Fans, Blowers, and Compressors: Nomenclature

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Chapter 8

Fans, Blowers, and Compressors

NOMENCLATURE
t time (min)
D compressor displacement, volume-free air per minute (only the first stage if a multistage compressor
H enthalpy (kJ/kg or Btu/lb)
Mw molecular weight
Patm absolute pressure of 1 atmosphere (101 kPa or 14.7 psia)
Pi compressor inlet pressure, absolute
Pd compressor discharge pressure, absolute
Pshaft shaft power (brake power) (kW or hp)
Q volume flow (m3/h or ft3/min)
S entropy (kJ/kg or Btu/lb)
T absolute temperature (K or °R)
t time (h or min)
Vmin minimum volume of receiver
Vsystem volume of pressurized system (receiver and piping)
Wp polytropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
WDS¼0 isentropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
w mass flow (kg/h or lb/h)
Z average of inlet and discharge compressibility factors (see Chapter 27)
g ratio of specific heats
h efficiency
r density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)

INTRODUCTION
Fans, blowers, and compressors are used to pressurize and move gases, usually through ducts or pipes. Like pumps, the gas
movers are categorized as kinematic or positive displacement. However, gas compression is accompanied by density and
temperature increases, which changes the calculations and selection factors.
This chapter provides narrative and tabular comparisons and application notes for many different types of fans, blowers,
and compressors. It then describes calculations and procedures to predict performance characteristics, especially head
and power.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Sizing and Consider “size” factors when assessing the potential for injury, including impeller diameter, rotational inertia,
Specification voltage, and current.
Protective devices, such as guards, may not be “standard” equipment since incorporation of the devices may be
influenced by project-specific details. Engineers should carefully review the protective devices that are available to
determine which need to be specified.
Specify guards in accordance with applicable laws as well as common sense to prevent people or materials from
engaging with moving parts. These include inlet/outlet guards, drive guards, and pinch-point guards (e.g., at
dampers).
Provide guarding whenever there is a possibility that solids could be drawn into an inlet.
Provide lockout mechanisms.

Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811037-9.00008-4


© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 143
144 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Installation Follow manufacturer’s installation instructions.


Ensure that exhausts are positioned away from intakes.
Provide warnings and guarding where hot surfaces may exist.
Operation Follow a start-up checklist before starting a fan or compressor for the first time or after a maintenance shutdown [1].
Never open an access door when a fan or blower is operating.
Maintenance Dust collects on fan blades and inside housings. If allowed to accumulate, the dust can catch on fire. Clean fans
according to a maintenance schedule and if they are observed to be excessively dusty.
When locked out for maintenance, fan impellers should also be physically secured to prevent windmilling.

RULES OF THUMB
Rules of Thumb (Compressors)
l 1 kW ¼ 7 m3/h at 7 bar or 1 hp ¼ 4 cfm at 100 psi
l 1–40 kW (1–50 hp), choose a piston (i.e., reciprocating) compressor
l 75 kW (100 hp) and above, choose a rotary screw or centrifugal compressor
l A typical compressed air system leaks 20%–30% of compressed air capacity or as little as 10% if a proactive leak
detection and repair program are in place
l 80%–90% of the electrical energy used by a compressor is converted to heat
l Compression ratios range from about 1.05–7 per stage; use 3.5–4 for first-pass design
l Compressor sealing systems are usually limited to a gas temperature of 150°C (300°F)

Good Engineering Practice


l Monitor compressed air filters, such as moisture coalescing filters, to ensure they are cleaned or changed when dirty.
A typical coalescing filter has a pressure drop of 15 kPa (2 psi). A pressure drop of 40 kPa (6 psi) adds 2% to the energy
cost for running the compressor.
l Install differential pressure gages on compressed air inlet filters. A rule of thumb is that a 15 kPa (2 psi) pressure drop
reduces capacity by 1%.
l Provide pressure sensing points at the compressor discharge, before and after dryers and filters, and throughout the
distribution system to each point of use (compressed air systems).

Compressed Air Systems


The Compressed Air Challenge, Inc. provides this summary of best practices [2]. The first three are called “critical
concepts”:
l Deliver air at the lowest practical pressure.
l Use storage and automatic system controls to anticipate peak demands. Operate only the number of compressors
required to meet the demand at any given time. Operate only one compressor in “trim” control mode.
l Identify leaks and understand cost of leakage. Repair all leaks, beginning with the most significant.
l Make sure that compressed air is the best alternative for the application.
l Use a blower rather than a compressor, if appropriate.
l For applications that do not require air 100% of the time, shut off the air supply when not needed. Turn off the com-
pressed air supply at a process when it is not running.
l All parts of a process may not need air simultaneously. Analyze the peak and average rates of flow to determine actual
needs and whether local secondary storage may be advantageous.
l Check the appropriateness of equipment used to control and deliver compressed air, including air compressor controls;
primary and secondary receiver sizes; distribution piping size; and in-line filters, regulators, and lubricators.
l Determine the cost of compressed air for each machine or process.
l Follow application of the preceding recommendations with a review of the number of compressors in operation and
their control settings so that a corresponding reduction in energy is realized.
l Make sure that the compressed air supply side personnel are involved in process- and end use-related decisions.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 145

Ref. [3], with over 300 pages, has far more useful information than can be provided here and is highly recommended for
design, operating, and maintenance engineers who work with compressed air.

FANS
Fan types and applicability. Fans are normally rated at a standard air density of 1.20 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/ft3) at zero elevation
(sea level). Size fans carefully; oversized fans create problems that can increase operating costs and decrease reliability
(see Tables 8.1–8.3 for more information).

FAN NOISE
If manufacturer’s data are unavailable, the noise generated by a fan can be predicted by using Ref. [4]:
 
MPM
PWL ¼ 56 + 30 log + log HP (8.1)
304:8
where
PWL ¼ sound power level (dB(A))
MPM ¼ tip speed (m/min) ¼ fan diameter  pi  fan speed
HP ¼ horsepower (motor, at operating conditions)
Noise attenuates with distance by:
SPLR ¼ PWL  20 log ð3:28RÞ (8.2)
where
SPLR ¼ the sound power level at distance R (dB(A))
R ¼ distance from the center of the sound source, line of sight (m)

BLOWER TYPES
Blower types and applicability [5] are summarized in Table 8.4.

COMPRESSOR TYPES
Gallick et al. [4] wrote an excellent comparison of reciprocating and centrifugal compressor types. The main points are
summarized in Table 8.5.

TABLE 8.1 There are Two Primary Types of Fans

Fan Type Application


Axial 0.5–0.75 kPa (2–3 in. w.c.)
All static pressure increase is derived from the change in velocity
Sub categories: propeller, tubeaxial (generate higher static pressure than propeller), and vaneaxial (basically tubeaxial with
guide vanes to improve efficiency)
Although sometimes used interchangeably with centrifugal fans, axial fans are commonly used in “clean air,” low-pressure,
high-volume applications. Axial fans have less rotating mass and are more compact than centrifugal fans of comparable
capacity. Additionally, axial fans tend to have higher rotational speeds and are somewhat noisier than in-line centrifugal
fans of the same capacity; however, this noise tends to be dominated by high frequencies which tend to be easier to
attenuate [2]
Centrifugal 5 kPa (20 in. w.c.) to 25 kPa (100 in. w.c.)
Fans with forward curved blades depend more on velocity pressure conversion than on centrifugal force and are generally
less efficient than fans with backward-curved blades
Centrifugal fans are capable of generating relatively high pressures. They are frequently used in airstreams with high
moisture and particulate content, in material handling applications, and in systems at higher temperatures [2]
TABLE 8.2 Centrifugal Fan Application Notes

Forward-Curved
Attribute Blades Radial Blade Radial Tip Backward Inclined
Typical use Low to medium air Low to medium air volumes Airstreams with small Clean applications
volumes at low at high pressure particulates at moderate Forced draft service
pressure High-particulate air streams concentration and airstreams
Limited to clean including dust, wood chips, with high moisture content
applications and metal scrap
Residential HVAC Corrosive gases
(heating, ventilating,
air conditioning)

Performance Performance curve Can operate at low flows Three blade shapes
dips at low flow without vibration problems available: flat,
creating a stall region that usually accompany curved, and airfoil
operating in stall Highly susceptible to
unstable operation
due to stall (airfoil)
Typical 55%–65% Up to 75% 85% (airfoil)
efficiency
Control Difficult to Particularly
accurately control vulnerable to stall
flow
Particularly
vulnerable to stall
Noise Low when operating
at low speeds
Size Small compared with
other types

Driver Careful driver Power drops off at


selection required to high flow rates
avoid overload at run providing a
out nonoverloading
characteristic
Based on D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2008.

TABLE 8.3 Axial Fan Application Notes

Attribute Propeller Tubeaxial Vaneaxial


Typical use High airflow at low pressure Medium pressure, high airflow Medium to high pressure such as
Usually not combined with applications induced draft for boiler exhaust
extensive ductwork Ducted HVAC Exhaust
Rooftop ventilation systems Exhausts
Performance Can operate in reverse Uneven airflow profile Outlet vanes provide uniform airflow
downstream of fan profile
Low rotating mass so they quickly Low rotating mass so they quickly
accelerate to rated speed accelerate to rated speed
Can operate in reverse Can operate in reverse
Typical Low 85% (airfoil blades)
efficiency
Control Particularly vulnerable to stall. Not recommended in systems with widely Can be equipped with variable pitched
varying flow requirements unless a means for keeping air flow rates above blades for effective and efficient control
the stall point, such as a bleed line or recirculation is provided
Noise Comparatively noisy Moderate
Size Relatively space efficient
Driver Highest efficiency near free Power decreases with increased Frequently driven directly by the motor
delivery so motors are flow so motors are nonoverloading
nonoverloading Most use belt drives for speeds
below 1100 rpm
Based on D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2008.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 147

TABLE 8.4 Blower Types and Application

Blower Type Application


Regenerative 3.5–55 kPa (0.5–8 psig) duty, up to 1700 m3/h (1000 cfm)
Rotary centrifugal blower with noncontacting impeller, providing oil-free air or gas
Advantages: compact, relatively quiet, cost competitive
Disadvantages: pressure limitation, fluctuations in flow and efficiency with pressure changes when compared with
PD blowers
Liquid ring 0–250 kPa (0–35 psig) duty, 12–20,000 m3/h (7–12,000 cfm)
Rotary positive displacement blower, used for pressure and vacuum service, sealed with a low viscosity liquid
(usually water, but can be any liquid that is compatible with the blower and process). Discharged gas is usually the
same temperature as the incoming sealing liquid and is saturated with the liquid
Advantages: excellent for use in severe operating conditions, extremely simple and low maintenance, delivered air
is cool and free of dust or oil, quiet
Disadvantages: higher power consumption, large quantity of cooling water needed, cost of exotic materials to
withstand corrosion from sealing liquid (in some cases)
Rotary lobe Single stage 14–100 kPa (2–15 psig); multistage to 275 kPa (40 psig) with interstage cooling; to 85,000 m3/h
(50,000 cfm)
Vacuum to 50 kPa (15 in. Hg)
PD blower, used for pressure and vacuum service, up to 2:1 compression ratio. Noncontacting impellers operate
dry, producing oil-free air or gas
Advantages: minor variations in flow compared to differential pressure, reliable, competitive cost
Disadvantages: noisy, small internal clearances are unforgiving if solids or dusts are present
Multistage 14–310 kPa (2–45 psig); 85 to >170,000 m3/h (50 to >100,000 cfm)
centrifugal Pressure lubricated. Horizontally split machines provide access to rotors, diaphragms, and bearings without
disturbing piping. Vertically split machines are modular, with ability to change the number of compression stages to
meet operating requirements
Advantages: gas flow can be controlled with a suction throttling valve at constant speed, inlet guide vanes, or speed
variation

Helical lobe To 275 kPa (40 psig); 170–14,000 m3/h (100–8000 cfm)
PD blower with external timing gears to precisely control the position of the rotors. Noncontacting impellers operate
dry, producing oil-free air or gas
Advantages: low maintenance
Single-stage 35–240 kPa (5–35 psig); 1700–500,000 m3/h (1000–300,000 cfm)
centrifugal Variable flow machines commonly used to move air or gas up to a 3:1 compression ratio for either pressure or
vacuum duty. Flow control with suction throttling valve, inlet guide vanes, discharge diffusion vanes, or speed
variation
Advantages: High efficiency over a wide operating range, oil and pulsation free, flow and power consumption can
be reduced up to 50% without using a recycle or blow off line
Disadvantages: Lower capacity machines more expensive than PD alternatives

Ohama et al. [1] and Bruce [6] make the case for using screw compressors instead of reciprocating or centrifugal
machines in oil and gas fields, petroleum refineries, and for petrochemical production. There are significant advantages
including higher reliability, lower maintenance costs, lower consumed power at unloaded condition, and suitability for
process fluctuation such as gas composition and pressure (see Tables 8.6 and 8.7).

SURGE CONTROL
Centrifugal compressors have a low flow limitation, usually at about 50%–70% of rated flow. Whether controlled with a
variable speed drive or by using suction or discharge vanes or valves, if the flow through the compressor is reduced to the
low flow limitation point an unstable condition called “surge” occurs. At the surge point, the gas alternately flows forward
and backward through the compressor at a frequency of roughly 2 s. This is accompanied by increased noise, vibration, and
heat. Prolonged operation at the surge point can damage the compressor.
148 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

TABLE 8.5 Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressor Types [9]

Attribute Reciprocating Compressors Centrifugal Compressors


Maximum 828 bar (12,000 psi); special compressors for low 100 bar (1450 psi) for horizontally split compressors
discharge density polyethylene production discharge to 3500 bar 1034 bar (15,000 psi) for radially split compressors
pressure (50,000 psi)
Maximum Atmospheric or slight vacuum Atmospheric or below
suction pressure
Maximum Hydrogen rich service limited to 135°C (275°F) by API Compressor design limits discharge temperature from
discharge 618 (1995) 204°C to 232°C (400°F to 450°F)
temperature Natural gas service usually limited to 150°C (300°F); up Process conditions may limit temperature due to
to 175°C (350°F) permissible fouling, downstream components, and process
Air compressors discharge in excess of 200°C (400°F) efficiency
Minimum suction 40°C (40°F) due to common cylinder materials 19°C to 46°C (20°F to 50°F) due to standard
temperature Lower temperature applications require very special centrifugal compressor materials
materials Special materials such as stainless steels used for
lower temperature applications
Maximum flow Limited by cylinder size and number 680,000 m3/h (400,000 ft3/min) in a single body,
limited by the compressor’s choke point, which is the
point where the velocity through the some part of the
compressor nears Mach 1
Minimum flow Very small reciprocating compressors are available A few hundred cfm, limited by the surge point
Flow range 20% (or lower) to 100% through speed change, 70%–100% (fixed speed); 50%–100% (variable
clearance pockets, cylinder end deactivation, or system speed or with inlet guide vanes)
recycle
Weight Heavier than centrifugal on a mass per power basis Driver, baseplate, and auxiliary systems contribute
significantly to the overall weight
Size In general, the higher the speed, the smaller the size Generally a function of flow capacity (sets the
diameter) and number of stages (sets the length).
Diameters range from 500 mm (20 in.) to 3800 mm
(150 in.)
Reliability Less reliable due to a large number of parts and more Availability is typically 98%–99%
rubbing seals that wear and require more frequent
replacement than any seal or part in a centrifugal
machine. Liquid or solid debris in the gas significantly
increases wear
Typical Vary significantly with application. Valve and seat Per API 617 (2002) a centrifugal compressor must be
maintenance element intervals range from a few months to three-to- designed for at least five years of uninterrupted
intervals five years. Major overhaul every 10 years or longer service; they can operate continuously 10 years or
longer

Compressed gas No limit Compression ratio is highly dependent on molecular


molecular weight weight
Compression Limited by discharge temperature. Typically 1.2–4.0 per For a specific gas, compression ratio is limited by
ratio stage speed and number of stages in a single body.
Temperature can be controlled with intercooling
Materials Common materials such as iron, carbon steel, alloy Carbon, alloy, and stainless steel
steel, and stainless steel
Multiservice Easy, limited only by the number of “throws” available Not typical
capability (up to 12 per frame)
Efficiency Adiabatic efficiency curve. Efficiency drops with Polytropic efficiency usually used for centrifugal
compression ratio and also decreases with increased compressors (70%–85%), except air compressors
molecular weight which use adiabatic efficiency
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 149

TABLE 8.5 Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressor Types—cont’d

Attribute Reciprocating Compressors Centrifugal Compressors


Cost: capital and Lower capital but higher operating costs compared with Higher capital but lower operating costs compared
operating centrifugal with reciprocal
Minimum/ Under 7.5 kW (10 hp) to 9 MW (12,000 hp) 75 kW (100 hp) to 97 MW (130,000 hp) or more
maximum power
Lead time 14–40 weeks for a bare compressor; critical path may be 35–75 weeks, affected by shop loading, availability of
the motor, depending on power rating special materials/parts, and special or unique design
requirements
Installation time Varies significantly with size and whether or not the Similar to reciprocal
and complexity compressor is packaged. Packaged units are available to
3.4 MW (5000 hp) and can be installed in less than
2 weeks. Machines assembled on site may require
3–4 weeks to install

TABLE 8.6 Application in the Natural Gas Compression, Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries [10]
Centrifugal
Attribute Reciprocating Compressor Screw Compressor Compressor
Lube Non-Lube Oil Flooded Oil Free
Maximum 300 barG 100 barG 100 barG 40 barG 200 barG
discharge (4500 psig) (1500 psig) (1500 psig)* (600 psig) (3000 psig)
pressure

Maximum single- 3:1 3:1 >50:1 4:1 to 7:1 1.5:1 to 3:1


stage pressure
ratio
Maximum inlet 15,000 m3/h 1500 m3/h 25,000 m3/h 70,000 m3/h 400,000 m3/h +
flow (8800 cfm) (8800 cfm) (15,000 cfm) (41,000 cfm) (240,000 cfm+)
Turndown Suction valve Suction valve Slide valve (None) Inlet guide vane
accomplished by: unloaders (step and unloaders (step and (15%–100%) Bypass Speed control
stepless) stepless) stepless (70%–100%)
Clearance pockets Clearance pockets Bypass Bypass
Bypass Bypass
Polymer gas Difficult Difficult Difficult Possible Difficult
Dirty gas Possible Difficult Possible Possible Difficult

*Bruce gives a maximum discharge pressure of 23 barG (350 psig) for screw compressors, stating that “There are some screw machines available capable of
operating at higher pressures by using cast steel casings but these are not yet commonly used in the natural gas industry due to capital cost and availability” [6].

Control systems prevent surge, usually by recycling flow from the compressor discharge to its suction, or venting flow
to atmosphere (especially for air compressors). Both methods result in increasing the flow through the compressor while
delivering lower flow to the process. Good practice requires cooling of recycled flow.

PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
Engineers frequently need to estimate the power required to compress a gas stream. For a new installation with well-defined
requirements, the compressor manufacturers are best prepared to evaluate the data and provide a suitably sized machine.
150 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

TABLE 8.7 Compressed Air Applications. 100 cfm 5 170 m3/h

Compressor Operating
Type Application Range Advantages (Air Service) Disadvantages (Air Service) Cost
Centrifugal Pressure to 300 psig Lubricant-free air delivery Limited constant discharge 16–20 kW/
(dynamic) Generally well packaged pressure capacity control range 100 cfm
with no need for special Requires unloading for reduced
foundations capacity
Relatively smooth air Need for specialized bearings
delivery for high rotational speeds and
Relative first cost per unit of monitoring of vibrations and
power improves with size internal clearances
Specialized maintenance
considerations
Rotary screw, Single stage: Complete compact package Less efficient at full and part load Single
lubricant 8–4000 cfm Relatively low first cost than water-cooled reciprocating stage:
injected (PD) 50–250 psig Vibration free; no need for type 18–19 kW/
Two stage: special foundation Potential problem of oil 100 cfm
Decreases power by Part-load capacity control carryover; requires proper Two stage:
12%–15% systems can match system maintenance of air/lubricant 16–17 kW/
3–700 hp demand separator element 100 cfm
Routine maintenance Periodic lubricant changes
includes lubricant and filter
changes

Rotary screw, Dry type range from 80 to Completely packaged Cost premium over lubricant- 18–22 kW/
lubricant free 4000 cfm; single stage to Designed to deliver injected type 100 cfm
(PD) 50 psig, two stage to lubricant-free air Less efficient than lubricant-
150 psig No need for special injected type
Water injected type single foundations Limited to load/unload capacity
stage to 150 psig control unless variable
displacement or variable speed
control is available
Higher maintenance costs, with
recommended periodic air end
replacement

Sliding Vane, 40–800 acfm Complete compact package Capacity control limitations 21–23 kW/
lubricant 80–125 psig Relatively low first cost Less efficient than rotary screw 100 cfm
injected (PD) 10–200 hp Vibration free; no need for type
special foundation
Routine maintenance
includes lubricant and filter
changes
Single screw, 30–450 acfm Complete compact package Less efficient at full and part load Single
lubricant Versions for refrigeration Relatively low first cost than water-cooled reciprocating stage:
injected (PD) from 200 to 2500 acfm Vibration free; no need for type 18–19 kW/
5–100 hp special foundation Capacity control limitations 100 cfm
Routine maintenance Potential problem of oil Two stage:
includes lubricant and filter carryover; requires proper 16–17 kW/
changes maintenance of air/lubricant 100 cfm
separator element
Periodic lubricant changes
Rotary scroll, 6–14 acfm Completely packaged Limited range of sizes in the 20–22 kW/
(PD) up to 145 psig Relatively efficient lower capacity range 100 cfm
2–5 hp operation
Can be lubricant free
Low noise levels
Air cooled
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 151

TABLE 8.7 Compressed Air Applications. 100 cfm 5 170 m3/h—cont’d

Compressor Operating
Type Application Range Advantages (Air Service) Disadvantages (Air Service) Cost
Single-acting Single stage from 25 to Small size and weight Lubricant carryover when rings 22–24 kW/
reciprocating 125 psig Generally can be located wear 100 cfm
(PD) Two stage from 125 psig to close to point of use, Relatively high noise
175 psig avoiding lengthy piping runs Relatively high cost of
More stages above and pressure drops compression
175 psig Integral cooling system Generally designed to run not
Up to 150 hp, but are Simple maintenance more than 50% of the time (some
much less common above procedures models have duty cycle of 70%–
25 hp 90%)
Generally compress and store air
in a receiver at a pressure higher
than required at point of use
Double- Discharge pressure to Heavy duty, continuous Relatively high first cost 15–16 kW/
acting several thousand psi service compared with rotary 100 cfm
reciprocating Single stage common for Efficient compression, compressors
(PD) 100 psig, but two stages particularly with multistage Relatively high space
with intercooling gives compressors requirements
better efficiency Three-step (0 to 50 to 100%) Relatively high vibrations
Range from about or five-step (0 to 25 to 50 to require high foundation costs,
10–1000 hp; not often 75 to 100%) capacity especially for single-cylinder
used for compressed air controls types
applications Relatively routine Lubricant carryover when rings
maintenance procedures wear
Larger compressors seldom sold
as complete packages
Requires flywheel mass to
overcome torque and current
pulsations in motor driver
Repair procedures require some
training and skills
Based on D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2008.

However, for conceptual work, retrofits, and proposed changes to existing installations, the plant engineer often does the
analysis.
Compressor calculations and specifications are almost always expressed in terms of the air volume at the compressor’s
inlet conditions. Unless explicitly defined, assume that volume units “cfm,” “acfm,” and “icfm” are interchangeable and
identical units that reference the temperature and pressure at the inlet to the compressor.
“Free Air Delivery” (FAD) is sometimes used to rate air compressors. The actual discharge from the compressor is
converted to standard conditions, defined either as 1 bar (abs) pressure and 20°C or simply the pressure and temperature
at the compressor inlet. A way to approximately estimate FAD for an existing air compressor is to measure the pump-up
time of the receiver. Then,
VR t
FAD ¼ ðP2  P1 Þ (8.3)
Patm
where
FAD ¼ free air delivery (m3/h or ft3/min)
P2 ¼ final pressure in the receiver (kPa or psig)
P1 ¼ initial pressure in the receiver (kPa or psig)
Patm ¼ pressure at the inlet to the compressor (kPa or psig)
VR ¼ receiver volume (m3 or ft3)
t ¼ time (h or min)
152 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

Positive displacement compressors generally follow an adiabatic, or isentropic, compression path. If multistage, interstage
cooling is often provided. The GPSA equation for reciprocating compressors considers these facts.
Dynamic compressors (e.g., centrifugal) generally follow a polytropic compression path, where the relationship PVn
remains constant. Equations are given for estimating the power requirements of dynamic compressors.
Isothermal compression, while treated in thermodynamic texts, is not found in practice.
Fan calculations often treat the gas as incompressible since pressure and temperature change through a fan are very low.

Definitions
Head. Force to compress a unit mass of gas. Units are N m/kg or ft lbf/lbm. When a performance curve for a dynamic
pressure is labeled “ft” on the ordinate, it means ft lbf/lbm.
Work. Force over time to compress a constant mass flow of gas. Units are kilowatts or horsepower.
Power. Force over time that an actual compressor needs to compress a constant mass flow of gas. Divide work by effi-
ciency. Units are kilowatts or horsepower.
Efficiency. Compression efficiency is the ratio of theoretical power to the power actually imparted by the compressor
(see Table 8.8). Compressor efficiency accounts for mechanical losses in the compressor gears, bearings, etc. Additional
efficiencies include the motor (or driver) efficiency and variable speed controller efficiency (if applicable).

AFFINITY LAWS
Dynamic type air movers (e.g., centrifugal fans, centrifugal compressors) obey these affinity laws: The affinity laws only
apply to single stages or multistages with very low compression ratios or very low Mach numbers [1].
Volume capacity
   3
q1 n1 d1
¼ (8.4)
q2 n2 d2
where
q ¼ volume flow capacity (m3/s, ft3/min, and so forth)
n ¼ wheel rotational speed (rpm)
d ¼ wheel diameter

TABLE 8.8 Centrifugal Compressor Flow Range. If Available Obtain Efficiency Values From the Compressor
Manufacturer Rather Than From This Table (GPSA [4])
Average Average
Nominal Flow Nominal Flow Polytropic Isentropic Speed to Develop 30,000 N m/kg
Range (inlet m3/h) Range (inlet ft3/m) Efficiency Efficiency (50,000 ft lbf/lbm) Head per Wheel
170–850 100–500 0.70 0.67 20,500
850–12,700 500–7500 0.80 0.78 10,500
12,700–34,000 7500–20,000 0.86 0.83 8200
34,000–56,000 20,000–33,000 0.86 0.83 6500

56,000–94,000 33,000–55,000 0.86 0.83 4900


94,000–136,000 55,000–80,000 0.86 0.83 4300
136,000–195,000 80,000–115,000 0.86 0.83 3600
195,000–245,000 115,000–145,000 0.86 0.83 2800
245,000–340,000 145,000–200,000 0.86 0.83 2500
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 153

Pressure (or head) relationship


 2  2  
DP1 n1 d1 r1
¼ (8.5)
DP2 n2 d2 r2
where
DP ¼ the pressure increase imparted by the fan (Pa, psi, m of fluid, ft of fluid)
r ¼ gas density at inlet conditions
Power consumption relationship [7]
 3  5  
n1 d1 r1
Pshaft ¼ (8.6)
n2 d2 r2
where
Pshaft ¼ the shaft power of the fan (compression power divided by compressor efficiency), assuming constant efficiency
(true for speed changes and diameter changes up to 10%)
At constant flow, horsepower and pressure vary inversely with absolute temperature. Similarly, horsepower and
pressure vary directly with density.

POWER—FAN
Use these equations for estimating the shaft power for a fan:
QDP
Power ðkWÞ ¼ (8.7)
3, 600, 000f
where
Q ¼ fan volume (m3/h)
DP ¼ pressure rise (Pa)
f ¼ fan efficiency

QP
Power ðhpÞ ¼ (8.8)
6350f
where
Q ¼ fan volume (ft3/min)
DP ¼ pressure rise (in. H2O)

POWER—RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
GPSA gives this equation for obtaining a “quick and reasonable estimate for [reciprocating] compressor horsepower.” It
was developed for large slow-speed (300–450 rpm) compressors handling gases with a relative density of 0.65 and having
stage compression ratios above 2.5. For high-speed compressors, add up to 20% additional power but consult with the
compressor manufacturer [4].
BrakePower ¼ CFRN Q (8.9)
where
Brake Power ¼ compressor shaft power (kW or hp)
C ¼ in SI units
0.010–0.012 for compression ratios from 1.5 to 2.0
0.013 for gas with specific gravity 0.8–1.0
0.014 for compression ratio above 2.0 and gas with specific gravity < 0.8 in US units
0.023–0.027 for compression ratios from 1.5 to 2.0
0.030 for gas with specific gravity 0.8–1.0
0.032 for compression ratio above 2.0 and gas with specific gravity <0.8
154 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

F ¼ 1.0 for single-stage compression


1.08 for two-stage compression
1.10 for three-stage compression
R ¼ compression ratio per stage
N ¼ number of stages
Q ¼ gas flow rate evaluated at 100 kPa (14.5 psia) and intake temperature (m3/h or ft3/min)

Example
What shaft power is needed to drive a reciprocating compressor that compresses 500 m3/h (295 ft3/min) of air at 25°C from
101.3 kPa (14.7 psia) to 900 kPa (130 psia)?
1. The overall compression ratio is 900/101.3 ¼ 8.88. A two-stage compressor has a compression ratio of 8.88(1/2) ¼ 2.98 per stage which
seems reasonable.
2. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. Estimate the discharge temperature from the first stage using Eq. (8.10), setting n ¼ 1.4.
T2 ¼ 134°C. Since this is less than 150°C use a two-stage compressor.
3. Correct the volumetric flow to a pressure of 100 kPa. Q ¼ 500 (101.3/100) ¼ 506.5.
4. Calculate shaft power with C ¼ 0.013, F ¼ 1.08, R ¼ 2.98, N ¼ 2, and Q ¼ 506.5. Assume 10% additional because this is a small com-
pressor operating at speed above 500 rpm. Answer: shaft power ¼ 47 kW
5. If the motor efficiency is assumed to be 94%, the motor power is 50 kW (67 hp) or 16.9 kW/100 cfm.

POWER—CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
When a pressure-enthalpy (P-E) diagram is not available, the following procedure may be used. Calculations are performed
per compressor stage then summed. Multiple wheels within one casing are treated as a single stage unless intercooling is
provided. Use the polytropic equation unless the compressor manufacturer specifies otherwise. Be sure to account for inter-
stage cooling. Obtain the polytropic efficiency from the compressor manufacturer or from Table 8.8.
1. Obtain the following process data: volumetric flow rate at inlet conditions, inlet pressure, discharge pressure, inlet
temperature, molecular weight, heat capacity ratio, critical pressure, and critical temperature. The critical properties
are used to calculate the compressibility factor and may be omitted for applications where perfect gas behavior is
assumed.
2. Calculate the compression ratio per stage.
 1=Number of Stages
P2
Ratiostage ¼ (8.10)
P1
where
P2 ¼ Compressor discharge pressure, absolute
P1 ¼ Compressor inlet pressure, absolute
3. Calculate the polytropic exponent (for isentropic compression, the exponent ¼ g)
p g
n ¼ (8.11)
1 + p g  g
where
p ¼ polytropic efficiency (provided by the compressor manufacturer)
g ¼ ratio of specific heats
4. Calculate the discharge temperature from the first stage
n1
T2 ¼ T1 Ratiostage n (8.12)
where
T2 ¼ Stage discharge temperature, absolute
T1 ¼ Stage inlet temperature, absolute
5. If the discharge temperature exceeds 200°C (390°F), check the assumptions and calculations. Consider increasing the
number of stages or consult with the compressor manufacturer.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 155

6. Calculate the stage inlet density


P1 Mw
r1 ¼ (8.13)
RT1
where
r1 ¼ density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)
P1 ¼ stage inlet pressure (kPa or lb/in2), absolute
Mw ¼ molecular weight (kg/kg-mole or lb/lb-mole)
m3 kPa ft3 psi
R ¼ gas constant, 8314:5 or 10:732
kg mol Rlbmol
T1 ¼ stage inlet temperature (K or °R)
7. Calculate the stage polytropic or isentropic head. Note the change in US pressure units
  
P1 Z n P2 n1
Wp ¼ n 1 (8.14)
r1 ð n  1 Þ P 1
 g1 
P1 Z g P2 g
WDS¼0 ¼ 1 (8.15)
r1 ð g  1 Þ P 1
where
Wp ¼ polytropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
WDS¼0 ¼ isentropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
P1 ¼ stage inlet pressure (kPa or lb/ft2)
P1 ¼ stage discharge pressure (kPa or lb/ft2)
Z ¼ average of inlet and discharge compressibility factors (see Chapter 29)
8. Repeat for each compression stage. Base the inlet temperature to subsequent stages on the temperature of cooling
water, with an approach of 10°C (18°F) or less. For a more rigorous calculation, assume a pressure loss of 35 kPa
(5 psi) in the interstage cooler; this requires a corresponding increase in compression ratio to obtain the desired stage
discharge pressure.
9. Sum the heads from the stage calculations.
10. Convert head to gas power using the polytropic or isentropic efficiency value.
For SI units:
Qr
Powergas ¼ W (8.16)
3600
For US units:
Qr
Powergas ¼ W (8.17)
33000
where
Powergas ¼ power to compress the gas (kW or hp)
W ¼ Wp or WDS¼0
Q ¼ flow rate at inlet conditions (m3/h or ft3/min)
r ¼ density at inlet conditions (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)
 ¼ polytropic or isentropic efficiency
11. Use this formula to account for mechanical losses in the compressor (friction, gears, etc.).
Powerlosses ¼ Powergas 0:4 (8.18)
12. Calculate the shaft power and total power.
Powershaft ¼ Powergas + Powerlosses (8.19)
Powershaft
Powertotal ¼ (8.20)
drive motor
where
drive ¼ efficiency of the drive train, such as a VFD
motor ¼ motor efficiency
156 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

COMPARISON WITH MANUFACTURER’S DATA


Manufacturers publish measured power ratings for air compressors in accordance with the standardized method published
by the Compressed Air and Gas Institute (http://www.cagi.org).
Fig. 8.1 shows the specific power (kW/100 cfm) for a variety of rotary screw and rotary vane compressors, all with
75 kW motors. The two-stage units in the lower trend (e.g., 16–17 kW/100 cfm at a compression ratio of 7.8) are oil-
injected compressors, while those at the upper range are noninjected. Being positive displacement machines, the recipro-
cating compressor formula (Eq. (8.9)) might be expected to provide the best power estimate. It returns answers that are
about 30% too high for the single-stage compressors, 7% too high for the two-stage lubricated machines, and 10% too
low for the two-stage nonlubricated units.
Using the formulae from the centrifugal compressor section, assuming isentropic compression with an efficiency of
90%, the results are better. The answers are about 11% too high for the single-stage compressors, 8% too high for the
two-stage lubricated units, and 11% too low for the two-stage nonlubricated machines. Assuming 80% efficiency, the
agreement with the two-stage nonlubricated results are within about 5%.
Oil injection explains the discrepancy between calculations and published data. The injected oil removes much of the
heat of compression, achieving near isothermal operation [8].
Engineers who need to estimate compressor power should attempt to obtain data for actual compressors from manu-
facturers and use the calculations in this chapter for sanity checking, rough order-of-magnitude work, or as a last resort.

POWER WITH P-E DIAGRAM


Another way to estimate the power consumption for a blower or compressor is to use a P-E diagram to find the work needed
to compress the gas and divide by an assumed efficiency. This method eliminates the need to find the compressibility factor
because the P-E diagram is based on experimental measurements or a tested Equation of State.
The method described is from GPSA [4]. Although explicitly stated for centrifugal compressors, it is a valid method for
any type of compressor if the compressor’s efficiency and compression path are known.
P-E data are often published in tabular, rather than graphical form. An Excel worksheet that interpolates tabular data
accompanies this chapter; the example is solved in the worksheet, and the chart is created by Excel.

FIG. 8.1 Power consumption for 62 compressors reported by the compressor manufacturers in accordance with CAGI guidelines. (Atlas Copco, Comp
Air, Ingersoll Rand, Kaeser Compressors, Mattei Compressors, Inc., Quincy Compressor, and Sullair Corp.)
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 157

Example
What shaft power is needed to drive a reciprocating compressor that compresses 500 m3/h (295 ft3/min) of air at 25°C from
101.3 kPa (14.7 psia) to 900 kPa (130 psia)? Assume that the adiabatic efficiency is 80% and that intercoolers reduce the temper-
ature of compressed gas to 30°C.
1. The overall compression ratio is 900/101.3 ¼ 8.88. A two-stage compressor has a compression ratio of 8.88(1/2) ¼ 2.98 per stage which
seems reasonable.
2. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. Estimate the discharge temperature from the first stage using Eq. (8.10), setting n ¼ 1.4.
T2 ¼ 134°C. Since this is less than 150°C use a two-stage compressor.
3. Locate the coordinate for pressure (1 bar) and temperature (298 K) on a P-E diagram for air. Read the enthalpy from the x-axis to be
298 kJ/kg (see Fig. 8.2, Point 1).
4. Follow the line of constant entropy (S) to the stage discharge pressure (2.98 bar). Read the enthalpy from the x-axis to be 418 kJ/kg (see
Fig. 8.2, Point 2).
5. Apply the adiabatic efficiency to calculate the discharge enthalpy at Point 3, H3:
H2  H1 418  298
H3 ¼ + H1 ¼ + 298 ¼ 448
 0:80
6. The work of compression for the first stage is H3–H1, or 150 kJ/kg
7. Interpolate the chart to determine that the discharge temperature is 450 K (177°C).
8. For the second stage, locate the coordinate for pressure (2.98 bar) and temperature (30°C or 303 K) on the chart and repeat steps 3
through 6. The result (not shown) is 142 kJ/kg
9. Add the results from the two stages to get 292 kJ/kg
10. Calculate the mass flow rate using the gas temperature, pressure, and molecular weight at inlet conditions, assuming perfect gas
behavior:
PMw ð500Þð101:3Þð29Þ
w ¼ Qr ¼ Q ¼ ¼ 594kg=h
RT ð8314Þð25 + 273:15Þ
11. Calculate the gas power:
kJ kg h
Powergas ¼ DHw ¼ 292 594 ¼ 48:2 kW
kg h 3600s
12. Add for mechanical losses in the compressor (Eqs. (8.16) and (8.17)):

Pshaft ¼ Powergas + Powergas 0:4 ¼ 48:2 + 48:20:4 ¼ 52:8 kW

FIG. 8.2 Isentropic compression path for one stage of compression. It is coincidental that the temperature values are approximately equal to the enthalpy
values.
158 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers

This answer is 12% higher than the shortcut formula (Eq. (8.9)). The gap is easily eliminated by adjusting assumptions for
efficiency, mechanical losses, and intercooled temperature proving once again the validity of using shortcut methods while
reinforcing the need to exercise caution when applying the results.

COST OF COMPRESSED AIR


Use this formula to estimate the cost of compressed air:
kW Electric Rate  Annual Hours  Load Factor
Annual Cost ¼ BHP  0:746 (8.21)
BHP Motor Efficiency
If the load factor is unknown, use 80%.
If the motor efficiency is unknown, use 93%.
A more accurate treatment would also consider electricity demand charges and on/off peak electric rates.

RECEIVER VOLUME
The minimum size of the receiver for a compressed air system is
Pi
Vmin ¼ D (8.22)
Pd
where
Vmin ¼ minimum volume of receiver
D ¼ compressor displacement, volume-free air per minute (only the first stage if a multistage compressor
Pi ¼ inlet pressure, absolute
Pd ¼ discharge pressure, absolute
A safety factor of 50%–100% is usually added.

TIME TO PUMP SYSTEM TO PRESSURE


Use the following formula to estimate the time (in minutes) to pump a system from an initial pressure, P1, to a final
pressure, P2.
ðP2  P1 Þ
t ¼ Vsystem (8.23)
Patm D
where
Vsystem ¼ volume of pressurized system (receiver and piping)
Patm ¼ absolute pressure of 1 atmosphere in compatible units

REFERENCES
[1] Air Movement and Control Association, Recommended Safety Practices for Users and Installers of Industrial and Commercial Fans, AMCA Pub-
lication, 1996 410–496.
[2] D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.
[3] Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Resource Dynamics Corporation, Improving Fan System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy and Air Movement and Control Association International (AMCA), 1989.
[4] P. Gallick, G. Phillippi, B. Williams, What’s correct for my application – a centrifugal or reciprocating compressor? in: Proceedings of the Thirty-
Fifth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, 2006.
[5] J. Bruce, Screw Compressors: A Comparison of Applications and Features to Conventional Types of Machines, Toromont Process Systems, Calgary,
AB, Canada, 2001.
[6] Ask the Experts, Best practices for compressor operation., Chem. Eng. Prog. 106 (9) (September, 2006) 14.
[7] T. Ohama, Y. Kuroka, H. Tanaka, T. Koga, Process gas applications where API 619 screw compressors replaced reciprocating and centrifugal com-
pressors, in: Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, 2006.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 159

[8] Pontyak Resource Centre, http://www.pontyak.com.


[9] Compressed Air and Gas Institute, Blower Selection Program, http://www.cagi.org.
[10] McCulloh, D., Don’t err with Air Compressors, Chem. Process. http://www.chemicalprocessing.com/articles/2008/050.html, 2008.

FURTHER READING
GPA Midstream Association, GPSA Engineering Data Book, SI Version, 14th Edition, Volume 1, GPA Midstream Association, Tulsa, OK, 2017.
S. Golden, S. Fulton, D. Hanson, Understanding centrifugal compressor performance in a connected process system, Petrol. Technol. Quart, Spring, 2002.
D. McCulloh, W. Scales, Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems, second ed., The Compressed Air Challenge, 2009.
H. Renz, Design and application of small screw compressors – Part 1, Air Condition. Refriger. J. April–June, 2000, Indian Society of Heating, Refrig-
erating, and Air Conditioning Engineering.

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