Fans, Blowers, and Compressors: Nomenclature
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors: Nomenclature
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors: Nomenclature
NOMENCLATURE
t time (min)
D compressor displacement, volume-free air per minute (only the first stage if a multistage compressor
H enthalpy (kJ/kg or Btu/lb)
Mw molecular weight
Patm absolute pressure of 1 atmosphere (101 kPa or 14.7 psia)
Pi compressor inlet pressure, absolute
Pd compressor discharge pressure, absolute
Pshaft shaft power (brake power) (kW or hp)
Q volume flow (m3/h or ft3/min)
S entropy (kJ/kg or Btu/lb)
T absolute temperature (K or °R)
t time (h or min)
Vmin minimum volume of receiver
Vsystem volume of pressurized system (receiver and piping)
Wp polytropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
WDS¼0 isentropic head (kN m/kg or ft lbf/lbm)
w mass flow (kg/h or lb/h)
Z average of inlet and discharge compressibility factors (see Chapter 27)
g ratio of specific heats
h efficiency
r density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3)
INTRODUCTION
Fans, blowers, and compressors are used to pressurize and move gases, usually through ducts or pipes. Like pumps, the gas
movers are categorized as kinematic or positive displacement. However, gas compression is accompanied by density and
temperature increases, which changes the calculations and selection factors.
This chapter provides narrative and tabular comparisons and application notes for many different types of fans, blowers,
and compressors. It then describes calculations and procedures to predict performance characteristics, especially head
and power.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Sizing and Consider “size” factors when assessing the potential for injury, including impeller diameter, rotational inertia,
Specification voltage, and current.
Protective devices, such as guards, may not be “standard” equipment since incorporation of the devices may be
influenced by project-specific details. Engineers should carefully review the protective devices that are available to
determine which need to be specified.
Specify guards in accordance with applicable laws as well as common sense to prevent people or materials from
engaging with moving parts. These include inlet/outlet guards, drive guards, and pinch-point guards (e.g., at
dampers).
Provide guarding whenever there is a possibility that solids could be drawn into an inlet.
Provide lockout mechanisms.
RULES OF THUMB
Rules of Thumb (Compressors)
l 1 kW ¼ 7 m3/h at 7 bar or 1 hp ¼ 4 cfm at 100 psi
l 1–40 kW (1–50 hp), choose a piston (i.e., reciprocating) compressor
l 75 kW (100 hp) and above, choose a rotary screw or centrifugal compressor
l A typical compressed air system leaks 20%–30% of compressed air capacity or as little as 10% if a proactive leak
detection and repair program are in place
l 80%–90% of the electrical energy used by a compressor is converted to heat
l Compression ratios range from about 1.05–7 per stage; use 3.5–4 for first-pass design
l Compressor sealing systems are usually limited to a gas temperature of 150°C (300°F)
Ref. [3], with over 300 pages, has far more useful information than can be provided here and is highly recommended for
design, operating, and maintenance engineers who work with compressed air.
FANS
Fan types and applicability. Fans are normally rated at a standard air density of 1.20 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/ft3) at zero elevation
(sea level). Size fans carefully; oversized fans create problems that can increase operating costs and decrease reliability
(see Tables 8.1–8.3 for more information).
FAN NOISE
If manufacturer’s data are unavailable, the noise generated by a fan can be predicted by using Ref. [4]:
MPM
PWL ¼ 56 + 30 log + log HP (8.1)
304:8
where
PWL ¼ sound power level (dB(A))
MPM ¼ tip speed (m/min) ¼ fan diameter pi fan speed
HP ¼ horsepower (motor, at operating conditions)
Noise attenuates with distance by:
SPLR ¼ PWL 20 log ð3:28RÞ (8.2)
where
SPLR ¼ the sound power level at distance R (dB(A))
R ¼ distance from the center of the sound source, line of sight (m)
BLOWER TYPES
Blower types and applicability [5] are summarized in Table 8.4.
COMPRESSOR TYPES
Gallick et al. [4] wrote an excellent comparison of reciprocating and centrifugal compressor types. The main points are
summarized in Table 8.5.
Forward-Curved
Attribute Blades Radial Blade Radial Tip Backward Inclined
Typical use Low to medium air Low to medium air volumes Airstreams with small Clean applications
volumes at low at high pressure particulates at moderate Forced draft service
pressure High-particulate air streams concentration and airstreams
Limited to clean including dust, wood chips, with high moisture content
applications and metal scrap
Residential HVAC Corrosive gases
(heating, ventilating,
air conditioning)
Performance Performance curve Can operate at low flows Three blade shapes
dips at low flow without vibration problems available: flat,
creating a stall region that usually accompany curved, and airfoil
operating in stall Highly susceptible to
unstable operation
due to stall (airfoil)
Typical 55%–65% Up to 75% 85% (airfoil)
efficiency
Control Difficult to Particularly
accurately control vulnerable to stall
flow
Particularly
vulnerable to stall
Noise Low when operating
at low speeds
Size Small compared with
other types
Helical lobe To 275 kPa (40 psig); 170–14,000 m3/h (100–8000 cfm)
PD blower with external timing gears to precisely control the position of the rotors. Noncontacting impellers operate
dry, producing oil-free air or gas
Advantages: low maintenance
Single-stage 35–240 kPa (5–35 psig); 1700–500,000 m3/h (1000–300,000 cfm)
centrifugal Variable flow machines commonly used to move air or gas up to a 3:1 compression ratio for either pressure or
vacuum duty. Flow control with suction throttling valve, inlet guide vanes, discharge diffusion vanes, or speed
variation
Advantages: High efficiency over a wide operating range, oil and pulsation free, flow and power consumption can
be reduced up to 50% without using a recycle or blow off line
Disadvantages: Lower capacity machines more expensive than PD alternatives
Ohama et al. [1] and Bruce [6] make the case for using screw compressors instead of reciprocating or centrifugal
machines in oil and gas fields, petroleum refineries, and for petrochemical production. There are significant advantages
including higher reliability, lower maintenance costs, lower consumed power at unloaded condition, and suitability for
process fluctuation such as gas composition and pressure (see Tables 8.6 and 8.7).
SURGE CONTROL
Centrifugal compressors have a low flow limitation, usually at about 50%–70% of rated flow. Whether controlled with a
variable speed drive or by using suction or discharge vanes or valves, if the flow through the compressor is reduced to the
low flow limitation point an unstable condition called “surge” occurs. At the surge point, the gas alternately flows forward
and backward through the compressor at a frequency of roughly 2 s. This is accompanied by increased noise, vibration, and
heat. Prolonged operation at the surge point can damage the compressor.
148 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
TABLE 8.6 Application in the Natural Gas Compression, Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries [10]
Centrifugal
Attribute Reciprocating Compressor Screw Compressor Compressor
Lube Non-Lube Oil Flooded Oil Free
Maximum 300 barG 100 barG 100 barG 40 barG 200 barG
discharge (4500 psig) (1500 psig) (1500 psig)* (600 psig) (3000 psig)
pressure
*Bruce gives a maximum discharge pressure of 23 barG (350 psig) for screw compressors, stating that “There are some screw machines available capable of
operating at higher pressures by using cast steel casings but these are not yet commonly used in the natural gas industry due to capital cost and availability” [6].
Control systems prevent surge, usually by recycling flow from the compressor discharge to its suction, or venting flow
to atmosphere (especially for air compressors). Both methods result in increasing the flow through the compressor while
delivering lower flow to the process. Good practice requires cooling of recycled flow.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
Engineers frequently need to estimate the power required to compress a gas stream. For a new installation with well-defined
requirements, the compressor manufacturers are best prepared to evaluate the data and provide a suitably sized machine.
150 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
Compressor Operating
Type Application Range Advantages (Air Service) Disadvantages (Air Service) Cost
Centrifugal Pressure to 300 psig Lubricant-free air delivery Limited constant discharge 16–20 kW/
(dynamic) Generally well packaged pressure capacity control range 100 cfm
with no need for special Requires unloading for reduced
foundations capacity
Relatively smooth air Need for specialized bearings
delivery for high rotational speeds and
Relative first cost per unit of monitoring of vibrations and
power improves with size internal clearances
Specialized maintenance
considerations
Rotary screw, Single stage: Complete compact package Less efficient at full and part load Single
lubricant 8–4000 cfm Relatively low first cost than water-cooled reciprocating stage:
injected (PD) 50–250 psig Vibration free; no need for type 18–19 kW/
Two stage: special foundation Potential problem of oil 100 cfm
Decreases power by Part-load capacity control carryover; requires proper Two stage:
12%–15% systems can match system maintenance of air/lubricant 16–17 kW/
3–700 hp demand separator element 100 cfm
Routine maintenance Periodic lubricant changes
includes lubricant and filter
changes
Rotary screw, Dry type range from 80 to Completely packaged Cost premium over lubricant- 18–22 kW/
lubricant free 4000 cfm; single stage to Designed to deliver injected type 100 cfm
(PD) 50 psig, two stage to lubricant-free air Less efficient than lubricant-
150 psig No need for special injected type
Water injected type single foundations Limited to load/unload capacity
stage to 150 psig control unless variable
displacement or variable speed
control is available
Higher maintenance costs, with
recommended periodic air end
replacement
Sliding Vane, 40–800 acfm Complete compact package Capacity control limitations 21–23 kW/
lubricant 80–125 psig Relatively low first cost Less efficient than rotary screw 100 cfm
injected (PD) 10–200 hp Vibration free; no need for type
special foundation
Routine maintenance
includes lubricant and filter
changes
Single screw, 30–450 acfm Complete compact package Less efficient at full and part load Single
lubricant Versions for refrigeration Relatively low first cost than water-cooled reciprocating stage:
injected (PD) from 200 to 2500 acfm Vibration free; no need for type 18–19 kW/
5–100 hp special foundation Capacity control limitations 100 cfm
Routine maintenance Potential problem of oil Two stage:
includes lubricant and filter carryover; requires proper 16–17 kW/
changes maintenance of air/lubricant 100 cfm
separator element
Periodic lubricant changes
Rotary scroll, 6–14 acfm Completely packaged Limited range of sizes in the 20–22 kW/
(PD) up to 145 psig Relatively efficient lower capacity range 100 cfm
2–5 hp operation
Can be lubricant free
Low noise levels
Air cooled
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 151
Compressor Operating
Type Application Range Advantages (Air Service) Disadvantages (Air Service) Cost
Single-acting Single stage from 25 to Small size and weight Lubricant carryover when rings 22–24 kW/
reciprocating 125 psig Generally can be located wear 100 cfm
(PD) Two stage from 125 psig to close to point of use, Relatively high noise
175 psig avoiding lengthy piping runs Relatively high cost of
More stages above and pressure drops compression
175 psig Integral cooling system Generally designed to run not
Up to 150 hp, but are Simple maintenance more than 50% of the time (some
much less common above procedures models have duty cycle of 70%–
25 hp 90%)
Generally compress and store air
in a receiver at a pressure higher
than required at point of use
Double- Discharge pressure to Heavy duty, continuous Relatively high first cost 15–16 kW/
acting several thousand psi service compared with rotary 100 cfm
reciprocating Single stage common for Efficient compression, compressors
(PD) 100 psig, but two stages particularly with multistage Relatively high space
with intercooling gives compressors requirements
better efficiency Three-step (0 to 50 to 100%) Relatively high vibrations
Range from about or five-step (0 to 25 to 50 to require high foundation costs,
10–1000 hp; not often 75 to 100%) capacity especially for single-cylinder
used for compressed air controls types
applications Relatively routine Lubricant carryover when rings
maintenance procedures wear
Larger compressors seldom sold
as complete packages
Requires flywheel mass to
overcome torque and current
pulsations in motor driver
Repair procedures require some
training and skills
Based on D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2008.
However, for conceptual work, retrofits, and proposed changes to existing installations, the plant engineer often does the
analysis.
Compressor calculations and specifications are almost always expressed in terms of the air volume at the compressor’s
inlet conditions. Unless explicitly defined, assume that volume units “cfm,” “acfm,” and “icfm” are interchangeable and
identical units that reference the temperature and pressure at the inlet to the compressor.
“Free Air Delivery” (FAD) is sometimes used to rate air compressors. The actual discharge from the compressor is
converted to standard conditions, defined either as 1 bar (abs) pressure and 20°C or simply the pressure and temperature
at the compressor inlet. A way to approximately estimate FAD for an existing air compressor is to measure the pump-up
time of the receiver. Then,
VR t
FAD ¼ ðP2 P1 Þ (8.3)
Patm
where
FAD ¼ free air delivery (m3/h or ft3/min)
P2 ¼ final pressure in the receiver (kPa or psig)
P1 ¼ initial pressure in the receiver (kPa or psig)
Patm ¼ pressure at the inlet to the compressor (kPa or psig)
VR ¼ receiver volume (m3 or ft3)
t ¼ time (h or min)
152 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
Positive displacement compressors generally follow an adiabatic, or isentropic, compression path. If multistage, interstage
cooling is often provided. The GPSA equation for reciprocating compressors considers these facts.
Dynamic compressors (e.g., centrifugal) generally follow a polytropic compression path, where the relationship PVn
remains constant. Equations are given for estimating the power requirements of dynamic compressors.
Isothermal compression, while treated in thermodynamic texts, is not found in practice.
Fan calculations often treat the gas as incompressible since pressure and temperature change through a fan are very low.
Definitions
Head. Force to compress a unit mass of gas. Units are N m/kg or ft lbf/lbm. When a performance curve for a dynamic
pressure is labeled “ft” on the ordinate, it means ft lbf/lbm.
Work. Force over time to compress a constant mass flow of gas. Units are kilowatts or horsepower.
Power. Force over time that an actual compressor needs to compress a constant mass flow of gas. Divide work by effi-
ciency. Units are kilowatts or horsepower.
Efficiency. Compression efficiency is the ratio of theoretical power to the power actually imparted by the compressor
(see Table 8.8). Compressor efficiency accounts for mechanical losses in the compressor gears, bearings, etc. Additional
efficiencies include the motor (or driver) efficiency and variable speed controller efficiency (if applicable).
AFFINITY LAWS
Dynamic type air movers (e.g., centrifugal fans, centrifugal compressors) obey these affinity laws: The affinity laws only
apply to single stages or multistages with very low compression ratios or very low Mach numbers [1].
Volume capacity
3
q1 n1 d1
¼ (8.4)
q2 n2 d2
where
q ¼ volume flow capacity (m3/s, ft3/min, and so forth)
n ¼ wheel rotational speed (rpm)
d ¼ wheel diameter
TABLE 8.8 Centrifugal Compressor Flow Range. If Available Obtain Efficiency Values From the Compressor
Manufacturer Rather Than From This Table (GPSA [4])
Average Average
Nominal Flow Nominal Flow Polytropic Isentropic Speed to Develop 30,000 N m/kg
Range (inlet m3/h) Range (inlet ft3/m) Efficiency Efficiency (50,000 ft lbf/lbm) Head per Wheel
170–850 100–500 0.70 0.67 20,500
850–12,700 500–7500 0.80 0.78 10,500
12,700–34,000 7500–20,000 0.86 0.83 8200
34,000–56,000 20,000–33,000 0.86 0.83 6500
POWER—FAN
Use these equations for estimating the shaft power for a fan:
QDP
Power ðkWÞ ¼ (8.7)
3, 600, 000f
where
Q ¼ fan volume (m3/h)
DP ¼ pressure rise (Pa)
f ¼ fan efficiency
QP
Power ðhpÞ ¼ (8.8)
6350f
where
Q ¼ fan volume (ft3/min)
DP ¼ pressure rise (in. H2O)
POWER—RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
GPSA gives this equation for obtaining a “quick and reasonable estimate for [reciprocating] compressor horsepower.” It
was developed for large slow-speed (300–450 rpm) compressors handling gases with a relative density of 0.65 and having
stage compression ratios above 2.5. For high-speed compressors, add up to 20% additional power but consult with the
compressor manufacturer [4].
BrakePower ¼ CFRN Q (8.9)
where
Brake Power ¼ compressor shaft power (kW or hp)
C ¼ in SI units
0.010–0.012 for compression ratios from 1.5 to 2.0
0.013 for gas with specific gravity 0.8–1.0
0.014 for compression ratio above 2.0 and gas with specific gravity < 0.8 in US units
0.023–0.027 for compression ratios from 1.5 to 2.0
0.030 for gas with specific gravity 0.8–1.0
0.032 for compression ratio above 2.0 and gas with specific gravity <0.8
154 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
Example
What shaft power is needed to drive a reciprocating compressor that compresses 500 m3/h (295 ft3/min) of air at 25°C from
101.3 kPa (14.7 psia) to 900 kPa (130 psia)?
1. The overall compression ratio is 900/101.3 ¼ 8.88. A two-stage compressor has a compression ratio of 8.88(1/2) ¼ 2.98 per stage which
seems reasonable.
2. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. Estimate the discharge temperature from the first stage using Eq. (8.10), setting n ¼ 1.4.
T2 ¼ 134°C. Since this is less than 150°C use a two-stage compressor.
3. Correct the volumetric flow to a pressure of 100 kPa. Q ¼ 500 (101.3/100) ¼ 506.5.
4. Calculate shaft power with C ¼ 0.013, F ¼ 1.08, R ¼ 2.98, N ¼ 2, and Q ¼ 506.5. Assume 10% additional because this is a small com-
pressor operating at speed above 500 rpm. Answer: shaft power ¼ 47 kW
5. If the motor efficiency is assumed to be 94%, the motor power is 50 kW (67 hp) or 16.9 kW/100 cfm.
POWER—CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
When a pressure-enthalpy (P-E) diagram is not available, the following procedure may be used. Calculations are performed
per compressor stage then summed. Multiple wheels within one casing are treated as a single stage unless intercooling is
provided. Use the polytropic equation unless the compressor manufacturer specifies otherwise. Be sure to account for inter-
stage cooling. Obtain the polytropic efficiency from the compressor manufacturer or from Table 8.8.
1. Obtain the following process data: volumetric flow rate at inlet conditions, inlet pressure, discharge pressure, inlet
temperature, molecular weight, heat capacity ratio, critical pressure, and critical temperature. The critical properties
are used to calculate the compressibility factor and may be omitted for applications where perfect gas behavior is
assumed.
2. Calculate the compression ratio per stage.
1=Number of Stages
P2
Ratiostage ¼ (8.10)
P1
where
P2 ¼ Compressor discharge pressure, absolute
P1 ¼ Compressor inlet pressure, absolute
3. Calculate the polytropic exponent (for isentropic compression, the exponent ¼ g)
p g
n ¼ (8.11)
1 + p g g
where
p ¼ polytropic efficiency (provided by the compressor manufacturer)
g ¼ ratio of specific heats
4. Calculate the discharge temperature from the first stage
n1
T2 ¼ T1 Ratiostage n (8.12)
where
T2 ¼ Stage discharge temperature, absolute
T1 ¼ Stage inlet temperature, absolute
5. If the discharge temperature exceeds 200°C (390°F), check the assumptions and calculations. Consider increasing the
number of stages or consult with the compressor manufacturer.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 155
FIG. 8.1 Power consumption for 62 compressors reported by the compressor manufacturers in accordance with CAGI guidelines. (Atlas Copco, Comp
Air, Ingersoll Rand, Kaeser Compressors, Mattei Compressors, Inc., Quincy Compressor, and Sullair Corp.)
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 157
Example
What shaft power is needed to drive a reciprocating compressor that compresses 500 m3/h (295 ft3/min) of air at 25°C from
101.3 kPa (14.7 psia) to 900 kPa (130 psia)? Assume that the adiabatic efficiency is 80% and that intercoolers reduce the temper-
ature of compressed gas to 30°C.
1. The overall compression ratio is 900/101.3 ¼ 8.88. A two-stage compressor has a compression ratio of 8.88(1/2) ¼ 2.98 per stage which
seems reasonable.
2. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. Estimate the discharge temperature from the first stage using Eq. (8.10), setting n ¼ 1.4.
T2 ¼ 134°C. Since this is less than 150°C use a two-stage compressor.
3. Locate the coordinate for pressure (1 bar) and temperature (298 K) on a P-E diagram for air. Read the enthalpy from the x-axis to be
298 kJ/kg (see Fig. 8.2, Point 1).
4. Follow the line of constant entropy (S) to the stage discharge pressure (2.98 bar). Read the enthalpy from the x-axis to be 418 kJ/kg (see
Fig. 8.2, Point 2).
5. Apply the adiabatic efficiency to calculate the discharge enthalpy at Point 3, H3:
H2 H1 418 298
H3 ¼ + H1 ¼ + 298 ¼ 448
0:80
6. The work of compression for the first stage is H3–H1, or 150 kJ/kg
7. Interpolate the chart to determine that the discharge temperature is 450 K (177°C).
8. For the second stage, locate the coordinate for pressure (2.98 bar) and temperature (30°C or 303 K) on the chart and repeat steps 3
through 6. The result (not shown) is 142 kJ/kg
9. Add the results from the two stages to get 292 kJ/kg
10. Calculate the mass flow rate using the gas temperature, pressure, and molecular weight at inlet conditions, assuming perfect gas
behavior:
PMw ð500Þð101:3Þð29Þ
w ¼ Qr ¼ Q ¼ ¼ 594kg=h
RT ð8314Þð25 + 273:15Þ
11. Calculate the gas power:
kJ kg h
Powergas ¼ DHw ¼ 292 594 ¼ 48:2 kW
kg h 3600s
12. Add for mechanical losses in the compressor (Eqs. (8.16) and (8.17)):
FIG. 8.2 Isentropic compression path for one stage of compression. It is coincidental that the temperature values are approximately equal to the enthalpy
values.
158 Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers
This answer is 12% higher than the shortcut formula (Eq. (8.9)). The gap is easily eliminated by adjusting assumptions for
efficiency, mechanical losses, and intercooled temperature proving once again the validity of using shortcut methods while
reinforcing the need to exercise caution when applying the results.
RECEIVER VOLUME
The minimum size of the receiver for a compressed air system is
Pi
Vmin ¼ D (8.22)
Pd
where
Vmin ¼ minimum volume of receiver
D ¼ compressor displacement, volume-free air per minute (only the first stage if a multistage compressor
Pi ¼ inlet pressure, absolute
Pd ¼ discharge pressure, absolute
A safety factor of 50%–100% is usually added.
REFERENCES
[1] Air Movement and Control Association, Recommended Safety Practices for Users and Installers of Industrial and Commercial Fans, AMCA Pub-
lication, 1996 410–496.
[2] D. Green, R. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.
[3] Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Resource Dynamics Corporation, Improving Fan System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry, U.S.
Department of Energy and Air Movement and Control Association International (AMCA), 1989.
[4] P. Gallick, G. Phillippi, B. Williams, What’s correct for my application – a centrifugal or reciprocating compressor? in: Proceedings of the Thirty-
Fifth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, 2006.
[5] J. Bruce, Screw Compressors: A Comparison of Applications and Features to Conventional Types of Machines, Toromont Process Systems, Calgary,
AB, Canada, 2001.
[6] Ask the Experts, Best practices for compressor operation., Chem. Eng. Prog. 106 (9) (September, 2006) 14.
[7] T. Ohama, Y. Kuroka, H. Tanaka, T. Koga, Process gas applications where API 619 screw compressors replaced reciprocating and centrifugal com-
pressors, in: Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, 2006.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Chapter 8 159
FURTHER READING
GPA Midstream Association, GPSA Engineering Data Book, SI Version, 14th Edition, Volume 1, GPA Midstream Association, Tulsa, OK, 2017.
S. Golden, S. Fulton, D. Hanson, Understanding centrifugal compressor performance in a connected process system, Petrol. Technol. Quart, Spring, 2002.
D. McCulloh, W. Scales, Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems, second ed., The Compressed Air Challenge, 2009.
H. Renz, Design and application of small screw compressors – Part 1, Air Condition. Refriger. J. April–June, 2000, Indian Society of Heating, Refrig-
erating, and Air Conditioning Engineering.