96. 2 seconds
97. 1/2 second
98. 1/3 second
The time, t, in seconds an object is in free fall is given by the formula
⎯
√s
t=
4
where s represents the distance in feet the object has fallen. For each problem below,
calculate the distance an object falls, given the amount of time.
99. 1 second
100. 2 seconds
101. 1/2 second
102. 1/4 second

The x-intercepts for any graph have the form (x, 0), where x is a real number.
Therefore, to find x-intercepts, set y = 0 and solve for x. Find the x-intercepts for each
of the following.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
103. y = √x − 3 − 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
104. y = √x + 2 − 3
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
105. y =√ x−1 +2
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
106. y =√ x+1 −3
107. Discuss reasons why we sometimes obtain extraneous solutions when

solving radical equations. Are there ever any conditions where we do not
need to check for extraneous solutions? Why?

ANSWERS
1: 4
3: 1
5: Ø
7: 1/25
9: 12
11: 1
13: 3
15: 13/4
17: 8
19: 9
21: −3
23: −15/8
25: 2
27: 7
29: 2
31: −3
33: 7
35: 2, 6
37: 2

39: −1, 8
41: 5
43: Ø
45: −3, 3
47: 2, 5
49: −4, −4
51: 1/2
53: 2, 7
55: Ø
57: 10
59: −6, −4
61: −1/2, 3/2
63: Ø
65: −5, 5
67: −9, 3
69: 1/5
71: 5, 10
73: −7, 7
75: 100
77: −8

79: 10
81: −13
83: 5/2
85: −6, −4
87: −2, 2
89: 5
91: 8
93: 16 2
3
feet
95: 8/π 2 ≈ 0.8 foot
97: 2/π 2 ≈ 0.2 foot
99: 16 feet
101: 4 feet
103: (4, 0)
105: (−7, 0)

1409
REVIEW EXERCISES
(Assume all variables represent nonnegative numbers.)
Radicals
Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. √ 36
2. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
4
⎯
25
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. √ −16
⎯⎯
4. −√ 9
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. √ 125
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. 3 √ −8
3
7. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
3
64
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8. −5 √ −27
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯
9. √ 40
⎯⎯⎯⎯
10. −3√ 50
11. √
⎯98
⎯⎯⎯⎯
81
12. √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1
⎯
121
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
13. 5 √ 192
3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
14. 2 √ −54
3
Simplifying Radical Expressions
Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
15. √ 49x 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
16. √ 25a2 b
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
17. √ 75x 3 y 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
18. √ 200m 4 n 3
√ 25y 2
⎯18x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
19.
√
⎯108x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯3⎯
20.
49y 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. √ 216x 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. √ −125x 6 y 3
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5 3
⎯
23. √ 27a7 b
3
c
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
24. √ 120x 9 y 4
3
Use the distance formula to calculate the distance between the given two points.
25. (5, −8) and (2, −10)
26. (−7, −1) and (−6, 1)
27. (−10, −1) and (0, −5)
28. (5, −1) and (−2, −2)

Adding and Subtracting Radical Expressions
Simplify.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
29. 8√ 3 + 3√ 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
30. 12√ 10 − 2√ 10
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
31. 14√ 3 + 5√ 2 − 5√ 3 − 6√ 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
32. 22√ ab − 5a√ b + 7√ ab − 2a√ b
− (3√ x + 2√ ⎯⎯
y)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
33. 7√ x
( ) ( x)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
34. 8y √ x − 7x √ y − 5x √ y − 12y √
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯

35. √ 45 + √ 12 − √ 20 − √ 75
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
36. √ 24 − √ 32 + √ 54 − 2√ 32
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
37. 2√ 3x 2 + √ 45x − x√ 27 + √ 20x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
38. 5√ 6a2 b + √ 8a2 b 2 − 2√ 24a2 b − a√ 18b 2
− (x√ 16y 3 − 2√ 9x 2 y 3 )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
39. 5y√ 4x 2 y
( ) ( )
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 c − 3a√ 16b 2 c −
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 b 2 c − 9b√ a2 c
40. 2b√ 9a √ 64a
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯

41. √ 216x −√ 125xy − √ 8x
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

42. √ 128x 3 54 + 3 √ 2x 3
3
− 2x ⋅ √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯
43. √ 8x 3 y − 2x ⋅ √ 8y + √ 27x 3 y + x ⋅ √ y
3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯

44. √ 27a3 b − 3 √ 8ab 3 + a ⋅ √
3
64b − b ⋅ √ a
Multiplying and Dividing Radical Expressions
Multiply.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
45. √ 3 ⋅ √6
( 5)
⎯⎯ 2
46. 3 √
(√ 3 − √ 6 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
47. √ 2
( 6)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ 2
48. √ 2 − √
( )( 5)
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
49. 1 − √ 5 1 + √
(2√ 3 + √ 5 ) (3√ 2 − 2√ 5 )
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
50.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
51. √ 2a2
3
⋅√ 4a
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
52. √ 25a2 b ⋅ √ 5a2 b 2
3
Divide.
√72
53.
√4
10√48
54.
√64
√98x 4 y 2
55.
√36x 2

3
√ 81x 6 y 7
56. 3
√ 8y 3
2
57.
√7
√6
58.
√3
14
59.
√2x
1
60.
2√15
1
61. 3
√ 2x 2
5a2 b
62. 3
√5ab 2
1
63.
√3 −√2
√2 −√6
64.
√2 +√6
Rational Exponents
Express in radical form.
1/2
65. 7
2/3
66. 3
67. x 4/5
68. y −3/4

Write as a radical and then simplify.
1/2
69. 4
1/2
70. 50
2/3
71. 4
1/3
72. 81
73. (
4)
1 3/2
74. (
216 )
1 −1/3
1/2
75. 3 ⋅ 3 3/2
1/2
76. 2 ⋅ 2 1/3
4 3/2
77.
4 1/2
9 3/4
78.
9 1/4
79. (36x 4 y 2 )
1/2
80. (8x 6 y 9 )
1/3
( a1/2 )
2/5
a4/3
81.
( y2 )
1/2
16x 4/3
82.
Solving Radical Equations

Solve.
⎯⎯
83. √ x =5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
84. √ 2x −1 =3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
85. √ x −8 +2=5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
86. 3√ x − 5 − 1 = 11
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
87. √ 5x − 3 = √ 2x + 15
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
88. √ 8x − 15 = x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
89. √ x + 41 = x − 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
90. √ 7 − 3x = x − 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
91. 2 (x + 1) = √ 2 (x + 1)
92. √ x (x + 6) = 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
93. √ x (3x + 10) = 2
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
94. √ 2x 2
3
−x +4=5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
95. √ 3 (x + 4) (x + 1) = √ 5x + 37
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
96. √ 3x 2 − 9x + 24 = √ (x + 2)
3
97. y 1/2 −3=0
98. y 1/3 +3=0

99. (x − 5)
1/2
−2=0
100. (2x − 1) 1/3 − 5 = 0

SAMPLE EXAM
In problems 1–18, assume all variables represent nonnegative numbers.
1. Simplify.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √ 100
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √ −100
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. −√ 100
2. Simplify.
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √ 27
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √ −27
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. −√ 27
3. √
⎯128
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
25
4. √
⎯192
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
125
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. 5√ 12x 2 y 3 z
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. √ 250x 2 y 3 z 5
3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯

7. 5√ 24 − √ 108 + √ 96 − 3√ 27
− (x√ 200y − √ 18x 2 y )

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8. 3√ 8x 2 y
( b)
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
9. 2√ ab 3√ 2a − √
(√ √ )
⎯⎯ 2
10. x − 2 ⎯⎯
y

10
11.
√2x
1
12. 3
√ 4xy 2
1
13.
√x +5
√2 −√3
14.
√2 +√3
2/3
15. 2 ⋅ 2 1/6
10 4/5
16.
10 1/3
17. (121a4 b )
2 1/2
(9y x )
1/3 6 1/2
18.
y 1/6
Solve.
⎯⎯
19. √ x −7=0
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
20. √ 3x +5 =1
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. √ 2x −1 +2=x
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. √ 31 − 10x = x − 4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23. √ (2x + 1) (3x + 2) = √ 3 (2x + 1)

24. √ x (2x − 15) = 3

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
T = 2π √ 32
25. The period, T, of a pendulum in seconds is given the formula
⎯⎯⎯⎯
L
⎯
, where L represents the length in feet. Calculate the length
of a pendulum if the period is 1½ seconds. Round off to the nearest tenth.

1: 6
5: 5
7: 1/4
⎯⎯⎯⎯
9: 2√ 10
7√2
11:
9
⎯⎯
13: 20 √ 3
3
15: 7x
⎯⎯⎯⎯
17: 5xy√ 3x
3x√2x
19:
5y
21: 6x
3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23: 3a2 bc ⋅ √ ab 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯
25: √ 13
⎯⎯⎯⎯
27: 2√ 29
⎯⎯
29: 11√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
31: 9√ 3 − √2
⎯⎯
33: 4√ x − 2√ ⎯⎯
y

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
35: √ 5 − 3√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
37: −x√ 3 + 5√ 5x
39: 12xy√ y
⎯⎯
⎯⎯ 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯
41: 4 √
3
x − 5√ xy
3 ⎯⎯
43: 2x ⋅√ y
⎯⎯
45: 3√ 2
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
47: √ 6 − 2√ 3
49: −4
51: 2a
⎯⎯
53: 3√ 2
7xy√2
55:
6
2√7
57: 7
7√2x
59: x
3
√ 4x
61:
2x
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
63: √ 3 + √2
⎯⎯
65: √ 7
⎯⎯⎯⎯
67: √ x 4
5

69: 2
⎯⎯
71: 2 √ 2
3
73: 1/8
75: 9
77: 4
79: 6x 2 y
81: a1/3
83: 25
85: 17
87: 6
89: 8
91: −1/2, −1
93: 2/3, −4
95: −5, 5/3
97: 9
99: 9

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1:
a. 10
b. Not a real number
c. −10
8√2
3:
5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5: 10xy√ 3yz
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
7: 14√ 6 − 15√ 3
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
9: 6a√ 2b − 2b√ a
5√2x
11: x
√x −5
13:
x−25
5/6
15: 2
17: 11a2 b
19: 49
21: 5
23: −1/2, 1/3
25: 1.8 feet

Chapter 9
Solving Quadratic Equations and Graphing Parabolas
1425
Chapter 9 Solving Quadratic Equations and Graphing Parabolas
9.1 Extracting Square Roots
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Solve quadratic equations by extracting square roots.
Extracting Square Roots
Recall that a quadratic equation is in standard form1 if it is equal to 0:
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. A solution to such an equation is

called a root2. Quadratic equations can have two real solutions, one real solution, or
no real solution. If the quadratic expression on the left factors, then we can solve it
by factoring. A review of the steps used to solve by factoring follow:
Step 1: Express the quadratic equation in standard form.
Step 2: Factor the quadratic expression.
Step 3: Apply the zero-product property and set each variable factor equal to 0.
Step 4: Solve the resulting linear equations.
For example, we can solve x 2 − 4 = 0 by factoring as follows:
1. Any quadratic equation in the

form ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b, and c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
2. A solution to a quadratic
equation in standard form.
1426
The two solutions are −2 and 2. The goal in this section is to develop an alternative
method that can be used to easily solve equations where b = 0, giving the form
The equation x 2 − 4 = 0 is in this form and can be solved by first isolating x 2 .
If we take the square root of both sides of this equation, we obtain the following:
Here we see that x = −2 and x = 2 are solutions to the resulting equation. In

general, this describes the square root property3; for any real number k,
The notation “±” is read “plus or minus” and is used as compact notation that
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
indicates two solutions. Hence the statement x = ±√k indicates that x = −√k or
⎯⎯
x = √k . Applying the square root property as a means of solving a quadratic
equation is called extracting the roots4.
3. For any real number k, if

⎯⎯ Example 1: Solve: x 2 − 25 = 0.
x 2 = k, then x = ±√k .
4. Applying the square root
property as a means of solving Solution: Begin by isolating the square.
a quadratic equation.
9.1 Extracting Square Roots 1427

Next, apply the square root property.
Answer: The solutions are −5 and 5. The check is left to the reader.
Certainly, the previous example could have been solved just as easily by factoring.
However, it demonstrates a technique that can be used to solve equations in this
form that do not factor.
Example 2: Solve: x 2 − 5 = 0.
Solution: Notice that the quadratic expression on the left does not factor. We can
extract the roots if we first isolate the leading term, x 2 .
Apply the square root property.

For completeness, check that these two real solutions solve the original quadratic
equation. Generally, the check is optional.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are −√5 and √5.
Example 3: Solve: 4x 2 − 45 = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating x 2 .
Apply the square root property and then simplify.

3√5 3√5
Answer: The solutions are − 2
and 2
.
Sometimes quadratic equations have no real solution.
Example 4: Solve: x 2 + 9 = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating x 2 .
After applying the square root property, we are left with the square root of a
negative number. Therefore, there is no real solution to this equation.
Answer: No real solution
Reverse this process to find equations with given solutions of the form ±k.

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Example 5: Find an equation with solutions −2√3 and 2√3.
Solution: Begin by squaring both sides of the following equation:
Lastly, subtract 12 from both sides and present the equation in standard form.
Answer: x 2 − 12 = 0
Try this! Solve: 9x 2 − 8 = 0.
2√2 2√2
Answer: x = − 3
or x = 3
Video Solution
Consider solving the following equation:
To solve this equation by factoring, first square x + 2 and then put it in standard
form, equal to zero, by subtracting 25 from both sides.

Factor and then apply the zero-product property.
The two solutions are −7 and 3.
When an equation is in this form, we can obtain the solutions in fewer steps by
extracting the roots.
Example 6: Solve: (x + 2)2 = 25.
Solution: Solve by extracting the roots.
At this point, separate the “plus or minus” into two equations and simplify each
individually.

In addition to fewer steps, this method allows us to solve equations that do not
factor.
Example 7: Solve: (3x + 3)2 − 27 = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating the square.
Next, extract the roots and simplify.
Solve for x.

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are −1 − √3 and −1 + √3.
Example 8: Solve: 9(2x − 1)2 − 8 = 0.
Solution: Begin by isolating the square factor.
Apply the square root property and solve.

3−2√2 3+2√2
Answer: The solutions are 6
and 6
.
Try this! Solve: 3(x − 5) − 2 = 0.

2
15±√6
Answer: 3
Video Solution
Example 9: The length of a rectangle is twice its width. If the diagonal measures 2
feet, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.

Solution:
The diagonal of any rectangle forms two right triangles. Thus the Pythagorean
theorem applies. The sum of the squares of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the
square of the hypotenuse:
Solve.

Here we obtain two solutions, w = − 2

and w = 2
. Since the problem asked for a
√5 √5
length of a rectangle, we disregard the negative answer. Furthermore, we will

rationalize the denominator and present our solutions without any radicals in the
denominator.
Back substitute to find the length.
4√5 2√5
Answer: The length of the rectangle is 5
feet and the width is 5
feet.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solve equations of the form ax 2 + c = 0by extracting the roots.

• Extracting roots involves isolating the square and then applying the
square root property. After applying the square root property, you have
two linear equations that each can be solved. Be sure to simplify all
radical expressions and rationalize the denominator if necessary.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Extracting Square Roots
Solve by factoring and then solve by extracting roots. Check answers.
1. x 2 − 36 = 0
2. x 2 − 81 = 0
3. 4y 2 −9=0
4. 9y 2 − 25 = 0
5. (x − 2) 2 − 1 = 0
6. (x + 1) 2 − 4 = 0
7. 4(y − 2) − 9 = 0
2
8. 9(y + 1) − 4 = 0
2
9. −3(t − 1)2 + 12 = 0
10. −2(t + 1)2 + 8 = 0
11. (x − 5) − 25 = 0
2
12. (x + 2) 2 − 4 = 0
Solve by extracting the roots.
13. x 2 = 16
14. x 2 =1

15. y 2 =9
16. y 2 = 64
1
17. x 2 = 4
1
18. x 2 = 9
19. y 2 = 0.25
20. y 2 = 0.04
21. x 2 = 12
22. x 2 = 18
23. 16x 2 =9
24. 4x 2 = 25
25. 2t 2 =1
26. 3t 2 =2
27. x 2 − 100 = 0
28. x 2 − 121 = 0
29. y 2 +4=0
30. y 2 +1=0
4
31. x 2 − =0
9
9
32. x 2 − =0
25

33. y 2 − 0.09 = 0
34. y 2 − 0.81 = 0
35. x 2 −7=0
36. x 2 −2=0
37. x 2 −8=0
38. t 2 − 18 = 0
39. x 2 +8=0
40. x 2 + 125 = 0
41. 16x 2 − 27 = 0
42. 9x 2 −8=0
43. 2y 2 −3=0
44. 5y 2 −2=0
45. 3x 2 −1=0
46. 6x 2 −3=0
47. (x + 7) 2 − 4 = 0
48. (x + 9) 2 − 36 = 0
49. (2y − 3) − 81 = 0
2
50. (2y + 1) − 25 = 0
2

51. (x − 5) − 20 = 0
2
52. (x + 1) 2 − 28 = 0
53. (3t + 2)2 − 6 = 0
54. (3t − 5) − 10 = 0
2
55. 4(y + 2) − 3 = 0
2
56. 9(y − 7) − 5 = 0
2
57. 4(3x + 1) 2 − 27 = 0
58. 9(2x − 3) 2 − 8 = 0
59. 2(3x − 1) 2 + 3 = 0
60. 5(2x − 1) 2 − 3 = 0
61. 3(y − 23 ) −
2 3
2
=0
62. 2(3y − 13 ) −
2 5
2
=0
Find a quadratic equation in standard form with the following solutions.
63. ±7
64. ±13
⎯⎯
65. ±√ 7
⎯⎯
66. ±√ 3
⎯⎯
67. ±3√ 5

⎯⎯
68. ±5√ 2
⎯⎯
69. 1 ± √2
⎯⎯
70. 2 ± √3
Solve and round off the solutions to the nearest hundredth.
71. 9x (x + 2) = 18x + 1
72. x 2 = 10 (x 2 − 2) − 5
73. (x + 3) (x − 7) = 11 − 4x
74. (x − 4) (x − 3) = 66 − 7x
75. (x − 2) 2 = 67 − 4x
76. (x + 3) 2 = 6x + 59
77. (2x + 1) (x + 3) − (x + 7) = (x + 3) 2
78. (3x − 1) (x + 4) = 2x (x + 6) − (x − 3)
Set up an algebraic equation and use it to solve the following.
79. If 9 is subtracted from 4 times the square of a number, then the result is
3. Find the number.
80. If 20 is subtracted from the square of a number, then the result is 4. Find
the number.
81. If 1 is added to 3 times the square of a number, then the result is 2. Find
the number.
82. If 3 is added to 2 times the square of a number, then the result is 12. Find
the number.

83. If a square has an area of 8 square centimeters, then find the length of
each side.
84. If a circle has an area of 32π square centimeters, then find the length of
the radius.
85. The volume of a right circular cone is 36π cubic centimeters when the
height is 6 centimeters. Find the radius of the cone. (The volume of a right
circular cone is given by V = 1
3
πr2 h.)
86. The surface area of a sphere is 75π square centimeters. Find the radius
of the sphere. (The surface area of a sphere is given by SA = 4πr2 .)
87. The length of a rectangle is 6 times its width. If the area is 96 square
inches, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
88. The base of a triangle is twice its height. If the area is 16 square
centimeters, then find the length of its base.
89. A square has an area of 36 square units. By what equal amount will the
sides have to be increased to create a square with double the given area?
90. A circle has an area of 25π square units. By what amount will the radius
have to be increased to create a circle with double the given area?
91. If the sides of a square measure 1 unit, then find the length of the
diagonal.
92. If the sides of a square measure 2 units, then find the length of the
diagonal.
93. The diagonal of a square measures 5 inches. Find the length of each side.
94. The diagonal of a square measures 3 inches. Find the length of each side.
95. The length of a rectangle is twice its width. If the diagonal measures 10
96. The length of a rectangle is twice its width. If the diagonal measures 8

97. The length of a rectangle is 3 times its width. If the diagonal measures 5
meters, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
98. The length of a rectangle is 3 times its width. If the diagonal measures 2
99. The height in feet of an object dropped from a 9‑foot ladder is given by
h(t) = −16t 2 + 9, where t represents the time in seconds after the
object has been dropped. How long does it take the object to hit the ground?
(Hint: The height is 0 when the object hits the ground.)
100. The height in feet of an object dropped from a 20‑foot platform is given
by h(t) = −16t 2 + 20 , where t represents the time in seconds after the
object has been dropped. How long does it take the object to hit the ground?
101. The height in feet of an object dropped from the top of a 144-foot
building is given by h(t) = −16t 2 + 144 , where t is measured in
seconds.
a. How long will it take to reach half of the distance to the ground, 72 feet?
b. How long will it take to travel the rest of the distance to the ground?
Round off to the nearest hundredth of a second.
102. The height in feet of an object dropped from an airplane at 1,600 feet is
given by h(t) = −16t 2 + 1,600 , where t is in seconds.
a. How long will it take to reach half of the distance to the ground?
b. How long will it take to travel the rest of the distance to the ground?
Round off to the nearest hundredth of a second.
103. Create an equation of your own that can be solved by extracting the
root. Share it, along with the solution, on the discussion board.

104. Explain why the technique of extracting roots greatly expands our
ability to solve quadratic equations.
105. Explain in your own words how to solve by extracting the roots.
106. Derive a formula for the diagonal of a square in terms of its sides.

ANSWERS
1: −6, 6
3: −3/2, 3/2
5: 1, 3
7: 1/2, 7/2
9: −1, 3
11: 0, 10
13: ±4
15: ±3
17: ±1/2
19: ±0.5
⎯⎯
21: ±2√ 3
23: ±3/4
√2
25: ±
2
27: ±10
29: No real solution
31: ±2/3
33: ±0.3
⎯⎯
35: ±√ 7

⎯⎯
37: ±2√ 2
3√3
41: ±
4
√6
43: ±
2
√3
45: ±
3
47: −9, −5
49: −3, 6
⎯⎯
51: 5 ± 2√ 5
−2±√6
53:
3
−4±√3
55:
2
−2±3√3
57:
6
4±3√2
61:
6
63: x 2 − 49 = 0
65: x 2 −7=0
67: x 2 − 45 = 0
69: x 2 − 2x − 1 = 0

71: ±0.33
73: ±5.66
75: ±7.94
77: ±3.61
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
79: −√ 3 or √ 3
81: −
√3 √3
3
or 3
⎯⎯
⎯⎯
⎯⎯
89: −6 + 6√ 2 ≈ 2.49 units
⎯⎯
91: √ 2 units
5√2
93: 2
inches
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
95: Length: 4√ 5 feet; width: 2√ 5 feet
3√10 √10
97: Length: 2
meters; width: 2
meters
99: 3/4 second
101: a. 2.12 seconds; b. 0.88 second

9.2 Completing the Square
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.
Completing the Square
In this section, we will devise a method for rewriting any quadratic equation of the
form
in the form
This process is called completing the square5. As we have seen, quadratic

equations in this form can easily be solved by extracting roots. We begin by
examining perfect square trinomials:
The last term, 9, is the square of one-half of the coefficient of x. In general, this is
true for any perfect square trinomial of the form x 2 + bx + c.
(x − p) = q.
quadratic equation in the form
2
1449
In other words, any trinomial of the form x 2 + bx + c will be a perfect square

trinomial if
Note
It is important to point out that the leading coefficient must be equal to 1 for
this to be true.
Example 1: Complete the square: x 2 + 8x + ? = (x + ? ) .

2
Solution: In this example, the coefficient of the middle term b = 8, so find the value
that completes the square as follows:
The value that completes the square is 16.
9.2 Completing the Square 1450

Answer: x 2 + 8x + 16 = (x + 4)2
Example 2: Complete the square: x 2 + 3x + ? = (x + ? ) .

2
Solution: Here b = 3, so find the value that will complete the square as follows:
The value 9/4 completes the square:
= (x + 32 )
2
4
We can use this technique to solve quadratic equations. The idea is to take any
quadratic equation in standard form and complete the square so that we can solve
it by extracting roots. The following are general steps for solving a quadratic
equation with a leading coefficient of 1 in standard form by completing the square.

Example 3: Solve by completing the square: x 2 + 14x + 46 = 0.
Solution:
Step 1: Add or subtract the constant term to obtain the equation in the form
x 2 + bx = c . In this example, subtract 46 to move it to the right side of the
equation.
Step 2: Use ( b2 ) to determine the value that completes the square. Here b = 14:
2
Step 3: Add ( b2 ) to both sides of the equation and complete the square.
2
Step 4: Solve by extracting roots.

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are −7 − √3 or −7 + √3. The check is optional.
Example 4: Solve by completing the square: x 2 − 18x + 72 = 0.
Solution: Begin by subtracting 72 from both sides.
Next, find the value that completes the square using b = −18.
To complete the square, add 81 to both sides, complete the square, and then solve
by extracting the roots.
At this point, separate the “plus or minus” into two equations and solve each.

Answer: The solutions are 6 and 12.
Note that in the previous example the solutions are integers. If this is the case, then
the original equation will factor.
If it factors, we can solve it by factoring. However, not all quadratic equations will
factor.
Example 5: Solve by completing the square: x 2 + 10x + 1 = 0.
Solution: Begin by subtracting 1 from both sides of the equation.
Here b = 10, and we determine the value that completes the square as follows:

To complete the square, add 25 to both sides of the equation.
Factor and then solve by extracting roots.
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are −5 − 2√6 and −5 + 2√6.
Sometimes quadratic equations do not have real solutions.
Example 6: Solve by completing the square: x 2 − 2x + 3 = 0.
Solution: Begin by subtracting 3 from both sides of the equation.

Here b = −2, and we have
Therefore,
At this point we see that extracting the root leads to the square root of a negative
number.
Try this! Solve by completing the square: x 2 − 2x − 27 = 0.
⎯⎯
Answer: x = 1 ± 2√7
Video Solution
The coefficient of x is not always divisible by 2.

Example 7: Solve by completing the square: x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0.
Solution: Begin by adding 2 to both sides.
Use b = 3 to find the value that completes the square:
To complete the square, add 9/4 to both sides of the equation.
Solve by extracting roots.

−3±√17
.
So far, all of the examples have had a leading coefficient of 1. The formula ( b2 )
2
determines the value that completes the square only if the leading coefficient is 1. If
this is not the case, then simply divide both sides by the leading coefficient.
Example 8: Solve by completing the square: 2x 2 + 5x − 1 = 0.
Solution: Notice that the leading coefficient is 2. Therefore, divide both sides by 2
before beginning the steps required to solve by completing the square.

Begin by adding 1/2 to both sides of the equation.
Here b = 5/2, and we can find the value that completes the square as follows:
To complete the square, add 25/16 to both sides of the equation.
Next, solve by extracting roots.

−5±√33
.
Try this! Solve: 2x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0.
1±√7
Answer: x = 2
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Solve any quadratic equation by completing the square.
first convert the equation to the form (x − p) = q.

• You can apply the square root property to solve an equation if you can
2
x 2 + bx = c. Then add the value ( b2 )

• To complete the square, first make sure the equation is in the form
2
to both sides and factor.
• The process for completing the square always works, but it may lead to
some tedious calculations with fractions. This is the case when the
middle term, b, is not divisible by 2.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Completing the Square
Complete the square.
+ 6x + ? = (x + ? )
2
1. x 2
+ 8x + ? = (x + ? )
2
2. x 2
− 2x + ? = (x − ? )
2
3. x 2
− 4x + ? = (x − ? )
2
4. x 2
+ 7x + ? = (x + ? )
2
5. x 2
+ 3x + ? = (x + ? )
2
6. x 2
x + ? = (x + ? )
2 2
7. x 2 + 3
x + ? = (x + ? )
4 2
8. x 2 + 5
x + ? = (x + ? )
3 2
9. x 2 + 4
x + ? = (x + ? )
5 2
10. x 2 + 3
Solve by factoring and then solve by completing the square. Check answers.
11. x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0
12. x 2 − 8x + 15 = 0
13. y 2 + 2y − 24 = 0

14. y 2 − 12y + 11 = 0
15. t 2 + 3t − 28 = 0
16. t 2 − 7t + 10 = 0
17. 2x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
18. 3x 2 −x−2=0
19. 2y 2 −y−1=0
20. 2y 2 + 7y − 4 = 0
Solve by completing the square.
21. x 2 + 6x − 1 = 0
22. x 2 + 8x + 10 = 0
23. x 2 − 2x − 7 = 0
24. x 2 − 6x − 3 = 0
25. x 2 − 2x + 4 = 0
26. x 2 − 4x + 9 = 0
27. t 2 + 10t − 75 = 0
28. t 2 + 12t − 108 = 0
29. x 2 − 4x − 1 = 15
30. x 2 − 12x + 8 = −10
31. y 2 − 20y = −25

32. y 2 + 18y = −53
33. x 2 − 0.6x − 0.27 = 0
34. x 2 − 1.6x − 0.8 = 0
35. x 2 − 2
3
x− 1
3
=0
36. x 2 − 4
5
x− 1
5
=0
37. x 2 +x−1=0
38. x 2 +x−3=0
39. y 2 + 3y − 2 = 0
40. y 2 + 5y − 3 = 0
41. x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0
42. x 2 +x+1=0
11
43. x 2 − 7x + =0
2
3
44. x 2 − 9x + =0
2
45. t 2 − 1
2
t−1=0
46. t 2 − 1
3
t−2=0
47. x 2 − 1.7x − 0.0875 = 0
48. x 2 + 3.3x − 1.2775 = 0
49. 4x 2 − 8x − 1 = 0

50. 2x 2 − 4x − 3 = 0
51. 3x 2 + 6x + 1 = 0
52. 5x 2 + 10x + 2 = 0
53. 3x 2 + 2x − 3 = 0
54. 5x 2 + 2x − 5 = 0
55. 4x 2 − 12x − 15 = 0
56. 2x 2 + 4x − 43 = 0
57. 2x 2 − 4x + 10 = 0
58. 6x 2 − 24x + 42 = 0
59. 2x 2 −x−2=0
60. 2x 2 + 3x − 1 = 0
61. 3x 2 + 2x − 2 = 0
62. 3x 2 −x−1=0
63. x (x + 1) − 11 (x − 2) = 0
64. (x + 1) (x + 7) − 4 (3x + 2) = 0
65. y 2 = (2y + 3) (y − 1) − 2 (y − 1)
66. (2y + 5) (y − 5) − y (y − 8) = −24
67. (t + 2)2 = 3 (3t + 1)
68. (3t + 2) (t − 4) − (t − 8) = 1 − 10t

Solve by completing the square and round off the solutions to the nearest hundredth.
69. (2x − 1) 2 = 2x
70. (3x − 2) 2 = 5 − 15x
71. (2x + 1) (3x + 1) = 9x + 4
72. (3x + 1) (4x − 1) = 17x − 4
73. 9x (x − 1) − 2 (2x − 1) = −4x
74. (6x + 1) − 6 (6x + 1) = 0

2
75. Research and discuss the Hindu method for completing the square.
76. Explain why the technique for completing the square described in this
section requires that the leading coefficient be equal to 1.

ANSWERS
+ 6x + 9 = (x + 3)
2
1: x 2
− 2x + 1 = (x − 1)
2
3: x 2
5: x 2 + 7x + 49
4
= (x + 2)
7 2
7: x 2 + 2
3
x+ 1
9
= (x + 3)
1 2
9: x 2 + 3
4
x+ 9
64
= (x + 8)
3 2
11: −4, 2
13: −6, 4
15: −7, 4
17: 1/2, −2
19: −1/2, 1
⎯⎯⎯⎯
21: −3 ± √ 10
⎯⎯
23: 1 ± 2√ 2
27: −15, 5
⎯⎯
29: 2 ± 2√ 5
⎯⎯
31: 10 ± 5√ 3
33: −0.3, 0.9

35: −1/3, 1
−1±√5
37:
2
−3±√17
39:
2
7±3√3
43:
2
1±√17
45:
4
47: −0.05, 1.75
2±√5
49:
2
−3±√6
51:
3
−1±√10
53:
3
3±2√6
55:
2
1±√17
59:
4
−1±√7
61:
3
⎯⎯
63: 5 ± √3
1±√5
65:
2

5±√21
67:
2
69: 0.19, 1.31
71: −0.45, 1.12
73: 0.33, 0.67

9.3 Quadratic Formula
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Solve quadratic equations with real solutions using the quadratic

formula.
The Quadratic Formula
In this section, we will develop a formula that gives the solutions to any quadratic
equation in standard form. To do this, we begin with a general quadratic equation
in standard form and solve for x by completing the square. Here a, b, and c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0:
Determine the constant that completes the square: take the coefficient of x, divide it
by 2, and then square it.
Add this to both sides of the equation and factor.
1469
Solve by extracting roots.
This derivation gives us a formula that solves any quadratic equation in standard
form. Given ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0, then
the solutions can be calculated using the quadratic formula6:
6. The formula
−b±√b 2 −4ac
x= 2a
, which
gives the solutions to any
quadratic equation in the form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, Consider the quadratic equation 2x 2 − 7x + 3 = 0. It can be solved by factoring as
b, and c are real numbers and
a ≠ 0. follows:
9.3 Quadratic Formula 1470

The solutions are 1/2 and 3. The following example shows that we can obtain the
same results using the quadratic formula.
Example 1: Solve using the quadratic formula: 2x 2 − 7x + 3 = 0.
Solution: Begin by identifying a, b, and c as the coefficients of each term.
Substitute these values into the quadratic formula and then simplify.

Separate the “plus or minus” into two equations and simplify each individually.
Answer: The solutions are 1/2 and 3.
Of course, if the quadratic factors, then it is a best practice to solve it by factoring.

However, not all quadratic polynomials factor; nevertheless, the quadratic formula
provides us with a means to solve such equations.
Example 2: Solve using the quadratic formula: 5x 2 + 2x − 1 = 0.
Solution: Begin by identifying a, b, and c.
Substitute these values into the quadratic formula.

−1±√6
.
Often terms are missing. When this is the case, use 0 as the coefficient.
Example 3: Solve using the quadratic formula: x 2 − 18 = 0.
Solution: Think of this equation with the following coefficients:
Here

⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are ±3√2.
Since the coefficient of x was 0, we could have solved the equation by extracting the
roots. As an exercise, solve the previous example using this method and verify that
the results are the same.
Example 4: Solve using the quadratic formula: 9x 2 − 12x + 4 = 0.
Solution: In this case,

In this example, notice that the radicand of the square root is 0. This results in only
one solution to this quadratic equation. Normally, we expect two solutions. When
we find only one solution, the solution is called a double root. If we solve this
equation by factoring, then the solution appears twice.
Answer: 2/3, double root

Example 5: Solve using the quadratic formula: x 2 + x + 1 = 0.
Solution: In this case,
The solution involves the square root of a negative number; hence the solutions are
not real. This quadratic equation has two nonreal solutions and will be discussed in
further detail as we continue in our study of algebra. For now, simply state that the
equation does not have real solutions.
Answer: No real solutions
Try this! Solve: x 2 − 2x − 2 = 0.
⎯⎯
Answer: 1 ± √3
Video Solution

It is important to place the quadratic equation in standard form before using the
quadratic formula.
Example 6: Solve using the quadratic formula: (2x + 1) (2x − 1) = 24x + 8.
Solution: Begin by using the distributive property to expand the left side and
combining like terms to obtain an equation in standard form, equal to 0.
Once the equation is in standard form, identify a, b, and c. Here

6±3√5
.
Try this! Solve: 3x (x − 2) = 1.
3±2√3
Answer: 3
Video Solution

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Use the quadratic formula to solve any quadratic equation in standard

form.
• To solve any quadratic equation, first rewrite in standard form,
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, substitute the appropriate coefficients into the
−b±√b 2 −4ac
quadratic formula, x = , and then simplify.
2a

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Quadratic Formula
Identify the coefficients a, b, and c used in the quadratic formula. Do not solve.
1. x 2 −x+5=0
2. x 2 − 3x − 1 = 0
3. 3x 2 − 10 = 0
4. −y 2 +5=0
5. 5t 2 − 7t = 0
6. −y 2 +y=0
7. −x 2 + x = −6
8. −2x 2 − x = −15
9. (3x + 1) (2x + 5) = 19x + 4
10. (4x + 1) (2x + 1) = 16x + 4
Solve by factoring and then solve using the quadratic formula. Check answers.
11. x 2 − 10x + 24 = 0
12. x 2 − 3x − 18 = 0
13. t 2 + 6t + 5 = 0
14. t 2 + 9t + 14 = 0
15. 2x 2 − 7x − 4 = 0

16. 3x 2 −x−2=0
17. −2x 2 −x+3=0
18. −6x 2 +x+1=0
19. y 2 − 2y + 1 = 0
20. y 2 −1=0
Use the quadratic formula to solve the following.
21. x 2 − 6x + 4 = 0
22. x 2 − 4x + 1 = 0
23. x 2 + 2x − 5 = 0
24. x 2 + 4x − 6 = 0
25. t 2 − 4t − 1 = 0
26. t 2 − 8t − 2 = 0
27. −y 2 +y+1=0
28. −y 2 − 3y + 2 = 0
29. −x 2 + 16x − 62 = 0
30. −x 2 + 14x − 46 = 0
31. 2t 2 − 4t − 3 = 0
32. 4t 2 − 8t − 1 = 0
33. −4y 2 + 12y − 9 = 0

34. −25x 2 + 10x − 1 = 0
35. 3x 2 + 6x + 2 = 0
36. 5x 2 + 10x + 2 = 0
37. 9t 2 + 6t − 11 = 0
38. 8t 2 + 8t + 1 = 0
39. x 2 −2=0
40. x 2 − 18 = 0
41. 9x 2 −3=0
42. 2x 2 −5=0
43. y 2 +9=0
44. y 2 +1=0
45. 2x 2 =0
46. x 2 =0
47. −2y 2 + 5y = 0
48. −3y 2 + 7y = 0
49. t 2 −t =0
50. t 2 + 2t = 0
51. x 2 − 0.6x − 0.27 = 0
52. x 2 − 1.6x − 0.8 = 0

53. y 2 − 1.4y − 0.15 = 0
54. y 2 − 3.6y + 2.03 = 0
55. 1
2
t 2 + 5t + 3
2
=0
56. −t 2 + 3t − 3
4
=0
57. 3y 2 + 1
2
y− 1
3
=0
58. −2y 2 + 1
3
y+ 1
2
=0
59. 2x 2 − 10x + 3 = 4
60. 3x 2 + 6x + 1 = 8
61. −2y 2 = 3(y − 1)
62. 3y 2 = 5(2y − 1)
63. (t + 1)2 = 2t + 7
64. (2t − 1)2 = 73 − 4t
65. (x + 5) (x − 1) = 2x + 1
66. (x + 7) (x − 2) = 3 (x + 1)
67. x (x + 5) = 3 (x − 1)
68. x (x + 4) = −7
69. (5x + 3) (5x − 3) − 10 (x − 1) = 0
70. (3x + 4) (3x − 1) − 33x = −20

71. 27y (y + 1) + 2 (3y − 2) = 0
72. 8 (4y 2 + 3) − 3 (28y − 1) = 0
73. (x + 2) 2 − 2 (x + 7) = 4 (x + 1)
74. (x + 3) 2 − 10 (x + 5) = −2 (x + 1)
75. When talking about a quadratic equation in standard form,

ax 2 + bx + c = 0, why is it necessary to state that a ≠ 0? What
happens if a is equal to 0?
76. Research and discuss the history of the quadratic formula and solutions
to quadratic equations.

ANSWERS
1: a = 1, b = −1 , and c = 5
3: a = 3, b = 0, and c = −10
5: a = 5, b = −7 , and c = 0
7: a = −1, b = 1, and c = 6
9: a = 6, b = −2 , and c = 1
11: 4, 6
13: −5, −1
15: −1/2, 4
17: −3/2, 1
19: 1, double root
⎯⎯
21: 3 ± √5
⎯⎯
23: −1 ± √6
⎯⎯
25: 2 ± √5
1±√5
27:
2
⎯⎯
29: 8 ± √2
2±√10
31:
2
33: 3/2, double root

−3±√3
35:
3
−1±2√3
37:
3
⎯⎯
39: ±√ 2
√3
41: ±
3
43: No real solutions
45: 0, double root
47: 0, 5/2
49: 0, 1
51: −0.3, 0.9
53: −0.1, 1.5
⎯⎯⎯⎯
55: −5 ± √ 22
−1±√17
57:
12
5±3√3
59:
2
−3±√33
61:
4
⎯⎯
63: ±√ 6
⎯⎯
65: −1 ± √7
67: No real solutions

69: 1/5, double root
71: −4/3, 1/9
⎯⎯⎯⎯
73: 1 ± √ 15

9.4 Guidelines for Solving Quadratic Equations and Applications
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Use the discriminant to determine the number and type of solutions to

any quadratic equation.
2. Develop a general strategy for solving quadratic equations.
3. Solve applications involving quadratic equations.
Discriminant
If given a quadratic equation in standard form, ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c

are real numbers and a ≠ 0, then the solutions can be calculated using the
quadratic formula:
The solutions are rational, irrational, or not real. We can determine the type and
number of solutions by studying the discriminant7, the expression inside the
radical, b2 − 4ac. If the value of this expression is negative, then the equation has
no real solutions. If the discriminant is positive, then we have two real solutions.
And if the discriminant is 0, then we have one real solution.
Example 1: Determine the type and number of solutions: x 2 − 10x + 30 = 0.
Solution: We begin by identifying a, b, and c. Here
7. The expression inside the

radical of the quadratic
2
formula, b − 4ac. Substitute these values into the discriminant and simplify.
1488
Since the discriminant is negative, we conclude that there are no real solutions.
If we use the quadratic formula in the previous example, we find that a negative
radicand stops the process of simplification and shows that there is no real solution.
Note
We will study quadratic equations with no real solutions as we progress in our

study of algebra.
Example 2: Determine the type and number of solutions: 7x 2 − 10x + 1 = 0.
Solution: Here
9.4 Guidelines for Solving Quadratic Equations and Applications 1489

Substitute these values into the discriminant:
Since the discriminant is positive, we can conclude that there are two real solutions.
Answer: Two real solutions
If we use the quadratic formula in the previous example, we find that a positive
radicand in the quadratic formula leads to two real solutions.

5−3√2 5+3√2
The two real solutions are 7 and 7 . Note that these solutions are irrational;
we can approximate the values on a calculator.
Example 3: Determine the type and number of solutions: 2x 2 − 7x − 4 = 0.
Solution: In this example,
Substitute these values into the discriminant and simplify.
Since the discriminant is positive, we conclude that there are two real solutions.
Furthermore, since the discriminant is a perfect square, we obtain two rational
solutions.
Answer: Two real solutions
We could solve the previous quadratic equation using the quadratic formula as
follows:

Note that if the discriminant is a perfect square, then we could have factored the
original equation.
Given the special condition where the discriminant is 0, we obtain only one
solution, a double root.
Example 4: Determine the type and number of solutions: 9x 2 − 6x + 1 = 0.
Solution: Here a = 9, b = −6, and c = 1, and we have

Since the discriminant is 0, we conclude that there is only one real solution, a
double root.
Answer: One real solution
Since 0 is a perfect square, we can solve the equation above by factoring.
Here 1/3 is a solution that occurs twice; it is a double root.
In summary, if given any quadratic equation in standard form, ax 2 + bx + c = 0,

where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0, then we have the following:
Positive discriminant: b 2 − 4ac > 0 Two real solutions
Zero discriminant: b 2 − 4ac = 0 One real solution
Negative discriminant: b 2 − 4ac < 0 No real solution
As we will see, knowing the number and type of solutions ahead of time helps us
determine which method is best for solving a quadratic equation.

Try this! Determine the number and type of solutions: 3x 2 − 5x + 4 = 0.
Video Solution

General Guidelines for Solving Quadratic Equations
Use the coefficients of a quadratic equation to help decide which method is most
appropriate for solving it. While the quadratic formula always works, it is
sometimes not the most efficient method. Given any quadratic equation in standard
form, ax 2 + bx + c = 0, general guidelines for determining the method for
solving it follow:
1. If c = 0, then factor out the GCF and solve by factoring.

2. If b = 0, then solve by extracting the roots.
3. If a, b, and c are all nonzero, then determine the value for the
discriminant, b2 − 4ac:
a. If the discriminant is a perfect square, then solve by factoring.

b. If the discriminant is not a perfect square, then solve using the
quadratic formula.
a. If the discriminant is positive, we obtain two real solutions.

b. If the discriminant is negative, then there is no real solution.
Example 5: Solve: 15x 2 − 5x = 0.
Solution: In this case, c = 0 and we can solve by factoring out the GCF.

Answer: The solutions are 0 and 1/3.
Example 6: Solve: 3x 2 − 5 = 0.
Solution: In this case, b = 0 and we can solve by extracting the roots.
√15
Answer: The solutions are ± 3
.
Example 7: Solve: 9x 2 − 6x − 7 = 0.

Solution: Begin by identifying a, b, and c as the coefficients of each term. Here
Substitute these values into the discriminant and then simplify.
Since the discriminant is positive and not a perfect square, use the quadratic
formula and expect two real solutions.
1±2√2
.

Example 8: Solve: 4x (x − 2) = −7.
Solution: Begin by rewriting the quadratic equation in standard form.
Here
Substitute these values into the discriminant and then simplify.
Since the discriminant is negative, the solutions are not real numbers.
Example 9: Solve: (3x + 5) (3x + 7) = 6x + 10.
Solution: Begin by rewriting the quadratic equation in standard form.

Substitute a = 9, b = 30, and c = 25 into the discriminant.
Since the discriminant is 0, solve by factoring and expect one real solution, a double
root.
Answer: The solution is −5/3.
Try this! Solve: 5x 2 + 2x − 7 = 2x − 3.
2√5
Answer: ± 5

Video Solution

Applications Involving Quadratic Equations
In this section, the algebraic setups usually consist of a quadratic equation where
the solutions may not be integers.
Example 10: The height of a triangle is 2 inches less than twice the length of its
base. If the total area of the triangle is 11 square inches, then find the lengths of the
base and height. Round answers to the nearest hundredth.
Solution:
Use the formula A = 1

2
bh and the fact that the area is 11 square inches to set up an
algebraic equation.

To rewrite this quadratic equation in standard form, first distribute 1

2
x.
Use the coefficients, a = 1, b = −1, and c = −11, to determine the type of solutions.
Since the discriminant is positive, expect two real solutions.
In this problem, disregard the negative solution and consider only the positive
solution.
Back substitute to find the height.

1+3√5
Answer: The base measures ≈ 3.85inches and the height is
⎯⎯ 2
−1 + 3√5 ≈ 5.71 inches.
Example 11: The sum of the squares of two consecutive positive integers is 481.
Find the integers.
Solution:
The algebraic setup follows:
Rewrite the quadratic equation in standard form.

When the coefficients are large, sometimes it is less work to use the quadratic
formula instead of trying to factor it. In this case, a = 1, b = 1, and c = −240.
Substitute into the quadratic formula and then simplify.
Since the problem calls for positive integers, disregard the negative solution and
choose n = 15.

Answer: The positive integers are 15 and 16.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Determine the number and type of solutions to any quadratic equation

2
in standard form using the discriminant, b − 4ac. If the discriminant
is negative, then the solutions are not real. If the discriminant is
positive, then the solutions are real. If the discriminant is 0, then there
is only one solution, a double root.
• Choose the appropriate method for solving a quadratic equation based
on the value of its discriminant. While the quadratic formula will solve
any quadratic equation, it may not be the most efficient method.
• When solving applications, use the key words and phrases to set up an
algebraic equation that models the problem. In this section, the setup
typically involves a quadratic equation.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Using the Discriminant
Calculate the discriminant and use it to determine the number and type of solutions.
Do not solve.
1. x 2 + 2x + 3 = 0
2. x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0
3. 3x 2 − 1x − 2 = 0
4. 3x 2 − 1x + 2 = 0
5. 9y 2 +2=0
6. 9y 2 −2=0
7. 5x 2 +x=0
8. 5x 2 −x=0
9. 1
2
x 2 − 2x + 5
2
=0
10. 1
2
x2 − x − 1
2
=0
11. −x 2 − 2x + 4 = 0
12. −x 2 − 4x + 2 = 0
13. 4t 2 − 20t + 25 = 0
14. 9t 2 − 6t + 1 = 0
Part B: Solving

Choose the appropriate method to solve the following.
15. x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0
16. x 2 + 2x + 3 = 0
17. 3x 2 −x−2=0
18. 3x 2 −x+2=0
19. 9y 2 +2=0
20. 9y 2 −2=0
21. 5x 2 +x=0
22. 5x 2 −x=0
23. 1
2
x 2 − 2x + 5
2
=0
24. 1
2
x2 − x − 1
2
=0
25. −x 2 − 2x + 4 = 0
26. −x 2 − 4x + 2 = 0
27. 4t 2 − 20t + 25 = 0
28. 9t 2 − 6t + 1 = 0
29. y 2 − 4y − 1 = 0
30. y 2 − 6y − 3 = 0
31. 25x 2 +1=0
32. 36x 2 +4=0

33. 5t 2 −4=0
34. 2t 2 −9=0
35. 1
2
x2 − 9
4
x+1=0
36. 3x 2 + 1
2
x− 1
6
=0
37. 36y 2 = 2y
38. 50y 2 = −10y
39. x (x − 6) = −29
40. x (x − 4) = −16
41. 4y (y + 1) = 5
42. 2y (y + 2) = 3
43. −3x 2 = 2x + 1
44. 3x 2 + 4x = −2
45. 6(x + 1) 2 = 11x + 7
46. 2(x + 2) 2 = 7x + 11
47. 9t 2 = 4 (3t − 1)
48. 5t (5t − 6) = −9
49. (x + 1) (x + 7) = 3
50. (x − 5) (x + 7) = 14
Part C: Applications

Number Problems
51. A positive real number is 2 less than another. When 4 times the larger is
added to the square of the smaller, the result is 49. Find the numbers.
52. A positive real number is 1 more than another. When twice the smaller is
subtracted from the square of the larger, the result is 4. Find the numbers.
53. A positive real number is 6 less than another. If the sum of the squares of
the two numbers is 38, then find the numbers.
54. A positive real number is 1 more than twice another. If 4 times the
smaller number is subtracted from the square of the larger, then the result
is 21. Find the numbers.
Geometry Problems
Round off your answers to the nearest hundredth.
55. The area of a rectangle is 60 square inches. If the length is 3 times the
width, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
56. The area of a rectangle is 6 square feet. If the length is 2 feet more than
the width, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
57. The area of a rectangle is 27 square meters. If the length is 6 meters less
than 3 times the width, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
58. The area of a triangle is 48 square inches. If the base is 2 times the height,
then find the length of the base.
59. The area of a triangle is 14 square feet. If the base is 4 feet more than 2
times the height, then find the length of the base and the height.
60. The area of a triangle is 8 square meters. If the base is 4 meters less than
the height, then find the length of the base and the height.
61. The perimeter of a rectangle is 54 centimeters and the area is 180 square
centimeters. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.

62. The perimeter of a rectangle is 50 inches and the area is 126 square
inches. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
63. George maintains a successful 6-meter-by-8-meter garden. Next season

he plans on doubling the planting area by increasing the width and height
by an equal amount. By how much must he increase the length and width?
64. A uniform brick border is to be constructed around a 6-foot-by-8-foot

garden. If the total area of the garden, including the border, is to be 100
square feet, then find the width of the brick border.
Pythagorean Theorem
⎯⎯
65. If the sides of a square measure 10√ 6 units, then find the length of the
diagonal.
⎯⎯⎯⎯
66. If the diagonal of a square measures 3√ 10 units, then find the length
of each side.
⎯⎯
67. The diagonal of a rectangle measures 6√ 3 inches. If the width is 4
inches less than the length, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
⎯⎯
68. The diagonal of a rectangle measures 2√ 3 inches. If the width is 2
inches less than the length, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
69. The top of a 20-foot ladder, leaning against a building, reaches a height
of 18 feet. How far is the base of the ladder from the wall? Round off to the
nearest hundredth.
70. To safely use a ladder, the base should be placed about 1/4 of the ladder’s
length away from the wall. If a 20-foot ladder is to be safely used, then how
high against a building will the top of the ladder reach? Round off to the
nearest hundredth.
71. The diagonal of a television monitor measures 32 inches. If the monitor

has a 3:2 aspect ratio, then determine its length and width. Round off to the
nearest hundredth.

72. The diagonal of a television monitor measures 52 inches. If the monitor

has a 16:9 aspect ratio, then determine its length and width. Round off to the
nearest hundredth.
Business Problems
73. The profit in dollars of running an assembly line that produces custom
uniforms each day is given by the function
P(t) = −40t 2 + 960t − 4,000 , where t represents the number of
hours the line is in operation.
a. Calculate the profit on running the assembly line for 10 hours a day.
b. Calculate the number of hours the assembly line should run in order to
break even. Round off to the nearest tenth of an hour.
is given by the function P(x) = −10x 2 + 800x − 12,000 .
a. Calculate the profit on the production and sale of 35 lamps.
b. Calculate the number of lamps that must be sold to profit $3,000.
75. If $1,200 is invested in an account earning an annual interest rate r, then

the amount A that is in the account at the end of 2 years is given by the
2
formula A = 1,200(1 + r) . If at the end of 2 years the amount in the
account is $1,335.63, then what was the interest rate?
76. A manufacturing company has determined that the daily revenue, R, in

thousands of dollars depends on the number, n, of palettes of product sold
according to the formula R = 12n − 0.6n 2 . Determine the number of
palettes that must be sold in order to maintain revenues at $60,000 per day.
Projectile Problems

h (t) = −16t 2 + 32t + 128 .
a. What is the height of the projectile at 1/2 second?

b. At what time after launch will the projectile reach a height of 128 feet?

h (t) = −16t 2 + 16t + 192 .
a. What is the height of the projectile at 3/2 seconds?
b. At what time will the projectile reach 128 feet?
given by h (t) = −16t 2 + 144 . How long will it take to reach a point
halfway to the ground?
80. The height of a projectile shot straight up into the air at 80 feet/second
from the ground is given by h (t) = −16t 2 + 80t. At what time will the
projectile reach 95 feet?
81. Discuss the strategy of always using the quadratic formula to solve
quadratic equations.
82. List all of the methods that we have learned so far to solve quadratic
equations. Discuss the pros and cons of each.

ANSWERS
1: −8, no real solution
3: 25, two real solutions
13: 0, one real solution
15: −1, 3
17: −2/3, 1
21: −1/5, 0
⎯⎯
25: −1 ± √5
27: 5/2
⎯⎯
29: 2 ± √5
2√5
33: ±
5
35: 1/2, 4

37: 0, 1/18
−1±√6
41:
2
45: −1/2, 1/3
47: 2/3
⎯⎯
49: −4 ± 2√ 3
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
51: 3√ 5 and 3√ 5 −2
⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯
53: 3 + √ 10 and −3 + √ 10
55: Length: 13.42 inches; width: 4.47 inches
57: Length: 6.48 meters; width: 4.16 meters
59: Height: 2.87 feet; base: 9.74 feet
63: 2.85 meters
⎯⎯
65: 20√ 3 units
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
67: Length: 2 + 5√ 2 inches; width: −2 + 5√ 2 inches
⎯⎯⎯⎯
69: 2√ 19 ≈ 8.72 feet
73: a. $1,600; b. 5.4 hours and 18.6 hours

75: 5.5%
77: a. 140 feet; b. 0 seconds and 2 seconds
79: 2.12 seconds

9.5 Graphing Parabolas
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Graph a parabola.
2. Find the intercepts and vertex of a parabola.
3. Find the vertex of a parabola by completing the square.
The Graph of a Quadratic Equation
We know that any linear equation with two variables can be written in the form
y = mx + b and that its graph is a line. In this section, we will see that any
quadratic equation of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c has a curved graph called a
parabola8.
Two points determine any line. However, since a parabola is curved, we should find
more than two points. In this text, we will determine at least five points as a means
to produce an acceptable sketch. To begin, we graph our first parabola by plotting
points. Given a quadratic equation of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c, x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable. Choose some values for x and
then determine the corresponding y-values. Then plot the points and sketch the
graph.
8. The graph of any quadratic Example 1: Graph by plotting points: y = x 2 − 2x − 3 .

equation
y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a,
b, and c are real numbers and Solution: In this example, choose the x-values {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and calculate the
a ≠ 0. corresponding y-values.
1514
Plot these points and determine the shape of the graph.
Answer:
9. The point that defines the

minimum or maximum of a
parabola.
10. The vertical line through the

When graphing, we want to include certain special points in the graph. The y-
b
vertex, x = − 2a , about
intercept is the point where the graph intersects the y-axis. The x-intercepts are the
which the parabola is points where the graph intersects the x-axis. The vertex9 is the point that defines
symmetric. the minimum or maximum of the graph. Lastly, the line of symmetry10 (also called
9.5 Graphing Parabolas 1515

the axis of symmetry11) is the vertical line through the vertex, about which the
parabola is symmetric.
For any parabola, we will find the vertex and y-intercept. In addition, if the x-
intercepts exist, then we will want to determine those as well. Guessing at the x-
values of these special points is not practical; therefore, we will develop techniques
that will facilitate finding them. Many of these techniques will be used extensively
as we progress in our study of algebra.
Given a quadratic equation of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c, find the y-intercept by

setting x = 0 and solving. In general, y = a(0)2 + b (0) + c = c, and we have
11. A term used when referencing

the line of symmetry.

Next, recall that the x-intercepts, if they exist, can be found by setting y = 0 . Doing
this, we have 0 = a2 + bx + c, which has general solutions given by the quadratic
−b±√b2 −4ac
formula, x = 2a
. Therefore, the x-intercepts have this general form:
Using the fact that a parabola is symmetric, we can determine the vertical line of
symmetry using the x-intercepts. To do this, we find the x-value midway between
the x-intercepts by taking an average as follows:
Therefore, the line of symmetry is the vertical line:
We can use the line of symmetry to find the x-value of the vertex. The steps for
graphing a parabola are outlined in the following example.

Example 2: Graph: y = −x 2 − 2x + 3 .
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the y-intercept. To do this, set x = 0 and solve for y.
The y-intercept is (0, 3).
Step 2: Determine the x-intercepts. To do this, set y = 0 and solve for x.
Here when y = 0, we obtain two solutions. There are two x-intercepts, (−3, 0) and
(1, 0).
Step 3: Determine the vertex. One way to do this is to use the equation for the line
b
of symmetry, x = − 2a , to find the x-value of the vertex. In this example, a = −1 and
b = −2:

Substitute −1 into the original equation to find the corresponding y-value.
The vertex is (−1, 4).
Step 4: Determine extra points so that we have at least five points to plot. In this
example, one other point will suffice. Choose x = −2 and find the corresponding y-
value.
Our fifth point is (−2, 3).
Step 5: Plot the points and sketch the graph. To recap, the points that we have
found are
y-intercept: (0, 3)
x-intercept: (−3, 0) and (1, 0)
Vertex: (−1, 4)
Extra point: (−2, 3)

Answer:
The parabola opens downward. In general, use the leading coefficient to determine
whether the parabola opens upward or downward. If the leading coefficient is
negative, as in the previous example, then the parabola opens downward. If the
leading coefficient is positive, then the parabola opens upward.

All quadratic equations of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c have parabolic graphs with

y-intercept (0, c). However, not all parabolas have x intercepts.
Example 3: Graph: y = 2x 2 + 4x + 5 .
Solution: Because the leading coefficient 2 is positive, note that the parabola opens
upward. Here c = 5 and the y-intercept is (0, 5). To find the x-intercepts, set y = 0.
In this case, a = 2, b = 4, and c = 5. Use the discriminant to determine the number and
type of solutions.
Since the discriminant is negative, we conclude that there are no real solutions.
Because there are no real solutions, there are no x-intercepts. Next, we determine
the x-value of the vertex.

Given that the x-value of the vertex is −1, substitute into the original equation to
find the corresponding y-value.
The vertex is (−1, 3). So far, we have only two points. To determine three more,
choose some x-values on either side of the line of symmetry, x = −1. Here we choose
x-values −3, −2, and 1.
To summarize, we have
y-intercept: (0, 5)
x-intercepts: None
Vertex: (−1, 3)
Extra points: (−3, 11), (−2, 5), (1, 11)
Plot the points and sketch the graph.
Answer:

Example 4: Graph: y = −2x 2 + 12x − 18.
Solution: Note that a = −2: the parabola opens downward. Since c = −18, the y-
intercept is (0, −18). To find the x-intercepts, set y = 0.
Solve by factoring.

Here x = 3 is a double root, so there is only one x-intercept, (3, 0). From the original
equation, a = −2, b = 12, and c = −18. The x-value of the vertex can be calculated as
follows:
Given that the x-value of the vertex is 3, substitute into the original equation to find
the corresponding y-value.
Therefore, the vertex is (3, 0), which happens to be the same point as the x-
intercept. So far, we have only two points. To determine three more, choose some x-
values on either side of the line of symmetry, x = 3 in this case. Choose x-values 1, 5,
and 6.
y-intercept: (0, −18)

x-intercept: (3, 0)
Vertex: (3, 0)
Extra points: (1, −8), (5, −8), (6, −18)
Answer:
Example 5: Graph: y = x 2 − 2x − 1 .
Solution: Since a = 1, the parabola opens upward. Furthermore, c = −1, so the y-

intercept is (0, −1). To find the x-intercepts, set y = 0.
In this case, solve using the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = −2, and c = −1.

Here we obtain two real solutions for x, and thus there are two x-intercepts:
Approximate values using a calculator:
Use the approximate answers to place the ordered pair on the graph. However, we
will present the exact x-intercepts on the graph. Next, find the vertex.

Given that the x-value of the vertex is 1, substitute into the original equation to find
The vertex is (1, −2). We need one more point.
y-intercept: (0, −1)

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
x-intercepts: (1 − √ 2 , 0) and (1 + √ 2 , 0)
Vertex: (1, −2)
Extra point: (2, −1)
Answer:

Try this! Graph: y = 9x 2 − 5.
Answer:

Video Solution

Finding the Maximum and Minimum
It is often useful to find the maximum and/or minimum values of functions that
model real-life applications. To find these important values given a quadratic
function, we use the vertex. If the leading coefficient a is positive, then the parabola
opens upward and there will be a minimum y-value. If the leading coefficient a is
negative, then the parabola opens downward and there will be a maximum y-value.
Example 6: Determine the maximum or minimum: y = −4x 2 + 24x − 35.
Solution: Since a = −4, we know that the parabola opens downward and there will be
a maximum y-value. To find it, we first find the x-value of the vertex.
The x-value of the vertex is 3. Substitute this value into the original equation to find

The vertex is (3, 1). Therefore, the maximum y-value is 1, which occurs when x = 3,
as illustrated below:
Note
The graph is not required to answer this question.
Answer: The maximum is 1.
Example 7: Determine the maximum or minimum: y = 4x 2 − 32x + 62 .
Solution: Since a = +4, the parabola opens upward and there is a minimum y-value.
Begin by finding the x-value of the vertex.

Substitute x = 4 into the original equation to find the corresponding y-value.
The vertex is (4, −2). Therefore, the minimum y-value of −2 occurs when x = 4, as
illustrated below:
Answer: The minimum is −2.

Try this! Determine the maximum or minimum: y = (x − 3)2 − 9.
Answer: The minimum is −9.
Video Solution
A parabola, opening upward or downward (as opposed to sideways), defines a

function and extends indefinitely to the right and left as indicated by the arrows.
Therefore, the domain (the set of x-values) consists of all real numbers. However,
the range (the set of y-values) is bounded by the y-value of the vertex.
Example 8: Determine the domain and range: y = x 2 − 4x + 3 .
Solution: First, note that since a = 1 is positive, the parabola opens upward. Hence
there will be a minimum y-value. To find that value, find the x-value of the vertex:
Then substitute into the equation to find the corresponding y-value.
The vertex is (2, −1). The range consists of the set of y-values greater than or equal
to the minimum y-value −1.

Answer: Domain: R = (−∞, ∞); range: [−1, ∞)
Example 9: The height in feet of a projectile is given by the function

h(t) = −16t2 + 72t, where t represents the time in seconds after launch. What is
the maximum height reached by the projectile?
Solution: Here a = −16, and the parabola opens downward. Therefore, the y-value
of the vertex determines the maximum height. Begin by finding the x-value of the
vertex:
The maximum height will occur in 9/4 = 2¼ seconds. Substitute this time into the
function to determine the height attained.

Answer: The maximum height of the projectile is 81 feet.
Finding the Vertex by Completing the Square
In this section, we demonstrate an alternate approach for finding the vertex. Any
quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c can be rewritten in the form
In this form, the vertex is (h, k).
Example 10: Determine the vertex: y = −4(x − 3)2 + 1.
Solution: When the equation is in this form, we can read the vertex directly from
the equation.
Here h = 3 and k = 1.
Answer: The vertex is (3, 1).

Example 11: Determine the vertex: y = 2(x + 3)2 − 2.
Solution: Rewrite the equation as follows before determining h and k.
Here h = −3 and k = −2.
Answer: The vertex is (−3, −2).
Often the equation is not given in this form. To obtain this form, complete the
square.
Example 12: Rewrite in y = a(x − h) + k form and determine the vertex:

2
y = x 2 + 4x + 9 .
Solution: Begin by making room for the constant term that completes the square.
The idea is to add and subtract the value that completes the square, ( b2 ) , and then
2
factor. In this case, add and subtract ( 42 ) = (2)2 = 4.

2

Adding and subtracting the same value within an expression does not change it.
Doing so is equivalent to adding 0. Once the equation is in this form, we can easily
determine the vertex.
Here h = −2 and k = 5.
Answer: The vertex is (−2, 5).
If there is a leading coefficient other than 1, then we must first factor out the
leading coefficient from the first two terms of the trinomial.
Example 13: Rewrite in y = a(x − h) + k form and determine the vertex:

2
y = 2x 2 − 4x + 8 .
Solution: Since a = 2, factor this out of the first two terms in order to complete the
square. Leave room inside the parentheses to add a constant term.

( 2 ) = (−1) = 1. Add and subtract 1 and factor as follows:

Now use −2 to determine the value that completes the square. In this case,
−22 2
In this form, we can easily determine the vertex.
Here h = 1 and k = 6.
Answer: The vertex is (1, 6).
Try this! Rewrite in y = a(x − h) + k form and determine the vertex:

2
y = −2x 2 − 12x + 3.

Answer: y = −2(x + 3)2 + 21; vertex: (−3, 21)
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The graph of any quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b,

and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0, is called a parabola.
• When graphing parabolas, find the vertex and y-intercept. If the x-
intercepts exist, find those as well. Also, be sure to find ordered pair
solutions on either side of the line of symmetry, x = − 2a b
.
• Use the leading coefficient, a, to determine if a parabola opens upward
or downward. If a is positive, then it opens upward. If a is negative, then
it opens downward.
• The vertex of any parabola has an x-value equal to − 2a b
. After finding
the x-value of the vertex, substitute it into the original equation to find
the corresponding y-value. This y-value is a maximum if the parabola
opens downward, and it is a minimum if the parabola opens upward.
• The domain of a parabola opening upward or downward consists of all
real numbers. The range is bounded by the y-value of the vertex.
equation in the form y = a(x − h) + k. When in this form, the

• An alternate approach to finding the vertex is to rewrite the quadratic
2
vertex is (h, k) and can be read directly from the equation. To obtain this
form, take y = ax 2 + bx + c and complete the square.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: The Graph of Quadratic Equations
Does the parabola open upward or downward? Explain.
1. y = x 2 − 9x + 20
2. y = x 2 − 12x + 32
3. y = −2x 2 + 5x + 12
4. y = −6x 2 + 13x − 6
5. y = 64 − x 2
6. y = −3x + 9x 2
Determine the x- and y-intercepts.
7. y = x 2 + 4x − 12
8. y = x 2 − 13x + 12
9. y = 2x 2 + 5x − 3
10. y = 3x 2 − 4x − 4
11. y = −5x 2 − 3x + 2
12. y = −6x 2 + 11x − 4
13. y = 4x 2 − 25
14. y = 9x 2 − 49
15. y = x2 − x + 1

16. y = 5x 2 + 15x
Find the vertex and the line of symmetry.
17. y = −x 2 + 10x − 34
18. y = −x 2 − 6x + 1
19. y = −4x 2 + 12x − 7
20. y = −9x 2 + 6x + 2
21. y = 4x 2 − 1
22. y = x 2 − 16
Graph. Find the vertex and the y-intercept. In addition, find the x-intercepts if they
exist.
23. y = x 2 − 2x − 8
24. y = x 2 − 4x − 5
25. y = −x 2 + 4x + 12
26. y = −x 2 − 2x + 15
27. y = x 2 − 10x
28. y = x 2 + 8x
29. y = x2 − 9
30. y = x 2 − 25
31. y = 1 − x2
32. y = 4 − x2

33. y = x 2 − 2x + 1
34. y = x 2 + 4x + 4
35. y = −4x 2 + 12x − 9
36. y = −4x 2 − 4x + 3
37. y = x2 − 2
38. y = x2 − 3
39. y = −4x 2 + 4x − 3
40. y = 4x 2 + 4x + 3
41. y = x 2 − 2x − 2
42. y = x 2 − 6x + 6
43. y = −2x 2 + 6x − 3
44. y = −4x 2 + 4x + 1
45. y = x 2 + 3x + 4
46. y = −x 2 + 3x − 4
47. y = −2x 2 + 3
48. y = −2x 2 − 1
49. y = 2x 2 + 4x − 3
50. y = 3x 2 + 2x − 2
Part B: Maximum or Minimum

Determine the maximum or minimum y-value.
51. y = −x 2 − 6x + 1
52. y = −x 2 − 4x + 8
53. y = 25x 2 − 10x + 5
54. y = 16x 2 − 24x + 7
55. y = −x 2
56. y = 1 − 9x 2
57. y = 20x − 10x 2
58. y = 12x + 4x 2
59. y = 3x 2 − 4x − 2
60. y = 6x 2 − 8x + 5
Given the following quadratic functions, determine the domain and range.
61. f (x) = 3x 2 + 30x + 50
62. f (x) = 5x 2 − 10x + 1
63. g(x) = −2x 2 + 4x + 1
64. g(x) = −7x 2 − 14x − 9
65. The height in feet reached by a baseball tossed upward at a speed of 48

feet/second from the ground is given by the function
h (t) = −16t 2 + 48t, where t represents time in seconds. What is the
baseball’s maximum height and how long will it take to attain that height?

66. The height of a projectile launched straight up from a mound is given by

the function h(t) = −16t 2 + 96t + 4, where t represents seconds after
launch. What is the maximum height?
is given by the function P(x) = −10x 2 + 800x − 12,000 . What is
the maximum profit?
68. The revenue in dollars generated from selling a particular item is

modeled by the formula R(x) = 100x − 0.0025x 2 , where x
represents the number of units sold. What number of units must be sold to
maximize revenue?
69. The average number of hits to a radio station website is modeled by the
formula f (x) = 450t 2 − 3,600t + 8,000 , where t represents the
number of hours since 8:00 a.m. At what hour of the day is the number of
hits to the website at a minimum?
70. The value in dollars of a new car is modeled by the formula

V(t) = 125t 2 − 3,000t + 22,000 , where t represents the number of
years since it was purchased. Determine the minimum value of the car.
71. The daily production costs in dollars of a textile manufacturing company

producing custom uniforms is modeled by the formula
C(x) = 0.02x 2 − 20x + 10,000 , where x represents the number of
uniforms produced.
a. How many uniforms should be produced to minimize the daily production

costs?
b. What is the minimum daily production cost?
72. The area of a certain rectangular pen is given by the formula

A = 14w − w 2 , where w represents the width in feet. Determine the
width that produces the maximum area.
Part C: Vertex by Completing the Square
Determine the vertex.

= −(x − 5) + 3
2
73. y
74. y = −2(x − 1) 2 + 7
75. y = 5(x + 1) 2 + 6
76. y = 3(x + 4) 2 + 10
77. y = −5(x + 8) 2 − 1
78. y = (x + 2) 2 − 5
= a(x − h) + k form and determine the vertex.

2
Rewrite in y
79. y = x 2 − 14x + 24
80. y = x 2 − 12x + 40
81. y = x 2 + 4x − 12
82. y = x 2 + 6x − 1
83. y = 2x 2 − 12x − 3
84. y = 3x 2 − 6x + 5
85. y = −x 2 + 16x + 17
86. y = −x 2 + 10x
Graph.
87. y = x2 − 1
88. y = x2 + 1

89. y = (x − 1) 2
90. y = (x + 1) 2
91. y = (x − 4) 2 − 9
92. y = (x − 1) 2 − 4
93. y = −2(x + 1) 2 + 8
94. y = −3(x + 2) 2 + 12
95. y = −5(x − 1) 2
96. y = −(x + 2) 2
97. y = −4(x − 1) 2 − 2
98. y = 9(x + 1) 2 + 2
= (x + 5) − 15
2
99. y
= 2(x − 5) − 3
2
100. y
101. y = −2(x − 4) 2 + 22
102. y = 2(x + 3) 2 − 13
103. Write down your plan for graphing a parabola on an exam. What will
you be looking for and how will you present your answer? Share your plan
on the discussion board.
104. Why is any parabola that opens upward or downward a function?

Explain to a classmate how to determine the domain and range.

ANSWERS
1: Upward
3: Downward
5: Downward
9: x-intercepts: (−3, 0), (1/2, 0); y-intercept: (0, −3)
11: x-intercepts: (−1, 0), (2/5, 0); y-intercept: (0, 2)
13: x-intercepts: (−5/2, 0), (5/2, 0); y-intercept: (0, −25)
15: x-intercepts: none; y-intercept: (0, 1)
17: Vertex: (5, −9); line of symmetry: x =5
19: Vertex: (3/2, 2); line of symmetry: x = 3/2
23:
25:

27:
29:
31:
33:

35:
37:
39:
41:

43:
45:
47:
49:

51: Maximum: y = 10
53: Minimum: y = 4
55: Maximum: y = 0
57: Maximum: y = 10
59: Minimum: y = −10/3
61: Domain: R; range: [−25, ∞)
63: Domain: R; range: (−∞, 3]
65: The maximum height of 36 feet occurs after 1.5 seconds.
67: $4,000
69: 12:00 p.m.
71: a. 500 uniforms; b. $5,000
73: (5, 3)
75: (−1, 6)
77: (−8, −1)
79: y = (x − 7) 2 − 25 ; vertex: (7, −25)
81: y = (x + 2) 2 − 16 ; vertex: (−2, −16)

83: y = 2(x − 3) 2 − 21 ; vertex: (3, −21)
85: y = −(x − 8) 2 + 81 ; vertex: (8, 81)
87:
89:
91:
93:

95:
97:
99:
101:

9.6 Introduction to Complex Numbers and Complex Solutions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Perform operations with complex numbers.

2. Solve quadratic equations with complex solutions.
Introduction to Complex Numbers
Up to this point, the square root of a negative number has been left undefined. For
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
example, we know that √−9 is not a real a number.
There is no real number that when squared results in a negative number. We begin
the resolution of this issue by defining the imaginary unit12, i, as the square root of
−1.
To express a square root of a negative number in terms of the imaginary unit i, we

use the following property, where a represents any nonnegative real number:
With this we can write
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. Defined as i = √−1 and
i2 = −1.
1553
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
If √−9 = 3i, then we would expect that 3i squared equals −9:
Therefore, the square root of any negative real number can be written in terms of
the imaginary unit. Such numbers are often called imaginary numbers13.
Example 1: Rewrite in terms of the imaginary unit i.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
a. √−4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
b. √−5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
c. √−8
Solution:
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯

a. √−4 = √−1 ⋅ 4 = √−1 ⋅ √4 = i ⋅ 2 = 2i
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯

b. √−5 = √−1 ⋅ 5 = √−1 ⋅ √5 = i√5
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯

c. √−8 = √−1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 = √−1 ⋅ √4 ⋅ √2 = i ⋅ 2 ⋅ √2 = 2i√2
13. The square roots of any

negative real numbers.
9.6 Introduction to Complex Numbers and Complex Solutions 1554

Notation Note
When an imaginary number involves a radical, place i in front of the radical.

Consider the following:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
2i√2 = 2√2 i
Since multiplication is commutative, these numbers are equivalent. However,

⎯⎯
in the form 2√2i, the imaginary unit i is often misinterpreted to be part of the
radicand. To avoid this confusion, it is a best practice to place the i in front of
⎯⎯
the radical and use 2i√2.
A complex number14 is any number of the form
where a and b are real numbers. Here a is called the real part15 and b is called the
imaginary part16. For example, 3 − 4i is a complex number with a real part, 3, and
an imaginary part, −4. It is important to note that any real number is also a complex
number. For example, the real number 5 is also a complex number because it can be
written as 5 + 0i with a real part of 5 and an imaginary part of 0. Hence the set of
real numbers, denoted R, is a subset of the set of complex numbers, denoted C.
Adding and subtracting complex numbers is similar to adding and subtracting like
terms. Add or subtract the real parts and then the imaginary parts.
14. Numbers of the form a + bi, Example 2: Add: (3 − 4i) + (2 + 5i).

where a and b are real
numbers.
Solution: Add the real parts and then add the imaginary parts.
15. The real number a of a complex
number a + bi.
16. The real number b of a complex

number a + bi.

Answer: 5 + i
To subtract complex numbers, subtract the real parts and subtract the imaginary
parts. This is consistent with the use of the distributive property.
Example 3: Subtract: (3 − 4i) − (2 + 5i).
Solution: Distribute the negative one and then combine like terms.
Answer: 1 − 9i
The distributive property also applies when multiplying complex numbers. Make
use of the fact that i2 = −1 to resolve the result into standard form: a + bi.
Example 4: Multiply: 5i (3 − 4i).
Solution: Begin by applying the distributive property.

Answer: 20 + 15i
Example 5: Multiply: (3 − 4i) (4 + 5i).
Solution:
Answer: 32 − i
Given a complex number a + bi, its complex conjugate17 is a − bi. We next explore
the product of complex conjugates.
17. Two complex numbers whose Example 6: Multiply: (3 − 4i) (3 + 4i).

real parts are the same and
imaginary parts are opposite. If
given a + bi, then its complex Solution:
conjugate is a − bi.

Answer: 25
In general, the product of complex conjugates18 follows:
Note that the result does not involve the imaginary unit; hence the result is real.
This leads us to the very useful property:
To divide complex numbers, we apply the technique used to rationalize the

denominator. Multiply the numerator and denominator (dividend and divisor) by
the conjugate of the denominator. The result can then be resolved into standard
form, a + bi.
1
Example 7: Divide: 1−2i .
18. The real number that results
from multiplying complex
(a + bi) (a − bi) = a + b in
conjugates: Solution: In this example, the conjugate of the denominator is 1 + 2i. Multiply by 1
2 2
. the form (1+2i)
(1+2i)
.

To express this complex number in standard form, write each term over the
common denominator 5.
Answer: 1
5
+ 2
5
i
Example 8: Divide: 3−4i

3+2i
.
Solution:

1
Answer: 13 − 18
13
i
5+5i
Try this! Divide: 1−3i .
Answer: −1 + 2i
Video Solution

Quadratic Equations with Complex Solutions
Now that complex numbers are defined, we can complete our study of solutions to
quadratic equations. Often solutions to quadratic equations are not real.
Example 9: Solve using the quadratic formula: x 2 − 2x + 5 = 0
Solution: Begin by identifying a, b, and c. Here

Check these solutions by substituting them into the original equation.
Answer: The solutions are 1 − 2i and 1 + 2i.

The equation may not be given in standard form. The general steps for solving
using the quadratic formula are outlined in the following example.
Example 10: Solve: (2x + 1) (x − 3) = x − 8.
Solution:
Step 1: Write the quadratic equation in standard form.
Step 2: Identify a, b, and c for use in the quadratic formula. Here
Step 3: Substitute the appropriate values into the quadratic formula and then
simplify.

Answer: The solution is 3

2
± 12 .iThe check is optional.
Example 11: Solve: x (x + 2) = −19.
Solution: Begin by rewriting the equation in standard form.
Here a = 1, b = 2, and c = 19. Substitute these values into the quadratic formula.

⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
Answer: The solutions are −1 − 3i√2 and −1 + 3i√2.
Notation Note
Consider the following:
⎯⎯ ⎯⎯
−1 + 3i√2 = −1 + 3√2 i
⎯⎯
Both numbers are equivalent and −1 + 3√2i is in standard form, where the
⎯⎯
real part is −1 and the imaginary part is 3√2. However, this number is often
⎯⎯
expressed as −1 + 3i√2, even though this expression is not in standard form.
Again, this is done to avoid the possibility of misinterpreting the imaginary
unit as part of the radicand.

Try this! Solve: (2x + 3) (x + 5) = 5x + 4.
−4±i√6 √6
Answer: 2
= −2 ± 2
i
Video Solution
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The result of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing complex

numbers is a complex number.
• Use complex numbers to describe solutions to quadratic equations that
are not real.

TOPIC EXERCISES
Part A: Introduction to Complex Numbers
Rewrite in terms of i.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
1. √ −64
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2. √ −81
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. √ −20
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. √ −18
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. √ −50
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
6. √ −48
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
7. −√ −45
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
8. −√ −8
9. √ −
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯1⎯
4
10. √ −
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯2⎯
9
11. (3 + 5i) + (7 − 4i)
12. (6 − 7i) + (−5 − 2i)
13. (−8 − 3i) + (5 + 2i)

14. (−10 + 15i) + (15 − 20i)
15. ( 12 + 3
4
i) + ( 16 − 1
8
i)
16. ( 25 − 1
6
i) + ( 101 − 3
2
i)
17. (5 + 2i) − (8 − 3i)
18. (7 − i) − (−6 − 9i)
19. (−9 − 5i) − (8 + 12i)
20. (−11 + 2i) − (13 − 7i)
21. ( 141 + 3
2
i) − ( 47 − 3
4
i)
22. ( 38 − 1
3
i) − ( 12 − 1
2
i)
23. 2i (7 − 4i)
24. 6i (1 − 2i)
25. −2i (3 − 4i)
26. −5i (2 − i)
27. (2 + i) (2 − 3i)
28. (3 − 5i) (1 − 2i)
29. (1 − i) (8 − 9i)
30. (1 + 5i) (5 + 2i)
31. (4 + 3i)2

32. (2 − 5i)
2
33. (4 − 2i) (4 + 2i)
34. (6 + 5i) (6 − 5i)
35. ( 12 + 2
3
i) ( 13 − 1
2
i)
36. ( 23 − 1
3
i) ( 12 − 3
2
i)
1
37.
5+4i
1
38.
3−4i
20i
39.
1−3i
10i
40.
1−2i
10−5i
41.
3−i
4−2i
42.
2−2i
5+10i
43.
3+4i
2−4i
44.
5+3i
1+2i
45.
2−3i
3−i
46.
4−5i
Part B: Complex Roots
Solve by extracting the roots and then solve by using the quadratic formula. Check
answers.

47. x 2 +9=0
48. x 2 +1=0
49. 4t 2 + 25 = 0
50. 9t 2 +4=0
51. 4y 2 +3=0
52. 9y 2 +5=0
53. 3x 2 +2=0
54. 5x 2 +3=0
55. (x + 1) 2 + 4 = 0
56. (x + 3) 2 + 9 = 0
Solve using the quadratic formula.
57. x 2 − 2x + 10 = 0
58. x 2 − 4x + 13 = 0
59. x 2 + 4x + 6 = 0
60. x 2 + 2x + 9 = 0
61. y 2 − 6y + 17 = 0
62. y 2 − 2y + 19 = 0
63. t 2 − 5t + 10 = 0
64. t 2 + 3t + 4 = 0

65. −x 2 + 10x − 29 = 0
66. −x 2 + 6x − 10 = 0
67. −y 2 −y−2=0
68. −y 2 + 3y − 5 = 0
69. −2x 2 + 10x − 17 = 0
70. −8x 2 + 20x − 13 = 0
71. 3y 2 − 2y + 4 = 0
72. 5y 2 − 4y + 3 = 0
73. 2x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0
74. 4x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
75. 2x 2 − 1
2
x+ 1
4
=0
76. 3x 2 − 2
3
x+ 1
3
=0
77. 2x (x − 1) = −1
78. x (2x + 5) = 3x − 5
79. 3t (t − 2) + 4 = 0
80. 5t (t − 1) = t − 4
81. (2x + 3) 2 = 16x + 4
82. (2y + 5) − 12 (y + 1) = 0
2
83. −3 (y + 3) (y − 5) = 5y + 46

84. −2 (y − 4) (y + 1) = 3y + 10
85. 9x (x − 1) + 3 (x + 2) = 1
86. 5x (x + 2) − 6 (2x − 1) = 5
87. 3 (t − 1) − 2t (t − 2) = 6t
88. 3 (t − 3) − t (t − 5) = 7t
89. (2x + 3) (2x − 3) − 5 (x 2 + 1) = −9
90. 5 (x + 1) (x − 1) − 3x 2 = −8
91. Explore the powers of i. Share your discoveries on the discussion board.
92. Research and discuss the rich history of imaginary numbers.
93. Research and discuss real-world applications involving complex

numbers.

ANSWERS
1: 8i
⎯⎯
3: 2i√ 5
⎯⎯
5: 5i√ 2
⎯⎯
7: −3i√ 5
i
9:
2
11: 10 +i
13: −3 −i
15: 2
3
+ 5
8
i
17: −3 + 5i
19: −17 − 17i
21: − 1
2
+ 9
4
i
23: 8 + 14i
25: −8 − 6i
27: 7 − 4i
29: −1 − 17i
31: 7 + 24i
33: 20
35: 1
2
− 1
36
i

37: 5
41
− 4
41
i
39: −6 + 2i
41: 7
2
− 1
2
i
43: 11
5
− 2
5
i
45: − 4
13
+ 7
13
i
47: ±3i
5i
49: ±
2
i√3
51: ±
2
i√6
53: ±
3
55: −1 ± 2i
57: 1 ± 3i
⎯⎯
59: −2 ± i√ 2
⎯⎯
61: 3 ± 2i√ 2
63: 5
2
± √15
2
i
65: 5 ± 2i
67: − ± i
1 √7
2 2
69: 5
2
± 3
2
i
71: 1
3
± √11
3
i

73: − ± i
3 √7
4 4
75: 1
8
± √7
8
i
77: 1
2
± 1
2
i
79: 1 ± i
√3
3
81: 1
2
±i
83: 1
6
± √11
6
i
85: 1
3
± 2
3
i
87: 1
4
± √23
4
i
⎯⎯
89: ±i√ 5

1575
REVIEW EXERCISES
Extracting Square Roots
1. x 2 − 16 = 0
9
2. y 2 = 4
3. x 2 − 27 = 0
4. x 2 + 27 = 0
5. 3y 2 − 25 = 0
6. 9x 2 −2=0
7. (x − 5) − 9 = 0
2
8. (2x − 1) 2 − 1 = 0
9. 16(x − 6) − 3 = 0
2
10. 2(x + 3) 2 − 5 = 0
11. (x + 3) (x − 2) = x + 12
12. (x + 2) (5x − 1) = 9x − 1
Find a quadratic equation in standard form with the given solutions.
⎯⎯
13. ±√ 2
⎯⎯
14. ±2√ 5

Completing the Square
Complete the square.
15. x 2 − 6x+? = (x−?) 2
16. x 2 − x+? = (x−?) 2
17. x 2 − 12x + 1 = 0
18. x 2 + 8x + 3 = 0
19. y 2 − 4y − 14 = 0
20. y 2 − 2y − 74 = 0
21. x 2 + 5x − 1 = 0
22. x 2 − 7x − 2 = 0
23. 2x 2 +x−3=0
24. 5x 2 + 9x − 2 = 0
25. 2x 2 − 16x + 5 = 0
26. 3x 2 − 6x + 1 = 0
27. 2y 2 + 10y + 1 = 0
28. 5y 2 +y−3=0
29. x (x + 9) = 5x + 8
30. (2x + 5) (x + 2) = 8x + 7

Quadratic Formula
Identify the coefficients a, b, and c used in the quadratic formula. Do not solve.
31. x 2 −x+4=0
32. −x 2 + 5x − 14 = 0
33. x 2 −5=0
34. 6x 2 +x=0
Use the quadratic formula to solve the following.
35. x 2 − 6x + 6 = 0
36. x 2 + 10x + 23 = 0
37. 3y 2 −y−1=0
38. 2y 2 − 3y + 5 = 0
39. 5x 2 − 36 = 0
40. 7x 2 + 2x = 0
41. −x 2 + 5x + 1 = 0
42. −4x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0
43. t 2 − 12t − 288 = 0
44. t 2 − 44t + 484 = 0
45. (x − 3) 2 − 2x = 47
46. 9x (x + 1) − 5 = 3x

Guidelines for Solving Quadratic Equations and Applications
Use the discriminant to determine the number and type of solutions.
47. −x 2 + 5x + 1 = 0
48. −x 2 +x−1=0
49. 4x 2 − 4x + 1 = 0
50. 9x 2 −4=0
51. x 2 + 4x − 60 = 0
52. 9x 2 + 7x = 0
53. 25t 2 −1=0
54. t 2 + 16 = 0
55. x 2 −x−3=0
56. 9x 2 + 12x + 1 = 0
57. 4(x − 1) 2 − 27 = 0
58. (3x + 5) − 4 = 0
2
59. (x − 2) (x + 3) = 6
60. x (x − 5) = 12
61. (x + 1) (x − 8) + 28 = 3x
62. (9x − 2) (x + 4) = 28x − 9

63. The length of a rectangle is 2 inches less than twice the width. If the area
measures 25 square inches, then find the dimensions of the rectangle. Round
off to the nearest hundredth.
64. An 18-foot ladder leaning against a building reaches a height of 17 feet.

How far is the base of the ladder from the wall? Round to the nearest tenth
of a foot.
65. The value in dollars of a new car is modeled by the function

V (t) = 125t 2 − 3,000t + 22,000 , where t represents the number of
years since it was purchased. Determine the age of the car when its value is
$22,000.

h (t) = −16t 2 + 48t, where t represents time in seconds. At what time
will the baseball reach a height of 16 feet?
Graphing Parabolas
Determine the x- and y-intercepts.
67. y = 2x 2 + 5x − 3
68. y = x 2 − 12
69. y = 5x 2 − x + 2
70. y = −x 2 + 10x − 25
Find the vertex and the line of symmetry.
71. y = x 2 − 6x + 1
72. y = −x 2 + 8x − 1
73. y = x 2 + 3x − 1

74. y = 9x 2 − 1
exist.
75. y = x 2 + 8x + 12
76. y = −x 2 − 6x + 7
77. y = −2x 2 − 4
78. y = x 2 + 4x
79. y = 4x 2 − 4x + 1
80. y = −2x 2
81. y = −2x 2 + 8x − 7
82. y = 3x 2 − 1
Determine the maximum or minimum y-value.
83. y = x 2 − 10x + 1
84. y = −x 2 + 12x − 1
85. y = −5x 2 + 6x
86. y = 2x 2 − x − 1
87. The value in dollars of a new car is modeled by the function

V (t) = 125t 2 − 3,000t + 22,000 , where t represents the number of
years since it was purchased. Determine the age of the car when its value is
at a minimum.


h (t) = −16t 2 + 48t, where t represents time in seconds. What is the

maximum height of the baseball?
Introduction to Complex Numbers and Complex Solutions
Rewrite in terms of i.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
89. √ −36
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
90. √ −40
91. √ −
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯8 ⎯
25
92. −√ −
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯1⎯
9
93. (2 − 5i) + (3 + 4i)
94. (6 − 7i) − (12 − 3i)
95. (2 − 3i) (5 + i)
4−i
96.
2−3i
Solve.
97. 9x 2 + 25 = 0
98. 3x 2 +1=0
99. y 2 −y+5=0
100. y 2 + 2y + 4
101. 4x (x + 2) + 5 = 8x

102. 2 (x + 2) (x + 3) = 3 (x 2 + 13)

SAMPLE EXAM
1. 4x 2 −9=0
2. (4x + 1) 2 − 5 = 0
3. x 2 + 10x + 19 = 0
4. x 2 −x−1=0
Solve using the quadratic formula.
5. −2x 2 +x+3=0
6. x 2 + 6x − 31 = 0
7. (5x + 1) (x + 1) = 1
8. (x + 5) (x − 5) = 65
9. x (x + 3) = −2
10. 2(x − 2) 2 − 6 = 3x 2
Set up an algebraic equation and solve.
11. The length of a rectangle is twice its width. If the diagonal measures
⎯⎯
6√ 5 centimeters, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
12. The height in feet reached by a model rocket launched from a platform is
given by the function h(t) = −16t 2 + 256t + 3 , where t represents
time in seconds after launch. At what time will the rocket reach 451 feet?

exist.
13. y = 2x 2 − 4x − 6
14. y = −x 2 + 4x − 4
15. y = 4x 2 − 9
16. y = x 2 + 2x − 1
17. Determine the maximum or minimum y-value:

y = −3x 2 + 12x − 15 .
18. Determine the x- and y-intercepts: y = x 2 + x + 4.
19. Determine the domain and range: y = 25x 2 − 10x + 1 .
20. The height in feet reached by a model rocket launched from a platform is
given by the function h(t) = −16t 2 + 256t + 3 , where t represents
time in seconds after launch. What is the maximum height attained by the
rocket.
21. A bicycle manufacturing company has determined that the weekly

revenue in dollars can be modeled by the formula R = 200n − n 2 , where
n represents the number of bicycles produced and sold. How many bicycles
does the company have to produce and sell in order to maximize revenue?
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. Rewrite in terms of i: √ −60 .
4−2i
23. Divide: .
4+2i
Solve.
24. 25x 2 +3=0
25. −2x 2 + 5x − 1 = 0

1: ±16
⎯⎯
3: ±3√ 3
5√3
5: ±
3
7: 2, 8
24±√3
9:
4
⎯⎯
11: ±3√ 2
13: x 2 −2=0
15: x 2 − 6x + 9 = (x − 3) 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯
17: 6 ± √ 35
⎯⎯
19: 2 ± 3√ 2
−5±√29
21:
2
23: −3/2, 1
8±3√6
25:
2
−5±√23
27:
2
⎯⎯
29: −2 ± 2√ 3
31: a = 1, b = −1 , and c = 4

33: a = 1, b = 0, and c = −5
⎯⎯
35: 3 ± √3
1±√13
37:
6
6√5
39: ±
5
5±√29
41:
2
43: −12, 24
⎯⎯
45: 4 ± 3√ 6
47: Two real solutions
49: One real solution
51: −10, 6
53: ±1/5
1±√13
55:
2
2±3√3
57:
2
59: −4, 3
⎯⎯
61: 5 ± √5
65: It is worth $22,000 new and when it is 24 years old.
67: x-intercepts: (−3, 0), (1/2, 0); y-intercept: (0, −3)

69: x-intercepts: none; y-intercept: (0, 2)
73: Vertex: (−3/2, −13/4); line of symmetry: x =− 3

2
75:
77:
79:
81:

83: Minimum: y = −24
85: Maximum: y = 9/5
87: The car will have a minimum value 12 years after it is purchased.
89: 6i
2i√2
91:
5
93: 5 −i
95: 13 − 13i
5i
97: ±
3
1 √19
99:
2
± 2
i
i√5
101: ±
2

SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS
1: ± 3
2
⎯⎯
3: −5 ± √6
5: −1, 3/2
7: −6/5, 0
9: −2, −1
13:
15:
17: Maximum: y = −3
19: Domain: R; range: [0, ∞)
21: To maximize revenue, the company needs to produce and sell 100
bicycles a week.

3 4
23:
5
− 5
i
5±√17
25:
4

Chapter 10
Appendix: Geometric Figures
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1.
1592
Chapter 10 Appendix: Geometric Figures
10.1 Plane
Area (A) is measured in square units, perimeter (P) is measured in units, and
circumference (C) is measured in units.
Square
Rectangle
Parallelogram
1593
Trapezoid
Triangle
Circle
10.1 Plane 1594

10.2 Solid
Volume (V) is measured in cubic units and surface area (SA) is measured in square
units.
Cube
Rectangular Solid
1595
Right Circular Cylinder
Right Circular Cone
Sphere
10.2 Solid 1596

Beginning Algebra

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Beginning Algebra

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/

Author site: http://edunettech.blogspot.com/

• Katherine Adams, Eastern Michigan University

• Equivalent mathematical notation using standard text found on a

This text employs an early-and-often approach to real-world applications, laying

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line

1. Construct a number line and graph points on it.

A set1 is a collection of objects, typically grouped within braces { }, where each

When studying mathematics, we focus on special sets of numbers. The set of

1. Any collection of objects.

4. A subset with no elements,

5. The set of counting numbers

7. The set of positive and

8. Numbers of the form ba , where

9. Numbers that cannot be

10. The set of all rational and

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 7

11. A line that allows us to visually

13. A point on the number line

14. The point on the number line

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 8

Example 1: Graph the following set of real numbers: {−1, − 1

Ordering Real Numbers

We use symbols to help us efficiently communicate relationships between numbers

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 9

These symbols are used and interpreted in the following manner:

These symbols allow us to compare two numbers. For example,

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 10

In addition, the “or equal to” component of an inclusive inequality allows us to

Example 2: Fill in the blank with <, =, or >: −2 ____ −12.

16. Express ordering relationships

17. Use the symbol ≤ to express

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 11

For example, we say that the opposite of 10 is −10.

18. Real numbers whose graphs

19. The opposite of a negative

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 12

Example 3: What is the opposite of − 34?

Solution: Here we apply the double-negative property.

Example 4: Simplify: − (− (4)).

Example 5: Simplify: −(−(−2)).

Solution: Apply the double-negative property starting with the innermost

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 13

If there is an even number of consecutive negative signs, then the result is

Try this! Simplify: − (− (− (5))).

(click to see video)

20. The absolute value of a number

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 14

Also, it is worth noting that

Example 7: Simplify: −|| − (−7)||.

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 15

there are two answers, one positive and one negative.

Now consider the following:

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 16

• Any real number can be associated with a point on a line.

1.1 Real Numbers and the Number Line 17

Part A: Real Numbers

Use set notation to list the described elements.

1. The hours on a clock.