TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

1. GENERAL:

To know what question to ask and what to look for, you must have some fundamental bearing on accidents
and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what you mean – SOMETHING WENT
WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody injured or possibly killed.

In this relation, as traffic law enforcers, you should have knowledge of traffic accidents and their
investigations.

2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION DETERMINES THE FOLLOWING:

a. WHAT happened?
b. WHO were involved?
c. WHERE did it happen?
d. WHY did it happen?
e. HOW did the accident occur?
f. WHEN did the accident happen?

3. PURPOSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION:

Accidents are generally investigated for four (4) main reasons, depending on who does the investigation:

a. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
b. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the accident to
take enforcement action.
c. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers involved in the
accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
d. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know how to prevent future accidents.

4. DEFINITIONS:

a. TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by combustion system or
animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
b. ACCIDENT – is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces unintended injury, death, or
property damage.
c. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
d. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – is any event that results in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Included are:

1. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;

2. Fires;
3. Explosion;
4. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
5. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary rails or tracks;
6. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.

Excluded are:
1. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
2. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth surface);
3. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on or unloaded from
another conveyance.
 e. MOTOR VEHICLE – is every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by electric
power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
f. TRAFFIC WAY – is the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of which any part is open
to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom.
g. ROADWAY – the portion of a traffic way which is improved, designed or ordinarily used for vehicular travel,
exclusive of the shoulder.
h. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic
accident.
i. DEBRIS – is the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other materials left at the scene
of the accident by a collision.
j. SKID MARKS – are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate, usually because brakes
are applied strong and the wheels locked.
k. SCUFF MARKS – are signs left on the road by tires that are sliding or scrubbing while the wheel is still
turning.

5. KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

1. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
e.g. ordinarily collision between automobiles on a highway.

2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident – is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any place other than a
traffic way.
e.g. accident on a private driveway.

3. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using the traffic
way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in motion.
e.g. pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO KEY EVENT:

Running off road 1

Non-collision on road: Overturning 2
Other non-collision 3
Collision on road with: Pedestrian 4
Other motor vehicle in traffic 5
Parked motor 6
Railroad train 7
Bicycle 8
Animal 9
Fixed object 10
Other objects 11

7. CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY:

a. Property Damage Accident – is any motor vehicle accident where three is no fatal or injury to any person but
only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to animals.
b. Slight – accident causing slight damages to properties.
c. Non-Fata Injury Accident – any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than fatal to one or more
persons.
c.1 Less Serious – accidents causing less serious injuries to persons.
c.2 Serious – causing serious injuries to persons.
d. Fatal – any motor vehicle accidents that results in death to one or more persons.
8. TRAFFIC UNIT – is any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or driver,
including any vehicle, or animal, which he is using. It applies not only to motor vehicle but also to:

a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclists;
c. Street cars;
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination.

Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.

9. CAUSES OF MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

a. SIMULTANEOUS FACTORS:
1. Road conditions.
2. Drivers’ attitude or behavior
3. Weather condition.

b. SEQUENTIAL FACTORS:
1. Speed is greater or less than safe.
2. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)

c. OPERATING FACTORS:
1. Road hazards
2. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.

d. PERCEPTION FACTORS:
1. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
2. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.

HAZARDS – A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic unit and another object
develops due to the movement of either or both. Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic
unit in the path is also a hazard.

SAFE SPEED – The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic situation ahead. Safe
speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve
ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.

PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – Seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the unusual or unexpected movement or
condition that could be taken as a sight of an accident about to happen.

10. CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT:

For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may usually be described well enough as a single occurrence
but when accident is investigated, attention is directed to particular stages of the occurrence.

In fact, an accident may be usually defined as a series of an expected events leading to damage or injury.
One event usually leads to another so that the series can be spoken of as a “chain of events”. Some of these events
are described below:

a. Perception of hazard – is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected movement
or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to happen.
 b. Start of evasive action – is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course or otherwise
avoid a hazard.
c. Initial Contact – is a first accidental touching of an object collision course of otherwise avoid a hazard.
d. Maximum Engagement – is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision the force between the traffic unit and
the object collided with - are greatest at maximum engagement.
e. Disengagement – is separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collided. Force
between the object ceases at this time.
f. Stopping – is coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
g. Injury – is receiving bodily harm.

POINT OF NO ESCAPE – is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented by the traffic
unit under consideration.

FINAL POSITION – is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to rest without application
of power.

OVER ALL PICTURE OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

* CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT

Perception of hazard

Start of evasive action

Initial Contact

Maximum Engagement
Point of no escape

Disengagement

Stopping

Final
Position
Injury

FIVE (5) LEVELS OF ACTIVITY IN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

a. Reporting
 b. At-scene investigation
c. Technical, preparation
d. Professional reconstruction\
e. Cause analysis

11. STEPS TO BE TAKEN BY THE POLICE AS A TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER DURING TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

STEP ONE

UPON LEARNING OF ACCIDENT:

A. ASKED FIRST:
1. When did the accident happen?
2. Exactly where was it?
3. How bad was it?
4. Did you see the accident happened?
5. Where can you be reached?

B. DECIDE WHETHER TO GO TO THE SCENE:

1. Will scene have been cleared by the time of arrival?
2. Is it in investigator’s area?
3. Should headquarters’ be informed or consulted?

C. THEN FIND OUT, IF NECESSARY:

1. Is traffic blocked?
2. Has ambulance been called?
3. Has wrencher been called?
4. Was fire apparatus called?

STEP TWO

A. UPON ARRIVAL AT THE SCENE OF ACCIDENT:

1. Select parking place carefully.
2. Is it safe?
3. Will it block traffic?
4. Can headlight illuminate scene?
5. Look over bystanders and others.
6. Look for drivers.
7. Look for possible witnesses.
8. For volunteers who will help you.
9. Get them under control
10. Have spilled gasoline guarded.
11. Look for fire and electrical hazards.
12. Look for traffic hazards.
13. Put out flares.
14. Ask helper to direct traffic
15. Keep bystanders off roadway.
16. Request help from headquarter if needed.

B. ARRANGE FOR ANY HELP:

START FOR THE SCENE: With two way radio, you can do two things while on the way.

Step 1
 a. CHOOSE BEST APPROACH: Consider:
1. Time
2. Possible traffic jams
3. Possible route of driver involved and
4. Probable situation at scene.

b. DRIVE SAFELY:
Get there safely, if you get involved in accident yourself then other units must be used.

c. BE ALERT FOR CARS LEAVING SCENE:

1. As possible witnesses or hit and run drivers.
2. Records registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.

d. GET EQUIPMENT READY FOR USE:

So far as practical on the way.

e. LOOK FOR CONDITIONS CONFRONTING A DRIVER APPROACHING SCENE:

1. Low visibility view obstructions, and
2. Traffic control devices.

f. NOTE HAZARDS TO APPROACHING TRAFFIC:

1. Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary
2. Look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined, collected or
located.

Step 2

1. Look for congestion or potential congestions.

2. Direct traffic or have it directed.
3. CARE FOR INJURED:
a. Stop arterial bleeding
b. Call for help if necessary
c. Help injured from cars safely
d. Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from any where.

4. LOCATE DRIVERS:
1. Consider possibility of hit and run accident and need to alert headquarters.

2. Look for witnesses at scene, arrange to question and get names and addresses.

5. Measure location or short lived evidences.

6. Arrange for clearing roadway.
7. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.

Step 3

WHEN EMERGENCY IS UNDER CONTROL

a. PRELIMINARY QUESTIONING OF DRIVERS:

1. Who was driving each vehicle?
2. Note unpremeditated statement.
 3. Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.

b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars.

1. Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go.
2. It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find later.

c. Examine drivers conditions

1. Get specimen for chemical test.
2. Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.

d. Question drivers carefully

1. Check license and record data from it.
2. Verify and identify address.
3. Check registration and record data.
4. Verify ownership and correct address.
5. Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.

e. Position and condition of vehicles.

1. Note lights and light switches
2. Note gear position and tires.
3. Mark position of vehicles if it must be removed.
4. Look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.

f. From preliminary opinion as to how accident occur:

g. Photography:
1. Photograph skidmark and location of vehicles.
2. Mark skidmark location for later measurement.

h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.

Step 4

AFTER GETTING SHORT-LIVED EVIDENCES:

1. Make test skids.

2. Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest.
3. If so, make arrest or issue citation.
4. Get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene.
5. Have road clear if traffic is obstructed.

a. Suggestion to drivers:
1. How much accidents can be avoided in the future.
2. Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
3. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved.

b. Look for:
1. View obstructions.
2. Traffic control devices, etc.
3. Probable points of perception.
4. Road surface conditions.
c. Complete examinations of vehicles.
d. Locate key event of accident.
e. Make additional photographs of vehicle damage.
1. Vehicle damage
 2. View obstruction
3. Pavement’s conditions
4. Control devices, and general view, etc.

f. Establish exact location of accident and record it.

g. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
h. Review notes of evidence or testimony.
1. Get additional facts at scene.
2. Identify all notes with places and time.

i. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.

j. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.

Step 5

AFTER LEAVING THE SCENE

a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.

b. Question drivers or witnesses:
1. At hospital or home if not adequately questioned.
2. Take need additional statements.
c. Notify:
1. Relatives of dead or injured;
2. Owner of vehicles.

d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical / laboratory test.

e. Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.

f. Complete the report of the accident.

1. Have copies made if necessary
2. File report and copies

g. Complete factual data on investigation report if not completed at scene.

h. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for making it.
i. Reconstruction of the accident.
1. Estimate speeds of vehicles involved.
2. Draw scale diagram
3. Analyze angle of collision
4. Get technical help if necessary, and
5. Summarize opinions

j. Present case summary to a lawyer.

k. Complete report or investigation (file reports and notes).
l. Submit to superior for approval.
m. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which needs attention for safety.

Step 6

IF CASE GOES TO COURT

a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.

b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following:
 1. Additional photographs of general scene and
2. Long-lived evidence
3. Measure for scale diagram for use in court.
4. Locate additional witnesses and review tier testimony.
4.1 Relatives and friends who confirm activities before the accident.
4.2 Technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.
1.3 And experts who can help.

c. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court

d. Have large scale diagram made for use in court.

e. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.

f. Insure that subpoenas are issued

g. Testify in court.

h. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.

i. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers record and other reports.

12. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORT

a. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.

b. Preparation of Traffic Accident report

1. By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
2. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence gathered, diagrams,
sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
3. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies:
3.1. For the Court or Prosecutor’s Office;
3.2. For TRAFCOM;
3.3. For the Investigator
3.4. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
3.5. For the Insurance company of Party-involved #2.

13. PARTIAL CHECK LIST FOR INVESTIGATING ACCIDENTS:

The following check list will assist the accident investigation to evaluate the quality of his investigations. It
may be used as an administrative tool to determine the quality of accident investigation that will be used as a standard.
 (Check One)
STEPS IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT : : Yes : : No :
INVESTIGATION : Good : Fair : Poor : :

I. Get to Scene Quickly and Safely

1. Respond Immediate to Call : : : : :

2. Drove carefully on way : : : : :
3. Parked properly at scene : : : : :

II. Care for Injured

1. Made immediate inquiry for

injuries : : : : :
2. Provide first aid, or for
medical attention : : : : :
3. Handled injured properly : : : : :
4. Safeguard properly injured : : : : :

III. Safeguard Scene

1. Took precautions to prevent further

accident : : : : :
2. Prove for orderly handling of traffic : : : : :
3. Obtained required help in handling
the accident : : : : :
4. Prevented destruction of evidence : : : : :
5. Parked car properly : : : : :
IV. Determine if Hit-and-run

1. Quickly located drivers : : : : :

2. Observed condition of drivers : : : : :
3. “Listened” to drivers’ story : : : : :
4. Took notes on drivers’ story : : : : :
5.”Questioned” drivers about the
accident : : : : :

V. Seek and Interview Witnesses

1. Made proper search for witnesses : : : : :

2. Techniques used in search for
witnesses : : : : :

3. Approached witnesses : : : : :
4. “Listened” to witness’ story : : : : :
5. “Questioned” witnesses on pertinent
information : : : : :
6. Asked witnesses to write out his
statement : : : : :
7. Asked for witnesses’ signatures to
statements taken : : : : :
8. “Handled” witnesses interview
properly. : : : : :

VI. Examine Physical Evidence

1. Checked position of vehicles on

roadway : : : : :
2. Checked traffic control devices : : : : :
3. Checked damage of vehicles : : : : :
4. Checked brakes of vehicles : : : : :
5. Checked obstruction to view : : : : :
6. Checked condition of roadway : : : : :
7. Checked marks and materials on
roadway surface. : : : : :

VII. Compare Statements of Drivers and Witnesses

1. Checked statement against each

other : : : : :
2. Checked with drivers and / or
witnesses on statements inconsistent
with each other or physical condition : : : : :
3. Decision at this point, tentatively at
least on any violation of law involved : : : : :

VIII. Witnesses Repeat Statement In Presence of Drivers and Investigator

1. Brought drivers and witnesses together : : : : :

2. Stories repeated in presence of each
drivers and investigator : : : : :
3. Drivers permitted to reply to statement
made : : : : :
4. Procedure handled tactfully by investigator : : : : :
 IX. Secure Written Statement of Drivers

1. Drivers asked to write out their story : : : : :

2. Drivers asked to sign statement they made : : : : :
3. Signed statement obtained : : : : :
4. Procedure handled efficiently by
investigators : : : : :

X. Take Photograph and Measurements

1. Proper photograph taken : : : : :

2. Tire and skid marks tied in with vehicles : : : : :
3. Marked properly measurement : : : : :
4. Diagram of accident made, both drivers
signed it : : : : :

XI. Take Appropriate Enforcement Action

1. Investigator identified violations involved : : : : :

2. Proper charges placed against the violator : : : : :
3. Evidence obtained to satisfy all elements
of charge made : : : : :
4. Investigator detected all pertinent evidence : : : : :

XII. Obtain Complete Factual Data

1. All pertinent data on accident obtained. : : : : :

2. All obtained data factual : : : : :
3. “On the Scene” notes taken by investigators : : : : :
4. Complete investigation made by investigators: : : : :

XIII. Pre-Report Follow-up

1. Mechanical inspection of vehicles was made : : : : :
2. Participants not at scene, interviewed : : : : :
3. Witnesses not at scene, interviewed : : : : :
4. All other follow-up requirements made : : : : :
XIV. Write up Report

1. Investigator obtained sufficient data : : : : :

2. Investigator obtained accurate data : : : : :
3. Proper diagram included in report : : : : :
4. Sound opinions also included in the report : : : : :
5. Finished report meets of department records : : : : :

SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

SKIDMARKS - The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition places such a great
pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the frictional
force between the tire and the road surface. When this condition exists, the wheels skid.
 One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skid marks at the scene of a traffic accident is to get some idea
how fast the car which left these marks was going prior to the accident.

Estimates of speed based on skid marks sometimes lead to convictions in connection with an accident. On the other
hand, knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent person from being convicted.

For example, skid marks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid made 20 miles per hour
showed 20 feet long skid marks.

It was argued in court that with skid marks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must be going 80
miles per hour to leave 80 feet skid marks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was more nearly half of that, or
40 miles per hour.

SKIDMARKS AS EVIDENCE IN ACCIDENT CASES

Skid marks are useful in several ways:

1. Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2. It will show if the vehicle was travelling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side of the road.
3. It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.

SKIDMARKS DO NOT SHOW ALL THE SPEED

Skid marks never show all of the speed of a car before the accident happened. They show only how far the car would
have had to slide to stop in the distance shown by skid marks.

Evidence of additional speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated from skid marks because
in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skid marks, the car also losses some of its speed on one or more
of the following ways:

1. SLIDING WITH ONE OR MORE WHEELS BEFORE ANY SKIDMARKS BEGIN TO APPEAR.

Dark clear skid marks do not appear until the tires have slid far enough to got hot enough to smear
rubber or scar on the pavement. This is less true on such materials as gravel and dirt.

2. BRAKING WITHOUT SKIDDING

Before sliding begins

During gaps
After marks and before the car comes to rest

Usually, braking just the wheels start to slide actually shows the car more than after the wheels starts to
slide.

3. DRAGGING THE CAR AS IT HITS SOME OBJECT

The crumpling ands mashing some of parts of the car slows the car down rapidly.

4. DAMAGING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS

5. SLIDING OTHER CARS OR OBJECTS ALONG THE ROADWAY.

6. VAULTING OR BOUNCING UP INTO THE AIR.

 In many accident of course, other is evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there
are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough to lock the wheels.

In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skid marks maybe only two or three feet
long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. Whereas, the wreckage tells us that the total speed may
have been ten times as great.

In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skid marks may come close to
showing how fast he car was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.

In any accident in which great damage was done will skid marks show more than small part of the speed, often a very
minor part of it; but if the skid marks have been rightly identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster than
the speed calculated from the skid marks, much faster if there was considerable damage.

THINGS THAT DETERMINE SKIDDING DISTANCE

How far a car will take to skid or slide to stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many things. Three of these
factors are important, and you must consider them in every estimate of speeds based on skid marks.

1. SPEED ITSELF IS BY FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT

2. SLIPPERINESS OF THE PAVEMENT
3. GRADE OR SLOPE OF THE ROAD UP OR DOWN.

Every driver knows, of course, that it takes much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery, and that he can stop
more quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road.

Of many other factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect. Most of them will affect a
calculated speed by only a few miles per hour. They therefore have a little effect on the speed calculated form the skid marks
usually not more than a couple of miles per hour.

Among those other factors are the following:

1. BRAKE PEDAL PRESSURE

When wheels are actually sliding, additional brake pedal pressure will not make the stop any quicker.
Once the wheels have been locked and the car is sliding, the brakes have done all they can in slowing the car and
the grab of the pavement on the tires is what determines how fast the car will slow down.

2. WEIGHT OF THE CAR

Makes a great difference in stopping distance before the wheels lock, but once they have locked, it
makes a very little difference. It is true that it takes much greater pressure to lock the wheels on a vehicle when it
is heavily loaded than it is empty. However, when the wheels are once locked, a greater weight of the vehicle,
which gives it greater momentum, also causes it to press harder on the road surface and therefore, give it a
corresponding greater drag from the pavement.

3. TIRE TREAD

On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with a deep tread pattern will stop the car in about
the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly on ice, a smooth tread is better because it distributes the
weight over greater area.

4. AIR PRESSURE
 Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance. On ice, for example, soft tire will distribute the
weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.

5. TIRE MATERIAL

There is a slight difference between tires made of synthetic and those made of natural rubber.

6. ROAD SURFACE

Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires equipped with chains have a better road-gripping
capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains may decrease road gripping capacity.

7. DIRECTION OF SLIDES

Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise except in materials so soft that it
ploughs or sinks.

8. TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR AND ROAD SURFACE

Make some difference. In general, on ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping
distance. This is not necessary on ice and snow.

9. AGAINST A HEAD WIND

A car will slide a little farther from given speed with a tall wind than against a head wind, but this is not a
matter of great importance.

For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to consider those minor factors in establishing speeds
from skid marks.

SPEED ESTIMATES

Because the minor factors are neglected, we can not calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the
minor factors would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly balance or cancel out.

Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed. Remember, in this connection, that skid marks do
not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater than your estimate.

FACTS NEEDED

To make a reasonably good estimate of speed, certain facts are needed. There must come from observations and
measurements at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of ht estimate or calculation depends upon the accuracy of these
observations and measurements.

LENGTH OF SKIDMARKS

Consider the following:

1. Be sure they are skid marks – not just tire marks.

2. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is sliding forward or sidewise.
3. Are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a release of brake pedal pressured and not
skids caused by bounced.

4. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves; it may not make straight from beginning to the end in the
shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths for each skid marks. One of these is based on the part
of the skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you speed which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The
others is a possible skid mark which will give you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second
is often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in the accident.

5. Use the length that the wheel skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are considered as one wheel,
and the skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.

There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind of pavement. These are:

1. STRAIGHT LINE

A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skid marks do not go off to one side of the front wheel skid
marks.

Use the length of the longest skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This method is possible because
all wheels slide about the same distance. We know that the brakes definitely have been applied throughout the entire
distance of the longest skid mark.

If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide when the others began. The drag
on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it begins to slide as when it is actually sliding. It may even
be greater.

Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as mush as if there were sliding wheel
skid applies to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and buses as well as ordinary motor vehicles.

2. SPIN

A slide is considering a spin if both rear wheel skid marks do get off to one side of the front wheel skid marks.
Take the length of each skid marks minus gaps. Add the skid mark length for all wheels and divide the numbers of
wheels.

This method is necessary in the case of the spins, because some of ht wheels slid much farther than other;
that is, one end of the car may practically stand still while the other sweeps around it.

Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear wheels; that is usually for
ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels.
Uneven weight with a spin is a situation, which requires special calculations.

This method gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to compute it more
accurately than to the nearest foot. For this length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one a
possible distance.

Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators may:

1. Fail to show whether all wheel slid.

2. Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as well as that more clearly shown by the
smear of the hot fire.

3. Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skid marks.
 4. Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each wheel. This usually includes the wheel
base of the car with the result that the sliding distance appears to be length longer than it really is.

5. Fail to note whether the skid marks are straight or a spin.

6. Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve skid marks rather than around its length.

If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the distance the car slid. For legal purposes,
you may assume only what may be true beyond responsible doubt. Hence, poor observations and measurements often leave
you little value to go on.

Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more definitely observed in investigations may be
very helpful in coming to a conclusion about what probably happened.

1. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION – DRAG FACTOR

It is the measurement of the maximum frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted
when the wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.

Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from skid marks. We tell what this
slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00. When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on puts a
friction drag on sliding tire that slows the car.

A slippery movement creates a small friction drag and an abrasive pavement a big drag. If we divide the
amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of the car in the pounds, we get the number that describes the
slipperiness.

EXAMPLE:

The drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of an automobile is 3, 000 lbs.. The automobile
weights 4, 000 lbs.. The number representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is then 3,
000 divided by 4, 000 or 0.75.

This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION”. You
can measure the drag factor of a pavement by making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement
while stopping from a known speed.

The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we let “S” stand for the
speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made and “D” the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop,
then the drag factor, which we call “F” will be:

F = S2 / 30 (D)

The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in feet (transformation of
feet per second to miles per hour). It is called a constant because it stayed the same in all problems for which the
formula is used.

Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided by 30 times the
stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.

EXAMPLE::

On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in the formula, and doing the arithmetic
involved, we have:
 F = S2 / 30 (D) = 302 = 900 / 30 (40) = 0.75 / 1, 200

Using a chart, which was especially designed to represent this formula, is much easier than doing the
arithmetic for it. To use it:

1. Locate the test stopping distance on the D scale at the left.

2. Locate the test speed on the S scale in the middle.

3. Draw a straight line through these two points and extend to the right until it crossed the F scale at the right.

4. Read the friction drag on the F scale.

It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly made. You are unlikely
to do it right without special instruction or experience.

At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each. Unless there are within 0.05
each other friction calculated from any of several test skids made on the same paving. This is necessary if you want to
be sure beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.

Test skids made the same car that was in the accident are the best. They thus take care of some o the
minor factors such as the weight of the car, the tire material, the tread pattern, tire pressure and therefore , make the
estimate more reliable.

2. GRADE FOR SLOPE (GRADIENT)

So far, we have been talking only about level roads. You can stop more quickly if you are going uphill than
on a level road. But it will take to longer to stop when going downhill. Hence, the slope or grad of the road should also
be considered.

Grade is measured by a number that is also usually less than 1.00. The measure of the grade is the number
of the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.

To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance. It is not necessary to carry this divisions
more than two places to the right of the decimal.

USE THIS FORMULA:

f = horizontal distance / vertical rise or fall

Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires. The drag factor or coefficient of friction of a
pavement of a given description may vary considerably because quite a variety of road surfaces maybe described in
the same way.

Some of these variations are due to the weight of the vehicles, air pressure in the tire, treated design, air
temperature, speed and some other factors.

REACTION TIME

This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes:

a. Divide seconds in an hour (3, 600) into feet in a mile (5, 280) = 1, 467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times the speed which
you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on the average. The age
of the driver should be considered.
 d. 1.5 x speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.

PROCEDURE FOLLOWED BY THE PNP

a. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skid marks and the Court interprets the facts
in the light of other evidence.
1. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.
2. Measurements should be accomplished by two men.
3. Sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon after the accident.

b. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal speed limit, if this can be done
safely, and compare the skid marks with those in the accident.
c. Some would draw conclusions from tests on physical calculation.

MEASUREMENT OF SKIDMARKS

a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skid marks and the distances to embankment of other fixed
constructions should verify each other’s measurements so that they can corroborate each other’s testimony in
court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skid marks were made by the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN CALCULATING SPEEDS FROM SKIMARKS:

Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed of the vehicle
increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the ration of the increase in speed.

EXAMPLES:

20 kph = 40

30 kph = 90

40 kph = 160
STOPPING A MOTOR VEHICLE

Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy that it possesses at that time must be expended or spent. It is only
when most or all of the vehicle’s energy is expended through skidding of tires that a fairly accurate calculation may be made of
the vehicle’s speed before the accident.

TEST RUNS

In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the
vehicle involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar characteristics may be used.

a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred. The character of the road, whether wet
or dry, should be the same.
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle’s speedometer should be checked, and any difference from accurate calibrations should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected for the test run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the car is moving at the selected test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately determined using such equipment,
either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The test producing the longest braking
distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally used in the calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it may be advisable to have the driver of the
accidents vehicle drive the car in the test runs.

SPEED CALCULATION

a. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the
skid by using the formula based on the principle that the skidding or braking distance vary as the square of the speed.

FORMULAS USED IN FINDING SPEED ESTIMATES:

The following are some of the formulas being used in conducting reconstruction, particularly the speed
estimates (mph) to wit:

01. S = 5.5 . / DF = (speed on a level road)

02. S = 5.5. / DF = uphill or downhill
03. D = S2 / 30 F = Skid marks
04. F = S2 / 30 D = Drag Factor

WHERE:

S = speed (mph)
F = coefficient of friction (drag factor)
f = grade (1, 2, 4) or super elevation
D = distance (feet)

b. When accident vehicle cannot be driven.

When the vehicle is damaged so badly that if cannot be driven, part of the vehicle’s energy is expended in
damaging the car and the object struck.

A calculation of speed form skid marks left under these circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount of
energy expended in the skidding.
 Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual pre-accident speed, since it is
not possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would have skidded had there been no collision.

HIT AND RUN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The objectives of the investigation of motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the participants in are two fold.
First, responsibility for the collision must be determined and secondly, the identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene
must be established.

What is Hit and Run Case?

Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the
duties required (Sec. 55 of RA 4136). Further, it states that no driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle accident shall
leave the scene of the accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the following circumstances:

a) If the driver is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of the accident;
b) If the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
c) If the driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

TWO IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic considerations must be kept in mind. These are:

a) The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the driver responsible for the accident. His
reason for flight are often more important than the simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted for
another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.

b) The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as having been the result of another
hit-and-run accident in which some “other mysterious driver” fled without identifying himself. Similarly, it is
not unusual for the hit-and-run driver to abandon his vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of covering
up his involvement in the accident.

As stated earlier, the basic objectives of these investigations are the identification of the driver who fled the scene. The
discovery and arrest of the driver, once identified generally comes after the location and of the vehicle.

However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always immediately establish the identity of the driver.

ELEMENTS OF HIT-AND-RUN CASES

a. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of the accident. Even if you have witnesses to prove this,
get evidence to disprove his alibi.
b. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to property.
c. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his identify to other person (s) involved, to police or to anyone at
the accident scene; or failed to take reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged property other than a vehicle.
Do not overlook the possibility of a simulated second accident to explain damaged caused by the first accident.
d. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.

1. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.

2. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If
suspect refrained from using his vehicle for several days since the accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
3. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

CLASSES OF HIT-AND-RUN DRIVERS

a. Drunk drivers
 b. Criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime.
c. Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers with no license or with revoked or expired license.
d. Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e. Ignorance of the accident.
f. Driver who flees in panic
g. Drug addicts.
h. Insurance or financial reasons.
i. Juveniles.

PRELIMINARY STEPS

a. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.

b. Obtain the best possible description of the car and driver.

1. A good description may be obtained from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
2. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
3. Concentrate on the car’s description first
4. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the Headquarters and to police
agencies that may assist in spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.
5. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and river to all police units and offices.
6. Try to determine the damage to the feeling car.

c. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.

d. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.

1. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from hit-and-run car,
other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator ornament, etc.
2. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
3. Request laboratory study of evidence.
4. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the accident. This has
been known to happen.

e. The Victim
1. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire marks, grease, paint chips, fragments, and such
things that might have been left on him by the suspect car.
2. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at the morgue and samples of
hair, skin, etc.
3. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items he was
wearing at the time of the accident.