WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN

GOVERNANCE IN INDIA

D. RAVINDRA PRASAD

Jn an urbanising world women constituting halfthe population

have a very limited role in urban governance-policy and
df!cision-making as they are not adequately and appropriately
represented in the urban local bodies. The 74th Constitution
Amendment Act, 1992 for the first time provided one-third
representation to women in urban local self-government
institutions. This has raised the question as to what key role
they could play in urban governance. This article examines
the role of women mayors, chairpersons and councillors in
city s development and local gover,iance. It argues that there
is no dijference between men and women mayors, chairpersons
and councillors as regards their formal roles. There are areas,
however, where women can play a catalytic role in promoting
the causes of social development including women and child
development. The number of women in the council though
critical is not sufficient enough to neither impact the policies
and decisions nor empower women. It requires capacity
enhancement to build awareness, training, sharpening their
skills, motivation and building confidence, and to engage in
general and gender-based urban governance issues.

INTRODUCTION

THE WORLD is urbanising and is projected to grow to two-thirds of total

population by 2050 from its present 54 per cent. 1 Women constitute half
the world as well as in urban population. Despite their large numbers they
have a very limited role to play in urban governance-policy and decision
making as they are not adequately and appropriately represented in the
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Though the functions and working of ULBs

1United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanisation

Prospects - Highlights, New York, p. 1, 2014.

 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 421
D. RAVINDRA PRASAD

affect every man and woman, the latter has no or very minimal role as they
are under-represented in leadership positions in local government
institutions until recently. They do not have a role to influence local
decisions resulting in inadequate access to services. This necessitates
measures to provide equal representation in the municipal councils. As
the municipal councils are closest to the community they are the best places
to involve women in local policy and decision-making so as to enable
them to participate in the policies and decisions that impact provision of
civic services and quality of life. Several factors including discrimination,
family burdens, financial constraints to contest to councils, cultural factors,
etc., come in the way of women participation. The political empowerment
requires transfonnation of existing political structures and processes that
are more responsive to women.
Several International organisations champion the cause of equal
representation to women in policy and decision-making bodies at national
and local levels, but the progress has been slow. 2 The United Nations has
been playing a pivotal role for greater representation and participation of
women in local development. The UN's Economic and Social Council
passed a resolution in 1990 recommending increased proportion of women
in leadership positions-30 per cent by 1995 and 50 per cent by 2000. 3
The third Millennium Development Goal adopted by the UN in 2000 directs
promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women which is critical
for women participation in policy and decision-making )evels and all other
goals like eradication of poverty, child and maternal health, environmental
sustainability, etc., also relate to women in one form or the other and
significantly impact them more than men.4 International agency's efforts
to formulate gender sensitive schemes and projects for aid sharpened the
focus on women's participation in community level projects like water. 5
Women's participation in municipal councils will enable them to influence
policies and decisions to ensure prioritisation of services and allocation of
resources to provide access to the poor and needy equitably and efficiently.
They can also participate in monitoring and evaluation for their continued
access to services and sustainability.

2Federation of Canadian Municipalities, Promoting Women's Leadership in Local

Government: Local Government Associations Help Women Meet the Challenge, Ottawa,
3/bid. p.3.
4 For details of the Goals see http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/

mdgoverview.html
5Priyam Das, "Women's Participation in Community Level Water Governance in Urban

India: The Gap between Motivation and Ability", World Development, Vol. 64, pp. 206-
218, 2014.
428 I INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
VOL. LX, NO. J, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2014

As the World Declaration on Women in Local Governance, 1998 noted

that the problems and challenges facing humanity are global but occur and
have to be dealt with at the local level. Women have the equal right to
freedom from poverty, discrimination and insecurity.6 To fight these
problems and to meet the challenges of sustainable human development, it
is critical that women are empowered and involved in local governments
as decision-makers, planners and managers.7 This apart, in many countries
women predominate in urban informal economy where they pursue
survivalist activities. The economic contribution of these women has
remained largely un-acknowledged and on-measured. In many cases urban
laws do not address women's work needs near home or elsewhere. This
failure to support to women's active contribution can negatively affect the
urban economy as a whole.8 A number of countries have passed legislations
to facilitate women's participation in governance. Women's formal
involvement in local governance in some regions can be seen from the
Fig. 1. From the Fig. 1 it is clear that in most regions, gender equality
remains a major challenge for participation in formal local government
politics. It is also clear that in transitional countries women participation
is higher than in others.9 In most regions, gender equality remains a major
challenge for participation in formal local government politics.

Africa
Ar.'lbStatcs
Asia-Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
HIC
Transition

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% SO% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

•Female •Male

Fla I: WOMEN'S INVOLVEMENT IN FORMAL URBAN POSmONS

SouRcE: Urban Governance: Women in Leadership, p.103.
Nora: Women's involvement in formal urban politics is defined as the number of
elected and of nominated local government representatives, per 10,000 metropolitan
residents. It is shown in this graph as a percentage for both men and women in order to
appreciate the gap between both sexes.

6 IULA Worldwide Declaration on Women in Local Government, See http://

www.rgre.de/hg_iula_women.html
7UN-HABITAT, Policy Paper on Women in Urban Governance, p.5, 2000.

'UN-HABITAT, Policy Dialogue No.I, Cities, Women in Urban Governance, p. 7, 2001.

'Urban Governance: Women in Local Leadership, lcweb2.Joc.gov/ammem/ndlpedu/
features/women/equal.html
 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 429
D. RA VJNDRA PRASAD

Urbanisation Trends-India
India's urbanisation trends present a picture of contrasts and
complexities in tenns of size, pace, pattern and consequences to overall
development. In 2011 the urban population of India stood at 377 million
constituting 31.16 per cent of the total population. Census of India projected
that by 2026 the urban population would be 470 million constituting 33.4
per cent of total population. But by 2011, the urban population crossed
Census projections of 30 per cent. The 12th Five Year Plan estimated that
by 2031 India's urban population would be about 600 millions; an increase
of over 200 miliion in the next two decades. 10 The United Nations projected
that the urban population would reach 37 per cent by 2025 and cross 50
per cent by 2050. 11 In absolute tenns the urban population would cross
525 and 814 miliion in 2025 and 2050 respectively.12 Urban growth is
bound to lead to economic, social and ecological disruptions, adversely
impacting living conditions of urban population, poor in particular. This
also results in pressure on the delivery/provision of basic needs. For
example, over 30 per cent households do not have access to tap water in
their premises and depend on alternate sources; over 20 per cent do not
have access to personal or public toilets, over 55 per cent households do
not have closed drains and many release waste water into the open areas
and over two-third households do not have sewerage connection and leave
toilet waste water into septic tanks or open drains. Proliferation of slums, 13
growth of informal sector, increasing casualisation and under-employment,
crushing pressure on civic services; deprivation of educational and health
facilities, growing sense of helplessness, leading to crime and violence.
Women are the worst sufferers in the absence of access to basic services.
Reservations for Women
The 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts, 1992 (CAAs) for
the first time widened the base to provide representation to hitherto under
represented or unrepresented categories of the community, including
women, in rural and urban local self-government institutions. This has
raised the question as to what key role women could play in rural and
urban governance. This article examines reservations to women in ULBs

10Govemmcnt of India, Planning Commission, The Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012 ·2017):

Economic Sectors, Vol. II, Sage Publications India Private Limited, New Delhi, para.
18. I.
11 United Nations, World Urbanisation Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Population

Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, File 2, New York, 2014.
12/bid., File 3.

1iGovemment of India , Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (2008),

Report of the Committee on Slum Statistics/Census, New Delhi.

430 I INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
VOL. LX, NO. 3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2014

under 74th Amendment and the role of women mayors, chairpersons and
councillors in city's development and local governance. It argues that there
is no difference between men and women mayors, chairpersons and
councillors as regards their formal roles, they are similar. There are areas,
however, where women can play a catalytic role in promoting the causes
of social development including women and child development. This also
argues that traditional bias against women and their inability to govern
should pave the way for positive thinking.
The debate regarding reservations for women in local bodies is not
new. In fact, reservations for women and other categories were on the
political agenda even during the nationalist movement. After Independence,
though provisions were made in the Municipal Acts for reservation of seats
for SCs and STs, for women and backward classes, provision was made
for nominations to ensure their representation in the local bodies. It was
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee that recommended reservations to women
through cooption in 1957 in Panchayati Raj Institutions. Later, efforts were
made to reserve a percentage of seats for women in different states though
the percentage varied from state to state. For example, in Andhra Pradesh
there was no provision for reservation in the Municipalities Act, 1965 but
in 1981 five per cent reservation was provided and it was increased to nine
per cent in 1986. The Government of Kamataka made a provision for 25
per cent reservation for women in local bodies. In Maharashtra 30 per cent
seats in all the ULBs were reserved for women in 1990. Similarly, the
Government of Kerala reserved 30 per cent seats for women in the district
councils. The 73rd and 74th CAAs provided one-third reservation for
women. Based on the experience gained over two decades, the Government
of India proposed 50 per cent reservation for women in rural and urban
local bodies. There are many programmes in the formal and informal sector
which promoted women's participation in local development like urban
basic services to poor (UBSP), 14 development of women and children in
urban areas (DWCUA), community contracting system for women groups,
self-help groups, Kudumbashree in Kerala, 15 etc., with different degrees
of success in mobilising women and their participation in local planning
and development.

••see Poverty Alleviarion through Community Participation - UBSP, India, http://

www.unesco.org/most/asial2.htm. See alsoD.Ravindra Prasad and H.Srikanth,
"Implementation of Basic Services Programme: A Case Study of Andhra Pradesh, Nagarlok,
Vol. XXVIII. No. 2, April-June, 1996, pp. 32-43.
15Jacob John, A Study on Kudumbashree Projecr - Poverty Eradication P~ogramme in

Kerala: Performance, Impacts and Lessons for other States, Kerala Development Society,
New Delhi, 2009.
 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA / 431
D. RAVINDRA PRASAD

The reservation for women in the local bodies is aimed at securing

their active involvement and support in socio-economic development.
Reservations became imperative as in the normal process women were
reluctant to contest the elections either because of murkiness and violence
that often characterise electoral politics. A look at the number of women
in the Parliament would clearly indicate that there has not been any
substantial increase in the number of women Parliamentarians after
Independence. It is not different in state legislatures. In addition, apathy
of the political parties to nominate women to contest elections necessit~ted
reservations for women. Despite the rhetoric to reserve seats in the
political institutions by ~ifferent political parties, like many electoral
promises they remained unfulfilled either because women were
considered unsuitable for a political career or inexperienced. Politics
was perceived to add to the social responsibilities and burdens of the
women. It was also a popular belief that it was easy for men from the
socially disadvantaged groups to move upwards in the political ladder or
electoral politics than women with similar background. This brought out
the need for affirmative action to enable women to join the political
mainstream. Meeting women needs is critical to sustainable development
as women see development from different perspective than men. In
traditional Indian society women's interest are conventionally under-
represented in policies and planning.
The 74th CAA has laid foundations for the emergence of strong
bottom up women leadership who could climb the ladder to occupy
positions of power at the state and national levels. The 74th CAA, which
provided a constitutional status for ULBs in the country and considered
a revolutionary and radical legislation, provided reservation of one-third
of the strength of the council to women and also extended the same
principle of reservation to women in other categories like SCs, STs apart
from General category. The Act also provided one-third reservation for
women in the political executives, chairman/mayors of ULBs. This
enabled the women to participate in urban local governance in large
numbers than was the case earlier. These provisions provided
opportunities as also challenges for women to engage in local governance
though there are many constraints.
The 74th CAA entrusts, through the l2 1h Schedule, important
development functions to ULBs viz., urban planning, planning for socio-
economic development, slum improvement, urban poverty alleviation,
provision of basic amenities like roads, water supply, public health and
sanitation, protection of the environment, safeguarding the interests of the
weaker sections, etc., which have a major bearing on the development of
432 I INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
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women and children. 16 The ability of the local bodies to undertake these
functions, particularly those relating to poverty alleviation, safeguarding
the interests of the weaker sections would, to a great extent, depend on the
composition of the members of the councils who influence the local
decision-making process.
Reservations for women made a substantial difference in the composition
of the ULBs. For example, in Bombay Municipal Corporations there were
hardly five women corporators out of 170 but the reservations would increase
their number almost by 10 folds. In Andhra Pradesh, for example, there are
more than one thousand women councillors/corporators after 74th CAA
whereas their number was hardly one fourth or one-fifth before. There were
hardly a few chairpersons earlier whereas their number has increased by
two to three-folds after the 74th CAA. 17 Thus, for the first time a large
number of women's representatives are entering the council halls which were
hitherto forbidden for them for a variety of reasons. As a result, the
municipalities would now present a totally different picture both in terms of
number of women sitting in the council hall and also their socio-economic
background, political and administrative experience as well as their keenness
to participate actively in civic affairs. In PRls also, as the Second
Administrative Reforms Commission has noted, that as on 2006 over 36 per
cent women were elected to PRis, though reservations was only one-third. 18
The Second Administrative Reforms Commission noted that women
elected to panchayats and municipalities have performed very creditably
resulting in their empowerment. 19 The elected women representatives bring
along with them enthusiasm, encouragement and their contribution has
enriched quality of life of the communities. Still they encounter gender
bias, obstruction and exclusion:20 But the Standing Committee on Urban
Development noted that "the expected empowerment of women in decision-
maki ng process has not fully materialised", despite increased
representation. 21 Studies also show that representation in water management
projects enhanced women's self-confidence and developed their skills,

16Government of India, Ministry of Urban Development, The Constitution (74 1h

Amendment) Act, New Delhi, 1992.

17D. Ravindra Prasad and V.Gnaneswar, "741h Constitution Amendment Act: Conformity

Legislation in Andhra Pradesh", Urban India, Vol.XV, No.l, January-June, pp.79-100,

1995.
"Government oflndia, Second Administrative Reforms Commission, Local Governance
- An Enquiry into the Future, (Sixth Report), Para, 1.22
19/bid. para 3.1.3.6.
20 /bid. para 3.6.12.
21 Lok Sabha Secretariate, Standing Committee on Urban Development (2010), The

Constitution (One Hundred and Twelfth Amendment) Bill, New Delhi. p.1.2, 2009.
 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT lN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN £NOIA I 433
D. RA VINDRA PRASAD

despite negligible impact on project outputs. In others they have reduced

to tokenism. 22 These efforts provided a great understanding of the gap
between women's motivation to participate and their ability to do projects.
Bridging the gap is critical to strengthen women's role.
Constraints on Womens Work
The constraints to women representatives are many and varied and
include lack of clear understanding of the legal and governance processes-
M unici pal Acts, rules and regulations, urban administration, urban
development issues, etc. A majority of women councillors were first time
entrants into council halls and as they lack prior experiences they find it
difficult to work with local institutions. Lack of support from their
experienced male or in some cases even female colleagues in the council
and outside and lack of proper cooperation from municipal officials who
were mostly working only with men in the councils also makes their task
tough. Another problem is the lack of support from the political parties, as
also over all climate, which was not very encouraging and finally lack of
confidence in themselves, as they were associated with the political
processes for the first time. This was compounded by their role in family
management. With increasing urban population the political institutions
need responsive participation of women members.
Women face many difficulties regarding taking part in electoral politics.
Many, who were grafted into the political system, were mainly due to their
contacts with persons in positions of power. Decades of democratic
experience clearly indicates that unless reservations exist for women in
the political institutions at various levels, it would almost be impossible
for them to enter the political arena and play their part of the role in social
reconstruction, economic development and nation-building. No doubt
questions like how effective would women be in the local bodies? Would
they able to play a positive and constructive role to further the cause of
women's development? Will they support women's movement? These are
some of the questions that are often raised in the context of the 74th CAA.
The reservation has introduced a silent revolution in the local political
arena. This has called for actions at different levels to empower the women
councillors to enable them champion the cause of city development, in
general and women and child development, in particular.
In a male dominated society women's voice gets drowned in the din
created by men. Women councillors sometimes even face gender based
haras.sment and discrimination from public, colleagues, police and other

22Priyam Das, op. cit.

434 I INDlAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
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government officials as well. 23 There are many cases where women

councillors asserted their right and even threatened to lead agitation for
provision of services like water. There are also cases where they have
demanded exclusive time slot to discuss civic problems.24 With 50 per
cent reservation proposed women feel that they have a fair chance of being
taken seriously.
It is commonly believed that women are unable to make meaningful
contribution on municipal matters either due to illiteracy or lack of awareness.
But studies show that there was not much difference in the educational status
of men and women, thereby indicating other reasons like dominating role
played by the male members and presence of their husbands in municipal
meetings which nullifies the possibility of women's participation in local
governance. Often, non-member husbands' interference was identified as
negative factor. The other factors coming in the way of women's participation
is ignorance of Municipal Acts and rules, influential members ignoring
women's grievances and requests, factionalism, etc. Often women members
feel that due to these factors, they have not been able to be accountable to
the community which elected them and get disappointed and disillusioned
resulting in their non-participation.25
Functions and Roles
Municipal Acts governing their organisation and working specify the
functions of municipalities and municipal corporations. What role the
women can play in urban governance? Is their role different from that of
their male counterparts? Can they play any significant role in women's
development? Can they play any clear specific role? If so what are the
areas? These are some of the questions that are often raised. Experience
reveals that the chairpersons or councillors, whether they are men or women,
have broadly four important roles to play in ULBs viz., policy,
developmental, political and administrative.
Policy Role
Formulate development policies, prepare town development plans, take
decisions regarding the integration of spatial development planning with
economic development planning, lay down broad parameters for the future
growth of the towns, mobilise resources to undertake both obligatory and
23Pushpa Achanta, India - Women Municipal Councilors Challenges to Assertive

Leadership Goal of 50; 50. See http://www.wunm.com/news/2012/12_12/12_17/

l 2 l 712_india.htm
24Women Councillors assert themselves in Pudukottai Municipal Council, The Hindu,

Tiruchirapalli, August 31, 2013.

25 Rumi Aijaz, Challenges for Urban Local Governments in India, Asia Research Center,

London School Economics and Politics, London, p. 78, 2007.

 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 435
D. RAVJNDRA PRASAD

discretionary functions, undertake measures for assisting the weaker

sections, etc.
Development Role
Formulation, implementation and monitoring of development plans,
including those for the weaker sections, women, etc. is their responsibility.
Both national and state governments have articulated a number of
development programmes. Formulation of city action plans under these
schemes and ensuring their proper and effective implementation is a part
of their development role. They have also to mobilise their share of the
resources, to implement various plans and programmes wherever necessary.
Political Role
As peoples' representatives, the elected councillors are to be in constant
touch with their constituents to reflect their aspirations, needs and
perspectives in the articulation of town's development policies and plans.
They are the links between the electors and the urban local body. Apart
from this, as representatives of political parties they also have to undertake
political activities. Mayors, Chairpersons and Councillors are constantly
approached by their constituents with complaints ·or grievances relating to
the municipal functioning. As people's responsibilities, they have to attend
to their day-to-day problems and continuously establish rapport with the
community.
Administrative Role
Mayors, chairpersons and the chairpersons of standing and special
committees play important role in civic governance. Supervising the
functions of municipal officials in the implementation of development plans,
monitoring their progress, ensuring the proper implementation of municipal
laws and regulations, administrative coordination and convergence within
the municipality and with external agencies, liasoning with non-
governmental organisations, resolutions of conflicts in the management of
municipal affairs between the groups and communities, effective utilisation
of resources both internal and external, etc. are some of their administrative
roles. The mayors and chairpersons, who are directly elected and have a
term co-terminus with that of the council, will tend to have more of these
responsibilities. The UN-Habitat has brought out a series of handbooks on
the roles of the elected municipal councillors as policy-makers, decision-
makers, communicators, facilitators, enablers, leaders, institution builders,
power brokers, overseers, financiers, and negotiators. 26 Experience shows
that there is no difference in these roles between women and their
counterparts either as mayors or corporators.
26 See for details http://ww2.unhabitat.org/habrdd/cappubli.htm
436 I INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
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In recent years there has been a paradigm shift from urban governance to
good urban governance underpinning sustainability, decentralisation, equity,
efficiency, transparency and accountability, civic engagement and security.
Though the role and contributions of local councillors to achieve good urban
governance (GUG) is common to both men and women, there are specific
gender aspects that should be understood, as can be seen from the Table 1.27
TABLE 1: GOOD URBAN GOVERNANCE AND GENDER DIMENSIONS

# GUGFeature Gender Dimension

I Sustainability Access to basic services that allows women to pursue
livelihood strategies and manage their households
without getting into conflict with the local governments
2 Decentralisation Involvement of women in city planning processes and
management.
3 Equity Equity relates to representation and access to services
and resources.Much of the development resources
target men unless specific gender provisions are made.
4 Efficiency Effective delivery, targeting and financial performance
to help support women in their livelihood strategies
(water and toi1ets in the house), mobility (better public
transport), rights achievements (access to education
and health care) and participation.
5 Transparency Greater women participation of women in public life
reduces public sector corruption and increasing
women's engagement in public planning and debate
makes good governance sense, as it will bring about
greater probity and openness of public agencies.
Transparency promotes inclusiveness.
6 Accountability Transparency strengthens accountability-political,
administrative and social, of all actors and stakeholders
towards gender policies and their implementation.
7 Civic engagement Women's organisations play a crucial role in
advocating for better services for women. Local
authorities must encourage full engagement of women
citizens, especially from the poor and excluded groups,
for finding better ways of reaching services to poor.
8 Security Unsafe cities restrict women's mobility, putting a
ceiling on their contribution to urban economic
development. Violence against women, both at homes
and public spaces prevent women from full and equal
participation in social and public life. City planning
must redefine the rules to ensure cities become safer
for women.

27Renu Khosla, Addressing Gender Concerns in India s Urban Renewal Mission, United

Nations Development Programme (UNDP)), 2009.

 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT JN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 437
D. RA VINDRA PRASAD

Specific Role of Women Representatives

As representatives of ULBs, the councillors, have access to the resources
of the council and will be able to influence the councils decisions relating to
distribution of resources between wards and beneficiary groups. They take
up issues relating to women and demand resources for women and child
development. Their position and actions legitimise the cause of women and
children in the eyes of the community. Women feel free to approach the
women corporators/councillors. to represent their problems and grievances
with confidence and freedom. Women as a group exert pressure in the council
on a variety of issues confronting the city particularly those relating· to
environmental cleanliness, water and sanitation, pre-school education,
preventive health care, etc., whose absence is felt more intensely by them as
home-makers. They also mobilise the community towards constructive
activities and build support structures to enable the implementation of
municipal development programmes in a more sensitive way.
Women can play - often have played- a positive and supportive role
which would facilitate mass movement against discrimination and struggles
to gain gender equality. They can mobilise women with considerable ease
to protest against the non-provision of services, non-alJocation of resources
for basic needs and improper implementation of civic programmes. Women,
as members of committees of the municipality, effectively supervise the
implementation of all development activities particularly those relating to
women. In fact, their presence in the councils, which is primarily male-
dominated, would be a deterrent against unsavory happenings in the
Councils. A process of change, both in language and in decorum would
improve the quality and status of the deliberations in the urban ci vie bodies.
They bring new relationships of feedback, accountability and responsibility.
Strategies are being worked out to translate the promises into actions.
It is also being recognised increasingly that eradication of poverty, achieving
sustained economic growth and social development, environmental
protection and social justice require the involvement and active participation
of women as agents of change. The critical areas where women play a
positive, constructive, and significant role are: eradication of poverty,
removal of inadequacies and inequities in education, training ensuring
access to primary health care, protecting women against violence and
discrimination, access to economic resources, share in political power and
decision-making structures, protecting the rights of children particularly
the girl child, etc. In particular, women can play a purposive role as mayors,
chairpersons and councillors,
• Ensuring access to basic services 1ike water and sanitation and to
provide higher allocation to these services.
438 I INDIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
VOL. LX. NO. 3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2014

• Enhancing the access of women to economic resources by

strengthening linkages with banks and other financial institutions
and encouraging innovative savings, thrift and lending practices.
• Ensuring access to education to all with a view to eradicate
illiteracy, particularly among women and children.
• Improving access to women to vocational and technical training
for skill formation and development.
• Increasing access to quality health care, particularly preventive
and promotive health care, provision of information about factors
which increase risks to women's health.
• Initiating measures for the prevention of violence against women,
raising awareness among women on the issues of violence against
women and organising support to community-based organisations
working in this field.
• Promoting women's economic right including access to
employment and appropriate working conditions and strengthening
women's economic capacity through skill development, training,
self-employment and establishment of market and trade networks.
• Ensuring full participation of women at all levels of decision-
making concerning the well-being of the society, particularly those
concerning women, children and disadvantaged people.
• Preparing women to leadership positions, organising legal and
administrative literacy programmes to educate women on various
aspects of their rights.
• Involving women's groups in environmental protection and
upgradation; and
• Protecting the rights of the children, particularly those of the girl
child.
Women play a very effective role in initiating the process of leasing
out of government/municipal land to women groups within the city to enable
them to undertake greening, recreation and income generation activities_
Quite often, large chunks of land are locked up in disputes in cities without
use. Such disputed land can be leased out to women groups for undertaking
socially useful activities. Experiments have revealed that one-fourth of an
acre of land can provide employment to a group of five to seven women by
way of income generation activity such as vegetable growing. Women
councillors can mobilise women groups in environmental protection and
upgradation activities. Chairpersons and mayors, can promote discussion
 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 439
D. RAVJNDRA PRASAD

among civic officials, NGO's and the community and prepare a civic agenda
for the development of children. By taking up the cause of the children
they can strengthen their relations with the community. They can create a
more supportive environment for the implementation of child-related
development activities, allocate more resources for such activities and
protect the vulnerable groups of society. They can support urban poverty
eradication progran_unes through their increased participation and allocation
of more resources for critical sectors like water supply and health. They
can review effectively women and child development programmes as they
understand their problems better. ·
As chairpersons, mayors and councillors, they can facilitate the
constitution of women's committees in the local body to protect and promote
the development of women, children and other disadvantaged groups. They
can co-opt educated and active women to the committees to give wider
representation and to have the advantage of expertise and experience. They
can encourage women to talk about sensitive issues such as rape, sexual
abuse, violence, etc., and give confidence to them that they would stand
by them in case of need. They can also put harassment of women and
children on the political agenda. Women can play a positive role in activities
relating to social justice. Violence and atrocities on women are increasing
and women councillors, both in the council and outside, can take up the
cases of violence and exploitation of women and protect their rights with
a view to ensuring the elimination of all fonns of discrimination. There
are many additional functions which the councillors can undertake in
addition to the. purely civic functions.
There is a large number of urban poverty alleviation programmes
launched by Central and state governments. Women representatives' role
is crucial in the preparation and implementation of plans under these
programmes. They can support the neighbourhood groups and committees
in implementing all the poverty eradication programmes effectively. By
proper targeting of services, they can help those who are in the greatest
need. This would contribute to sustainable economic growth and social
development.
With the success of women's involvement in urban affairs after 74th
CAA or as a matter of political strategy, it was decided to increase women
representation to 50 per cent in local bodies and the Constitution (112
Amendment) Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha on November 24, 2009.
The Bill seeks to amend the Article 243 T to enhance the quantum of
reservation for women from one-third to one-half of the total seats in ULBs
and this is also applicable to chairpersons. The Standing Committee of
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Lok Sabha to which the Bill was referred noted that major states supported
the proposal for enhancing reservations to women. 28 Sikkim, which has
enhanced reservations to women from 33 to 40 per cent desired to maintain
the same level. Meghalaya felt that as reservations do not exist at present,
it wants to start with one-third initially and move towards half in stages.
Arunachal Pradesh however, wanted only one-third reservation. 29 The
Standing Committee agreeing with the proposed amendments felt the
enhancement of women's reservations would not only ensure their increased
representation and participation in ULBs, but would also go a long way in
articulating the voice of women and ensure that their concerns and problems
get reflected in policies and programmes of urban development. As per the
Task Force constituted by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj 14 states have
made provision for 50 per cent reservation. 30
Way Forward
There is an urgent need to create a suitable environment for the women
mayors, chairpersons and councillors to enable them to play meaningful
roles as responsive and responsible local leaders of the post - 74th
Amendment Act era - the roles with which many of them have been
unfamiliar. There is a need for orientation/education/training to empower
them to function effectively as public representatives, policy-makers,
change agents and political leaders. Only periodic training and orientation
can motivate them and increase their confidence to take up the new and
changing roles and the causes of local self-government and women's
development. Secondly, they need to establish productive linkages with
training and research institutions to undertake studies about successes and
failures in development effort and training programmes for their staff. Third,
there is need for frequent interaction between women chairpersons of cities
and towns at state and national level for exchanging experiences and for
lobbying for their rights and responsibilities. Fourth, official as well as
the non-official functionaries must be sensitised towards gender issues
with a view to establish a harmonious working environment. This helps in
overcoming the problems of understanding the needs of women. Fifth,
women representatives must involve themselves and continuously monitor
the implementation of development programmes particularly those having
a bearing on the critical areas referred to earlier. Based on monitoring, the

18Lok Sabha Secretariate, Standing Committee on Urban Development, The Constitution

(One Hundred and Twelfth Amendment) Bill, 2009, New Delhi, 2010.
29/bid. p.114.
30Govemment of India, Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Report of the Task Force on State

Finance Commissions and Related Matters, New Delhi, para 3.5, 2013.
 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN URBAN GOVERNANCE IN INDIA I 441
D. RA V/NDRA PRASAD

effectiveness of the system can be understood and new ways of working

can be established, wherever necessary.
In recent years urban development strategies are articulated through
Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). 31 The
programme was mostly gender neutral and does not focus on specific
problems of women in cities and towns. Though it talks of inclusive
planning but does not specifically foc_us on participation of women. There
is a need to reform the mission objectives to bring women issues into urban
development agenda and process. The City Development Plan (CDP), wtiich
is mandatory for accessing funds under JNNURM, has not made it
mandatory to consult women, though their participation was a requirement.
The guidelines for fonnulating the CDPs need to be revised incorporating
the consultations with women mandatory and to incorporate women's
concerns in CDP. 32
The Community Participation Law under JNNURM is aimed at bottom
up planning, development and governance through Area Sabhas and Ward
Committees. The law also laid down the process of selecting Area Sabha
representatives. The objective is to ensure their participation in local
decision-making and to represent voice of the community so as to play an
active role in urban governance. But unfortunately, there is no mention for
the inclusion of women in the Area Sabhas and Ward Committees. No
doubt, some states like Andhra Pradesh have in their legislations made
provision for women members. This is important and the Community
Participation Law needs to be amended making provision for 50 per cent
of members in these committees to be women as is being proposed to the
municipal councils in many states. Participatory budgeting, pioneered by
Porto Alegre, Brazil has been successfully implemented in several cities
across the globe. The process helped correct inequalities in the city where
about one-third live in slums and poor settlements. The Area Sabhas and
Ward Committees should evolve such a process wherein they become
fulcrums of participation, decision-making and governance. The JNNURM,
which is likely to be revised based on experience, and the proposed Shyama
Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission or the other urban programmes hould
keep gender high on the agenda.
Reservation for women would provide opportunity to widen the basis
of individual participation in electoral process and contribute to the
democratisation of the electoral process. It would lay the road for accessing
political power at the grassroots level and enabling eventual participation
31 Govemment of India, Ministry of Urban Development, Jawaharlal Nehru National

Urban Renewal Mission -An Overview, New Delhi, 2005.

32Renu Khosla, op. cil., 2009.
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in policy and decision-making at the higher levels. It is hoped that in the

course of time, the urban local bodies would act as training grounds of
democracy and leadership, particularly for women who, with experience
gained over time, can climb the ladder and occupy positions of power at
the state and national levels. Women urban leadership, particularly mayors,
chairpersons and councillors, can play a very significant role in civic
matters, developmental aspects of t~e city and improving the quality of
life of the residents, particularly the poor, women and the disadvantaged.
The 74th CAA has facilitated the emergence of new women leadership. It
is a fact that some of the women councillors were hitherto unfamiliar with
the dynamics of politics as well as development. Many of them are first-
time entrants to the civic politics as well as council hall. They need strong
support from higher level political institutions as well as from the executive
to play a very constructive and positive development role.
The number of women in the council is critical, but is not sufficient
enough to make impact on the policies and decisions in the councils. It by
itself does not empower women and require capacities to actively participate
in mostly male dominated urban governance in the country. It requires
follow-up actions like awareness building, training, sharpening the skills,
motivation and building confidence, etc. It requires capacity enhancement
to engage in general and gender based governance issues. The urban
development policies and programmes should be gender sensitive to get
the expected outputs. The urban functionaries, both officials and elected,
need to be gender sensitive to address and overcome burgeoning problems
in the context of increased pace of urbanisation.